Chapter III: American (1)

(a) _Military_

John D. Sloat appointed 1846
Richard F. Stockton " 1846-1847
Stephen W. Kearny " 1847
R.B. Mason " 1847-1849
Bennett Riley " 1849

(b) _State_.

Peter H. Burnett 1849-1851 Democrat
*John H. McDougall 1851-1852 "
John Bigler 1852-1856 "
John M. Johnson 1856-1858 Know Nothing
John B. Weller 1858-1860 Lecompton Democrat
Milton S. Latham 1869 (6 days) " "
*John G. Downey 1860-1862 " "
Leland Stanford 1862-1863 Republican
Frederick F. Low 1863-1867 "
Henry H. Haight 1867-1871 Democrat
Newton Booth 1871-1875 Republican
*Romualdo Pacheco 1875 "
William Irwin 1875-1880 Democrat
George G. Perkins 1880-1883 Republican
George C. Stoneman 1883-1887 Democrat
Washington Bartlett 1887 "
*Robert W. Waterman 1887-1891 Republican
Henry H. Markham 1891-1895 "
James H. Budd 1895-1899 Democrat
Henry T. Gage 1899-1903 Republican
George C. Pardee 1903-1907 "
James N. Gillett 1907-1911 "
Hiram W. Johnson 1911- "

The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors indicates
that he acted only _ad interim_, and, in the case of governors since
1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor and
succeeded to the office of governor.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For list of works on California, see University of
California _Library Bulletin_, No. 9, 1887, "List of Printed Maps of
California"; catalogue of state official publications by State Library
(Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on different
aspects:--

TOPOGRAPHY.--J. Muir, _Mountains of California_ (New York, 1894); H.
Gannett, "Dictionary of Elevations" (1898), and "River Profiles,"
publications of _United States Geological Survey_; G.W. James, _The
Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906).

CLIMATE, &c.--_U.S. Department of Agriculture, California Climate and
Crop Service_, monthly reports; E.S. Holden, _Recorded, Earthquakes
in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington Territory_
(California State University, 1887); _United States Department
Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins_, Alexander G. McAdie,
"Climatology of California" (Washington, 1903). There is a great mass
of general descriptive literature, especially on Southern California,
such as Charles Dudley Warner, _Our Italy_ (New York, 1891); Kate
Sanborn, _A Truthful Woman in Southern California_ (New York, 1893);
W. Lindley and J.P. Widney, _California of the South_ (New York,
1896); J.W. Hanson, _American Italy_ (Chicago, 1896); T.S. Van Dyke,
_Southern California_ (New York, 1886), &c.

FAUNA, FLORA.--Muir, _op. cit._; _United States Geological Survey,
19th Annual Report_, pt. v., H. Gannett, "Forests of the United
States"; idem, _20th Annual Report_, pt. v., "United States Forest
Reserves"; _United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin_ No. 28, "A
Short Account of the Big Trees of California" (1900), No. 38, "The
Redwood" (a volume, 1903), also _Professional Papers, e.g._ No. 8,
J.B. Leiberg, "Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada"
(1902); _California Board of Forestry, Reports_ (1885- ); _United
States Censuses_, reports on forests; _United States Biological
Survey, North American Fauna_, No. 16, 1899, C.H. Merriam,
"Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta"; _United States Department
Agriculture, Contributions from United States National Herbarium_,
iv., 1893, F.V. Coville, "Botany of Death Valley Expedition"; _State
Board of Fish Commissioners, Reports_, from 1877; _United States Fish
Commissioners, Annual Reports_, from 1871, and _Bulletins_ from 1882;
J. le Conte, "Flora of the Coast Islands" (1887), being _Bulletin_ No.
8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its _Proceedings_,
_Memoirs_, and _Occasional Papers;_ G.J. Peirce, _Studies on the
Coast Redwood_ (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University, 1901).

AGRICULTURE.--_California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins_
from 1884; _Reports of the State Dairy Bureau_, from 1898; _State
Board of Horticulture, Reports_, 1889-1894; _United States Censuses_,
1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation.

INDUSTRIES.--J.S. Hittell, _Resources of California_ (7th ed., San
Francisco, 1879); J.S. Hittell, _Commerce and Industries of the
Pacific Coast_ (San Francisco, 1882); T.F. Cronise, _Natural Wealth
of California_ (San Francisco, 1868); E.W. Maslin, _Resources of
California_, prepared by order of Governor H. H. Markham (Sacramento,
1893); _United States Treasury, Bureau of Statistics_, report by T.J.
Vivian on "Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Transportation and
Other Industries of California" (Washington 1890, valuable for whole
period before 1890); _United States Censuses_, 1890 and 1900, reports
on agriculture, manufactures, mines and fisheries; _California State
Board of Trade_ (San Francisco), _Annual Report_ from 1890. On Mineral
Industries:--J.R. Browne, Report on "Mineral Resources of the States
and Territories west of the Rocky Mountains" (_United States
Treasury_, 2 vols., Washington, 1867-1868); _United States Geological
Survey, Annual Reports, Mineral Resources;_ consult also the
bibliographies of publications of the _Survey_, issued as _Bulletins;
California State Mining Bureau, Bulletins_ from 1888, note especially
No. 30, 1904, by A.W. Vodges, "Bibliography relating to the Geology,
Palaeontology and Mineral Resources of California" (2nd ed., the 1st
being _Bulletin_ No. 10, 1896); _California Debris Commission_,
_Reports_ (in _Annual Reports Chief of Engineers, United States Army_,
from 1893).

GOVERNMENT.--E.F. Treadwell, _The Constitution of the State of
California ... Annotated_ (San Francisco, 1902); _Johns Hopkins
University, Studies in History and Political Science_, xiii., R.D.
Hunt, "Genesis of California's First Constitution"; _Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science_, xii., R.D. Hunt,
"Legal Status of California, 1846-1849"; Reports of the various
officers, departments and administrative boards of the state
government (Sacramento), and also the _Appendix to the Journals of the
Senate and Assembly_, which contains, especially in the earlier
decades of the state's history, many of these state official reports
along with valuable legislative reports of varied character.

HISTORY.--Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by Z.E.
Eldridge in _California Genealogical Society_ (1901); elaborate
bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many
works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work of two
men, Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The former has
published a _History of California, 1542-1890_ (7 vols., San
Francisco, 1884-1890), also _California Pastoral, 1769-1848_ (San
Francisco, 1888), _California Inter-Pocula, 1848-1856_ (San Francisco,
1888), and _Popular Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887). These
volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft's direction and
control by an office staff, and are of very unequal value; they are a
vast storehouse of detailed material which is of great usefulness,
although their judgments of men are often inadequate and prejudiced.
As regards events the histories are of substantial accuracy and
adequacy. Written by one hand and more uniform in treatment and good
judgment, is T.H. Hittell's _History of California_ (4 vols., San
Francisco, 1885-1897). The older historian of the state was Francisco
Palou, a Franciscan, the friend and biographer of Serra; his "Noticias
de la Nueva California" (Mexico, 1857, in the _Doc. Hist. Mex._, ser.
iv., tom, vi.-viii.; also San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer
of importance save for its historical interest. Of the contemporary
material on the period of Mexican domination the best is afforded by
R.H. Dana's _Two Years Before the Mast_ (New York, 1840, many later
and foreign editions); also A. Robinson, _Life in California_ (New
York, 1846); and Alexander Forbes, _California: A History of Upper and
Lower California from their First Discovery to the Present Time_
(London, 1839); see also F.W. Blackmar, "Spanish Institutions of the
Southwest" (_Johns Hopkins University Studies_, 1891). A beautiful,
vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is given
in Helen Hunt Jackson's novel, _Ramona_ (New York, 1884). There is no
really scientific separate account of mission history; there are books
by Father Z. Engelhart, _The Franciscans in California_ (Harbor
Springs, Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan
standpoint; C.F. Carter, _Missions of Nueva California_ (San
Francisco, 1900); Bryan J. Clinch, _California and its Missions: Their
History to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo_ (2 vols., San Francisco,
1904); Francisco Palou, _Relacion Historica de la Vida ... del Fray
Junipero Serra_ (Mexico, 1787), the standard contemporary source; the
_Craftsman_ (Syracuse, N.Y., vol. v.), a series of articles on
"Mission Buildings," by G.W. James. On the case of the Pious Fund of
the missions see J.F. Doyle, _History of the Pious Fund_ (San
Francisco, 1887); _United States Department of State_, "United States
_v._ Mexico. Report of J.H. Ralston, agent of the United States and of
counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Californias"
(Washington, 1902). On the "flush" mining years the best books of the
time are J.Q. Thornton's _Oregon and California_ (2 vols., New York,
1849); Edward Bryant's _What I Saw in California_ (New York, 1848); W.
Shaw's _Golden Dreams_ (London, 1851); Bayard Taylor's _Eldorado_ (2
vols., New York, 1850); W. Colton's _Three Years in California_ (New
York, 1850); E.G. Buffum's _Six Months in the Gold Mines; from a
Journal of Three Years' Residence in Upper and Lower California_
(London, 1850); J.T. Brooks' _Four Months among the Gold Finders_
(London, 1849); G.G. Foster, _Gold Regions of California_ (New York,
1884). On this same period consult Bancroft's _Popular Tribunals_;
D.Y. Thomas, "A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired
Territory of the United States," in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of
_Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law_;
C.H. Shinn's _Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government_
(New York, 1885); J. Royce, _California ... A Study of American
Character, 1846-1856_ (Boston, 1886); and, for varied pictures of
mining and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret
Harte. See also P.H. Burnet, _Recollections and Opinions of an Old
Pioneer_ (New York, 1880); S.J. Field, _Personal Reminiscences of
Early Days in California_ (privately published, copyright 1893).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was
occupied by a lake 60 m. long.

[2] During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at San
Francisco ranged from 11.37 to 49.27 in.; from 1850 to 1904 the
average was 22.74, and the probable annual variation 4 in.

[3] The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and Fresno,
of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey and
Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them lie
between 56 deg. and 63 deg. F. The places mentioned are scattered
over 3-1/2 deg. of longitude and 6-1/2 deg. of latitude.

[4] Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use of
turbines are important features of such plants. One on the North Yuba
river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves Oakland, San
Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in San Francisco
(220 m. away) 75% of its power. Other plants are one at Electra (154
m. from San Francisco), and one on the San Joaquin, which delivers to
Fresno 62 m. distant.

[5] The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments
under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for
1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows:--total value of
products, 1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of
42.7%; leading industries, with value of product in millions of
dollars--canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23.8 millions,
third in 1900 with 13.4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing,
second in 1905 with 21.79 millions, first in 1900 with 15.71
millions; flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20.2
millions, fourth in 1900 with 13.04 millions; lumber and timber,
fourth in 1905 with 18.27 millions, second in 1900 with 13.71
millions; printing and publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17.4 millions,
sixth in 1900 with 9.6 millions; foundry and machine shop products,
sixdth in 1905 with 15.7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12.04 millions;
planing mill products, seventh in 1905 with 13.9 millions, twelfth in
1900 with 4.8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in
1905 with 10.6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4.87 millions.

[6] As months and even years often elapsed between the date when
early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual
service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of
service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at
Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto in
Lower California. All the Spanish and Mexican governors were
appointed by the national government, except in the case of the
semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose
title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national
statute regarding gubernatorial vacancies.

[7] Acting political chief, revolutionary title.

[8] Briefly recognized in South.

[9] Revolutionary title, 1836-1838.

[10] Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North.

CALIFORNIA, LOWER (_Baja California_), a long narrow peninsula between the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, forming a territory of the republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), 42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California is a southward extension of the State of California, United States, and is touched by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E. The peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and has an area of 58,328 sq. m. It is traversed throughout its entire length by an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes toward the Pacific in a succession of low hills, but breaks down abruptly toward the Gulf. The coast has two or three good sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the Gulf side and of Magdalena on the Pacific side being best known. The coast is bordered by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly because of the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of the desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern part is hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern part receives more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild and pleasant climate. The principal natural product in this region is _orchil_, or Spanish moss, but by means of irrigation the soil produces a considerable variety of products, including sugar cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, tobacco and grapes. Horses, sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile valleys, but only to a limited extent. The territory is rich in minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and salt. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early as 1700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W. coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of mining and other industries in the territory has led to an extension of the California railway system southward into the peninsula, with the Mexican government's permission, the first section of 37 m. from the northern frontier being completed and opened to traffic in 1907. The territory is divided into two districts, the northern having its capital at the insignificant little village of La Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamships running between Mazatlan and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in 1900. La Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory, and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m. inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures and exports flour and leather.

By orders of Cortes the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539 by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It was called California, the name (according to E.E. Hale) being derived from a popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled _Sergas de Esplandian_, in which an island named California was mentioned and situated "on the right hand of the Indies, very near the terrestrial paradise." The name must have been given derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower California could not have suggested the proximity of a "terrestrial paradise." The exploration of the coast did not extend above the peninsula until 1842. The name California was at first applied exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait connected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous theory was held as late as 1721. The first settlement was made in 1597, but was abandoned. From 1633 to 1683 five unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a settlement at La Paz. Finally the Jesuits succeeded in founding a mission at Loreto on the Gulf coast, in about 26 deg. N. lat., in 1697, and at La Paz in 1720. At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had sixteen missions which were either self-supporting or were maintained by funds invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, the seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. The two provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one governor residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then reunited in a single department through the political changes of 1836, which lasted no later than 1847. Lower California was only slightly disturbed by the struggle for independence among the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822 Admiral Lord Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean revolutionists, appeared on the coast and plundered San Jose del Cabo, Todos Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United States La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small detachments from California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the mainland, the filibusters first withdrew to La Ensenada, near the American frontier, and then in the following year broke up altogether during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the leadership of Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, but died for want of material support in 1880. The development of mining and other industries since that time, together with vigorous efforts to found colonies in the more favoured localities, have greatly improved the situation in the territory.

See the two volumes of H.H. Bancroft's _North Mexican States and
Texas_, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his _Works_; also Arthur Walbridge
North, _The Mother of California_ (San Francisco, 1908).

CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most important of state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, California, on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place of the College of California (founded in 1855), received California's portion of the Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered as a state institution by the legislature in 1868, and opened its doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it was removed to its present site. In the revised state constitution of 1879 provision is made for it as the head of the state's educational system. The grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes (299-900 ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above the university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the Golden Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings have gradually been provided. In 1896 an international architectural competition was opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. Hearst (made a regent of the university in 1898) for plans for a group of buildings harmonizing with the university's beautiful site, and ignoring all buildings already existing. The first prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Benard, of Paris. The first building begun under the new plans was that for the college of mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, providing worthily for the important school of mining, from 1885 directed by Prof. S.B. Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, built by state appropriation, had been completed in 1906. The Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium seating 7500 spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering eucalypts, was the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra, under the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), who originated the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free public concerts are given on Sunday afternoons; and there have been some remarkable dramatic performances here, notably Sudraka's _Mricchakattika_ in English, and Aeschylus's _Eumenides_ in Greek, in April 1907. There are no dormitories. Student self-government works through the "Undergraduate Students' Affairs Committee" of the Associated Students. The faculty of the university has its own social club, with a handsome building on the grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the colleges of letters, social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, agriculture, mechanical, mining and civil engineering, and chemistry, and the first two years' course of the college of medicine--the Toland Medical College having been absorbed by the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of the Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post graduate or clinical) years of the medical course--the San Francisco Polyclinic having become a part of the university in 1892. Three of the San Francisco departments occupy a group of three handsome buildings in the western part of the city, overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick astronomical department (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San Jose, occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with $700,000, $610,000 of this being used for the original buildings and equipments, which were formally transferred to the university in 1888. The art department (San Francisco Institute of art) was until 1906 housed in the former home of Mark Hopkins, a San Francisco "railroad king"; it dated from 1893, under the name "Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building was destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under its present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the old site. At the university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davisville, Yolo county, instruction is given in practical agriculture, horticulture, dairying, &c.; courses in irrigation are given at Berkeley; a laboratory of plant pathology, established in 1907 at Whittier, Riverside county, and an experiment station on 20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study of plant and tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine biological laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; the Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. The university has excellent anthropological and archaeological collections, mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by Mrs Hearst, to Peru and to Egypt. In 1907 the university library contained 160,000 volumes, ranking, after the destruction of most of the San Francisco libraries in 1906, as the largest collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe library (given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has also the valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and countless pamphlets and manuscripts, dealing principally with the history of the Pacific Coast from Alaska through Central America, and of the Rocky Mountain region, including Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Western Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr Bancroft contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the newly organized Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library of Karl Weinhold (1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich in Germanic linguistics and "culture history," was presented to the university in 1903 by John D. Spreckels. The university publishes _The University of California Chronicle_, an official record; and there are important departmental publications, especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, edited by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physiology, edited by Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited by William Albert Setchell (b. 1864); in zoology, edited by William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in astronomy, the publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William Wallace Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry Morse Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of history, a department of university extension was organized; lecture courses, especially on history and literature, were delivered in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension "centres," at most of which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the university, but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological Seminary (Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary and a Unitarian school.

The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From 1890 to 1900 the number of students increased fourfold. In the latter year the university of California was second to Harvard only in the number of academic graduate and undergraduate students, and fifth among the educational institutions of the country in total enrolment. In July 1907 there were 519 officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 were in the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for 1906-1907 thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. The university conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in 1905. The affairs of the university are administered by a board of twenty-three regents, seven state officials and heads of educational institutions, being members _ex officio_, and sixteen other members being appointed by the governor and senate of the state; its instruction is governed by the faculties of the different colleges, and an academic senate in which these are joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was $1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from investments, state and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder was gifts and endowments. There is a permanent endowment of more than $3,000,000, partly from munificent private gifts, especially from Mrs Hearst and from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The financial support of the state has always been generous. No tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to students resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students from without the state. The university maintains about 90 undergraduate scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellowships. All able-bodied male students are required to take the courses in military science, under instruction by an officer of the United States army detailed for the purpose. Physical culture and hygiene are prescribed for all men and women. A state law forbids the sale of liquor within one mile of the university grounds. To realize the ideal of the university as the head of the educational system of the state, a system of inspection of high schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching the prescribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for admission to the university without examination. It was anticipated at one time that the foundation of the Leland Stanford Junior University at Palo Alto would injure the state institution at Berkeley; but in practice this was not found to be the case; on the contrary, the competition resulted in giving new vigour and enterprise to the older university. Joseph Le Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. Oilman (president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler (b. 1854) became president. He had been a graduate (1875) of Brown University, and was professor first of comparative philology and then of Greek at Cornell University; his chief publications are _Der griechische Nominalaccent_ (1885); _Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in Language_ (1887); _Principles of Language Growth_ (1891); _The Organization of Higher Education in the United States_ (1897); _Dionysos and Immortality_ (1899); and _Life of Alexander the Great_ (1900).

CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with _carapace_, the upper shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper and lower shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour.

CALIPH, CALIF, or KHALIF (Arab, _khalifa_; the lengthening of the a is strictly incorrect), literally "successor," "representative," a title borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the death of Mahomet, became the civil and religious head of the Mahommedan state. In the same sense the term is used in the Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of God. Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known as the "perfect" caliphs; after them the title was borne by the thirteen Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by the thirty-seven Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell before the Turks in 1258. By some rigid Moslems these rulers were regarded as only amirs, not caliphs. There were titular caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from that date till 1517 when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the fall of the Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova (755-1031), and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended to descent from Ali, and Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also assumed the name (see FATIMITES).

According to the Shi'ite Moslems, who call the office the "imamate" or leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the office belongs to the tribe of Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet himself belonged, but this condition would vitiate the claim of the Turkish sultans, who have held the office since its transference by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a tradition falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he "is a rebel." (See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.)

CALIPHATE.[1] The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the East who bore the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three main divisions:--(_a_) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of Mahomet; (_b_) The Omayyad caliphs; (_c_) The Abbasid caliphs. To these three groups the present article is confined; for the Western caliphs, see SPAIN: _History_ (and minor articles such as ALMOHADES, ALMORAVIDES); for the Egyptian caliphs see EGYPT: _History_ (S Mahommedan) and FATIMITES. The history of Arabia proper will be found under ARABIA: _History_.

A.--THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS

After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be his "representative." The choice lay with the community of Medina; so much was understood; but whom were they to choose? The natives of Medina believed themselves to be now once more masters in their own house, and wished to promote one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see MAHOMET) asserted their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to terrorize the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into two parties. The Emigrants' leading spirit was Omar; he did not, however, cause homage to be paid to himself, but to Abu Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the Prophet.

The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the opportune defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward schism which threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once more limited to the community of Medina; only Mecca and Taif (Tayef) remained true. The Bedouins were willing enough to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay taxes; their defection, as might have been expected, was a political movement.[2] None the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the political society and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment to Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion in the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam's success.

1. _Reign of Abu Bekr_.--Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal to the perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the expedition against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, quietly to set out, limiting himself for the time to the defence of Medina. On the return of the army he proceeded to attack the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam kept the men of Medina together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing zeal for the faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and no better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was to be expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns of the Moslems, sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell the revolt. Those who submitted were forthwith received back into favour; those who persevered in rebellion were punished with death. The majority accordingly converted, the obstinate were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was there a severe struggle; the Banu Hanifa under their prophet Mosailima fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed.

The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to say, brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border countries which Mahomet had already inaugurated, was the best means for making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at the same time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by quite other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means the first occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; once and again in former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins had settled on the borders of the wilderness. This had last happened in consequence of the events which destroyed the prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time the small Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira had arisen in the western and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented to Moslem conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch as Hira was subject to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to the Greeks, the annexation of the Arabians involved the extension of the war beyond the limits of Arabia to a struggle with the two great powers (see further ARABIA: _History_).

After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the conquest of the districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where hostilities had also broken out. Damascus fell late in the summer of 635, and on the 20th of August 636 was fought the great decisive battle on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) finally to abandon Syria.[3] Left to themselves, the Christians henceforward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of the Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was also carried on against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at first, until the tide turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, Qadisiya) (end of 637). In consequence of the defeat which they here sustained, the Persians were forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit themselves to Iran proper. The Moslems made themselves masters of Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face to face in Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the principal old Semitic lands--Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little difficulty by 'Amr ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) in 640. (See EGYPT: _History_, S Mahommedan.) This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the wilderness of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously occurred. The kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts hitherto, now became the headquarters of the Arabs; the new empire had its centres on the one hand at Damascus, on the other hand at Kufa and Basra, the two newly-founded cities in the region of old Babylonia. The capital of Islam continued indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz (Hijaz) and the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of affairs.

The ease with which the native populations of the conquered districts, exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted themselves to the new rule is very striking. Their nationality had been broken long ago, but intrinsically it was more closely allied to the Arabian than to the Greek or Persian. Their religious sympathy with the West was seriously impaired by dogmatic controversies; from Islam they might at any rate hope for toleration, even though their views were not in accordance with the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the masses from Christianity to Islam, however, which took place during the first century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that in reality they had no inward relation to the gospel at all. They changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of Moslem citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so; indeed the Omayyad caliphs saw with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the poll-tax derived from their Christian subjects (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS).

It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest; they did not rest until the Moslems had subjugated the whole of the Sassanid empire. The most important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the battle of Nehawend in 641;[4] the most obstinate resistance was offered by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr (Persepolis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into the hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III. (q.v.), was compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came to a miserable end.[5] But it was long before the Iranians learned to accept the situation. Unlike the Christians of western Asia, they had a vigorous feeling of national pride, based upon glorious memories and especially upon a church having a connexion of the closest kind with the state. Internal disturbances of a religious and political character and external disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They were fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, in defence of their holiest possessions, their nationality and their faith. Their subjection was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated. Even when in process of time they did accept the religion of the prophet, they leavened it thoroughly with their own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it of the practical political and national character which it had assumed after the flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its internal order, and it was from them also that it at last received its outward death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their work, and with the Omayyads fell the Arabian empire.

2. _Reign of Omar_.--Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the 22nd of August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by Omar. To Omar's ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests. He himself did not take the field, but remained in Medina with the exception of his visit to Syria in 638; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the influence of his personality and the Moslem community of feeling. His political insight is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite extension of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam,[6] and especially to promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated: "by Allah, he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have vindicated for him his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as the weakest, until he complies with the laws." After the administration of justice he directed his organizing activity, as the circumstances demanded, chiefly towards financial questions--the incidence of taxation in the conquered territories,[7] and the application of the vast resources which poured into the treasury at Medina. It must not be brought against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with these he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the chartered plunderers of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone by his death for the fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Kufan workman and died in November 644.

3. _Reign of Othman._--Before his death Omar had nominated six of the leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the caliph from among themselves--Othman, Ali, Zobair, Talha, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, and Abdarrahman b. Auf. The last-named declined to be a candidate, and decided the election in favour of Othman. Under this weak sovereign the government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish nobility. We have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the Emigrants were unanimous among themselves in thinking that the precedence and leadership belonged to them as of right. Thanks to the energy of Omar, they were successful in appropriating to themselves the succession to the Prophet. They indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority of their services to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right to the inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with the Koreish in general. In point of fact they felt a closer connexion with these than, for example, with the natives of Medina; nature had not been expelled by faith.[8] The supremacy of the Emigrants naturally furnished the means of transition to the supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all in his power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he should favour his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every possible way, seemed to him a matter of course. Every position of influence and emolument was assigned to them; they themselves boastingly called the important province of Irak the garden of Koreish. In truth, the entire empire had become that garden. Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization of Islam the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew the world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca, and after them those of Taif, people like Khalid b. al-Walid, Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghira b. Sho'ba, and, above all, old Abu Sofian with his son Moawiya.

Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began to appear. It was led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of Islam, which, as distinguished from the hereditary nobility of Mecca, might also be designated as the nobility of merit, consisting of the "Defenders" (_Ansar_), and especially of the Emigrants who had lent themselves to the elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the intention of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition was headed by Ali, Zobair, Talha, both as leading men among the Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate. Their motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their own, not religion but power and preferment, were what they sought.[9] Their party was a mixed one. To it belonged the men of real piety, who saw with displeasure the promotion to the first places in the commonwealth of the great lords who had actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined themselves to it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a band of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system, but of persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the provinces there was agitation against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where Othman's cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu Sofian (see below), carried on a wise and strong administration. The movement was most energetic in Irak and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then there were enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah.

The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands they came from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions from Othman, who, though his armies were spreading terror from the Indus and Oxus to the Atlantic, had no troops at hand in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers by concessions, but as soon as they had gone, he let matters resume their old course. Thus things went on from bad to worse. In the following year (656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt and Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph again tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend to keep. But the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his word,[10] and now demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own house, where he was defended by a few faithful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty. His death in the act of maintaining his rights was of the greatest service to his house and of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy.

4. _Reign of Ali._--Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mutineers summoned Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zobair to do him homage. But soon these two, along with Ayesha, the mother of the faithful, who had an old grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their escape to Irak, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. Ali in point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the desire of power, so that men of penetration, even although they condemned Othman's method of government, yet refused to recognize his successor. The new caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the Camel, fought at Basra in November 656, Talha and Zobair were slain, and Ayesha was taken prisoner.

But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of Othman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate cry--that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired caliph and a distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya, whose position in Syria was impregnable. The kernel of his subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, not only recent immigrants along with Islam, but also old settlers who, through contact with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had become to some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter had become habituated to monarchical government and loyal obedience, and for a long time much better order had prevailed amongst them than elsewhere in Arabia. Syria was the proper soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, and Moawiya was just the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited Othman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited his Syrians to vengeance.

Ali's position in Kufa was much less advantageous. The population of Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters here; Kufa and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was that had raised Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either act or refrain from acting as he chose, secure in either case of the obedience of his subjects. Ali, on the other hand, was unable to convert enthusiasm for the principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his supporters, which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians fastened copies of the Koran to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word of God should decide the contest (see further below, B.1; also ALI). But in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of the minority, the genuine zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the enemy of Islam, and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him as a denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had to turn his armies in the first instance against them. He succeeded in disposing of them without difficulty at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success he lost the soul of his following. For they were the true champions of the theocratic principle; through their elimination it became clear that the struggle had in no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali's defeat was a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed him; the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January 661), thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes of a large part of the Mahommedan world (Shi'a) which he had never possessed during his life.

B.--THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY

_Summary of Preceding Movements._--The conquest of Mecca had been of the greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because Islam thus obtained possession of this important city with its famous sanctuary, but above all because his late adversaries were at last compelled to acknowledge him as the Envoy of God. Among these there were many men of great ability and influence, and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the Arabic expression has it, "to mellow their hearts" by concessions and gifts, that his loyal helpers (_Ansar_) at Medina became dissatisfied and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it. Mahomet was a practical man; he realized that the growing state needed skilful administrators, and that such were found in much greater number among the antagonists of yesterday than among the honest citizens of Medina. The most important positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and Yemen, were entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the Makhzum and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the death of Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the Moslems, the principal generals belonged to them. Omar did not deviate from that line of conduct. It was he who appointed Yazid, the son of Abu Sofian, and after his death, his brother Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned the province of Egypt to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b. As). It is even surprising to find among the leading men so few of the house of Hashim, the nearest family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too noble to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they could not be spared at Medina, where their counsel was required in all important affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which Ali himself calls the Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar lived opposition was silent. But Othman had not the strong personality of his predecessor, and, although he practically adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of favouring the members of his own family--the caliph belonged himself to the house of Omayya--at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar. The jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the governorship and military commands had become not only much more important, but also much more lucrative, while power and money again procured many adherents. The truly devout Moslems on the other hand were scandalized by the growing luxury which relaxed the austere morals of the first Moslems, and this also was imputed to Othman.