Chapter XII: Part 12

Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of Commons on the 3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox's ministry of "all the talents." Attempts were made to secure him, and he was offered the leadership of the House of Commons, under the supervision of Fox, an absurd proposal which he had the good sense to decline. After the death of Fox, and the dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville's ministry, he joined the administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state for foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807 till the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a large share in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret articles of the treaty of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet. As foreign secretary it fell to him to defend the ministry when it was attacked in parliament. He refused to tell how he became aware of the secret articles, and the mystery has never been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the prosecution of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in resignation in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He became entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In view of the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his colleague, Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a new prime minister must be found, that he must be in the House of Commons, that the choice lay between them, adding that he might not be prepared to serve as subordinate. In April of 1809 he had told the duke of Portland that Lord Castlereagh, secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion unfit for his post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and took no steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague. When he found that no measures were being taken to make a change of office, Canning resigned on the 7th of September. Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and after resigning sent Canning a challenge on the 19th of September. In the duel on Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against the charge of double dealing, but there can be no question that Castlereagh had just ground to be angry. Public opinion was strong against Canning, and in the House of Commons he was looked upon with distrust. For twelve years he remained out of office or in inferior places. His ability made it impossible that he should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the Bullion Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery of the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic knowledge which chiefly recommended him to the electors of Liverpool in 1812. He had been elected for Tralee in 1803, for Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for Harwich in 1807. But in parliament he had lost all influence, and is described as wandering about neglected and avoided. In 1812 he committed the serious mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to Lisbon, which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to enter office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liverpool's cabinet, in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now become reconciled, was secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1820 he resigned his post in order to avoid taking any part in the proceedings against Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV.

Canning's return to great office and influence dates from the suicide of Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-generalship of India, which would have implied his retirement from public life at home, and refused to remain unless he was promised "the whole inheritance" of Castlereagh,--the foreign office and the leadership of the House of Commons. His terms were accepted, and he took office in September 1822. He held the office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had broken down. Even before this he was the real director of the policy of the cabinet--as Castlereagh had been from 1812 to 1822. It may be noted that he resigned his seat for Liverpool in 1823, and was elected for Harwich, which he left for Newport in 1826. Few English public men have represented so many constituencies.

His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy which he pursued in those years--the policy of non-intervention, and of the patronage, if not the actual support, of national and liberal movements in Europe (see the historical articles under EUROPE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL, TURKEY, GREECE). To this policy he may be said to have given his name, and he has enjoyed the reputation of having introduced a generous spirit into British politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor at the foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning followed his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without the possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of proof, that he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the fact remains that when Canning came into office in September 1822, he found the instructions to be given to the representative of the British government at the congress of Verona already drawn up by his predecessor, who had meant to attend the congress himself (see LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, 2ND MARQUESS OF). These instructions were handed on without change by Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as representative, and they contain all the principles which have been said to have been peculiarly Canning's. Indeed this policy was dictated by the character and position of the British government, and had been followed in the main since the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and minister rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated with his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he claimed the initiative in recognizing the independence of the revolted Spanish colonies in South America in 1823--"I resolved that, if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old" (December 12, 1826).

When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of February 1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only possible successor. He was not indeed accepted by all the party which had followed Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir Robert Peel and several other members of the ministry, moved perhaps by personal animosity, and certainly by dislike of his known and consistent advocacy of the claims of the Roman Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in constructing a ministry in April--but the hopes and the fears of friends and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His health had already begun to give way, and broke down altogether under the strain of the effort required to form his ministry. He had caught cold in January at the funeral of the duke of York, and never recovered. He died on the 8th of August 1827, at Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where Fox had died, and in the same room.

See _Speeches_, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.G.
Stapleton, _Political Life of Canning_, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London,
1831); _Canning and His Times_ (London, 1859); Lord Dalling and
Bulwer, _Historical Characters_ (London, 1868); F.H. Hill, _George
Canning_ (London, 1887); _Some Political Correspondence of George
Canning_, ed. E.J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); J.A.R. Marriott, _George
Canning and His Times, a Political Study_ (London, 1903); W. Alison
Phillips, _George Canning_ (London, 1903), with reproductions of
contemporary portraits and caricatures; H.W.V. Temperley, _George
Canning_ (London, 1905).

CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO (1826-1910), Italian chemist, was born at Palermo on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he entered the university of his native place with the intention of making medicine his profession, but he soon turned to the study of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as assistant to Rafaelle Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin, who was then professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied the same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served as an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of Messina in September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina. On the collapse of the insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in May 1849, and after visiting various French towns reached Paris in October. There he gained an introduction to M.E. Chevreul's laboratory, and in conjunction with F.S. Cloez (1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research in 1851, when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia on cyanogen chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year he was appointed professor of physical chemistry at the National College of Alexandria, where he discovered that aromatic aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic potash into a mixture of the corresponding acid and alcohol, e.g. benzaldehyde into benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol ("Cannizzaro's reaction"). In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professorships at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and organic chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying the aromatic compounds and continuing to work on the amines, until in 1871 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Rome university. Apart from his work on organic chemistry, which includes also an investigation of santonin, he rendered great service to the philosophy of chemistry when in his memoir _Sunto di un corso di Filosofia chemica_ (1858) he insisted on the distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between molecular and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from the molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic weights of elements of whose compounds the vapour densities are unknown can be ascertained from a knowledge of their specific heats. For this achievement, of fundamental importance for the atomic theory in chemistry, he was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1891. Cannizzaro's scientific eminence in 1871 secured him admission to the Italian senate, of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the Council of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important services to the cause of scientific education in Italy.

CANNOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, in the district known as Cannock Chase, 130 m. N.W. from London by the London and North Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1891) 20,613; (1901) 23,974. The church of St Luke is Perpendicular, enlarged in modern times. The famous political preacher, Henry Sacheverell, held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock has tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract generally exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis from north-west to south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was a royal preserve, and remains for the most part an uncultivated waste, but it is also a rich coalfield, and there are mines in every direction. Brownhills, Burntwood and Chase Town, Great Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are townships or villages of the mining population.

CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. _canna_, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination _-on, -one_), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word, first found about 1400 (there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407 referring to _"canones, seu instrumenta Anglice gunnes vocata"_), is commonly applied to any form of firearm which is fired from a carriage or fixed mounting, in contradistinction to "small-arms," which are fired without a rest or support of any kind.[1] An exception must be made, however, in the case of _machine guns_ (q.v.), and the word as used in modern times may be defined as follows: "a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or movable carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than 1-1/2 in." In French, however, _canon_ is the term applied to the barrel of small arms, and also, as an alternative to _mitrailleuse_ or _mitrailleur_, to machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly so-called. The Hotchkiss machine gun used in several navies is officially called "revolving cannon." For details see ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, MACHINE GUNS, &c. Amongst the many derived senses of the word may be mentioned "cannon curls," in which the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the other. For "cannon" in billiards see BILLIARDS.

In the 16th and 17th centuries the "cannon" in England was distinctively a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance being called by various special names such as culverin, saker, falcon, demi-cannon, &c. We hear of Cromwell taking with him to Ireland (1649) "two cannon of eight inches, two cannon of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders," &c.

Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier contemporary with Cromwell, says: "The cannon or battering ordnance is divided by the English into Cannon Royal, Whole Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is likewise called the Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs 7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound. The Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet of 28 or 30 pound. ... These three several guns are called cannons of eight, cannons of seven and cannons of six." The generic sense of "cannon," in which the word is now exclusively used, is found along with the special sense above mentioned as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by Edward IV. of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide "_bumbardos, canones, culverynes ... et alias canones quoscumque, ac pulveres, sulfer ... pro eisdem canonibus necessarias_." "Artillery" and "ordnance," however, were the more usual terms up to the time of Louis XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance began to be classified according to the weight of its shot, and the special sense of "cannon" disappears.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand
cannon.

CANNON-BALL TREE (_Couroupita guianensis_), a native of tropical South America (French Guiana), which bears large spherical woody fruits, containing numerous seeds, as in the allied genus _Bertholletia_ (Brazil nut).

CANNSTATT, or KANNSTATT, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley on both banks of the Neckar, 2-1/2 m. from Stuttgart, with which it has been incorporated since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is a railway centre, has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, two bridges across the Neckar, handsome streets in the modern quarter of the town and fine promenades and gardens. There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway plant, automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and weaving are carried on; and there are chemical works and a brewery here. Fruit and vines are largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. A large population is temporarily attracted to Cannstatt by the fame of its mineral springs, which are valuable for diseases of the throat and weaknesses of the nervous system. These springs were known to the Romans. Besides the usual bathing establishments there are several medical institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851) for King William of Wurttemberg in the Moorish style, is surrounded by beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also are immense caves in the limestone where numerous bones of mammoths and other extinct animals have been found. On the Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral castle of the house of Wurttemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and his wife.

Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as the place where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the trial of the rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians. From the emperor Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights and privileges as were enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and until the middle of the 14th century it was the capital of the county of Wurttemberg. Cannstatt was the scene of a victory gained by the French over the Austrians on the 21st of July 1796.

See Veiel, _Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen_ (Cannstatt,
1875).

CANO, ALONZO (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and sculptor, was born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very great number of specimens of his genius, which display the boldness of his design, the facility of his pencil, the purity of his flesh-tints and his knowledge of chiaroscuro. He learned architecture from his father, Miguel Cano, painting from Pacheco and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montanes. As a statuary, his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo. As an architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and gave way too much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made him royal architect and king's painter, and gave him the church preferment of a canon. His more important pictures are at Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable temper; and it is said that once he risked his life by committing the then capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when in a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded. His known passionateness also (according to another story) caused him to be suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of his wife, though all other circumstances pointed to his servant as the culprit.

CANO, MELCHIOR (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at Tarancon, in New Castile, joined the Dominican order at an early age at Salamanca, where in 1546 he succeeded to the theological chair in that university. A man of deep learning and originality, proud and a victim to the _odium theologicum_, he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time could compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university the schools were divided between the partisans of the two professors; but Cano pursued his rival with relentless virulence, and took part in the condemnation for heresy of his brother-friar. The new society of the Jesuits, as being the forerunners of Antichrist, also met with his violent opposition; and he was not grateful to them when, after attending the council of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence, in 1552, as bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal influence with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made provincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous _Consultatio theologica_, in which he advised the king to resist the temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, to defend his rights by bringing about a radical change in the administration of ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain less dependent on Rome. With this in his mind Paul IV. styled him "a son of perdition." The reputation of Cano, however, rests on a posthumous work, _De Locis theologicis_ (Salamanca, 1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its own line. In this, a genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to free dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and, by clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, to bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, method, co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific treatment of theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of September 1560. (E. Tn.)

CANOE (from Carib. _canaoa_, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. _canot_, boat, and Ger. _Kahn_, are derived from the Lat. _canna_, reed, vessel), a sort of general term for a boat sharp at both ends, originally designed for propulsion by one or more paddles (not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, the paddler facing the bow. As the historical native name for certain types of boat used by savages, it is applied in such cases to those which, like other boats, are open within from end to end, and the modern "Canadian canoe" preserves this sense; but a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck, except for a "well" where the paddler sits. Modern developments are the cruising canoe, combining the use of paddle and sails, and the racing canoe, equipped with sails only.

The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which skins (as in the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the North American lndians' birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched. The modern painted canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was a natural development of this idea. The Indian also used, and the African still uses, the "dug-out," made from a tree hollowed by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe. Many of these are of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the New York Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte's Island is 63 ft. long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The "war canoe" of paddling races is its modern successor. In the islands of the Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by the natives, who make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening them by attaching another hull (see CATAMARAN).

In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a "canoe" in England was the short covered-in craft, with a "well" for the paddler to sit in, which was popularly used for short river practice; and this type still survives. But the sport of canoeing in any real sense dates from 1865, when John MacGregor (q.v.) designed the canoe "Rob Roy" for long journeys by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light enough (about 70 lb) to be carried over land. The general type of this canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from 12 ft. to 15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in. to 16 in. The paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade, the canoeist sits low in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades first on one side and then the other. The rig is generally yawl.

In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore. Its headquarters are at Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the leading organization. There is also the British Canoe Association, devoted to cruising. After the English canoes were seen in Paris at the Exhibition of 1867, others like them were built in France. Branches and clubs were formed also at the English universities, and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The New York Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal Canoe Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the Irish Channel from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were explored in inaccessible parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and the Abana and the Pharpar at Damascus, as well as the Lake Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the Lake of Galilee and Waters of Merom in Syria.

W. Baden Powell modified the type of the "Rob Roy" in the "Nautilus," intended only for sailing. From this time the two kinds of pleasure canoe--paddling and sailing--parted company, and developed each on its own lines; the sailing canoe soon (1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a smaller and smaller cockpit, and a larger and larger sail area, with the consequent necessary air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul Butler of Lowell, Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat, allowing the canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the racing machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the St Lawrence river, or at the more frequent race days of its constituent divisions, associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic (32 clubs), Central (26 clubs) and Western.

The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also represented in single, tandem and crew ("war canoe") races, and this form of the sport remains more of the amateur type. The "Canadian," a clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or bass-wood canoe, or the painted canvas, bark or compressed paper canoe, all on the general lines of the Indian birch bark, are as common on American rivers as the punt is on the Thames, and are similarly used.

See MacGregor, _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_ (1866), _The
Rob Roy on the Baltic_, &c.; W. Baden Powell, _Canoe Travelling_
(1871); W.L. Alden, _Canoe and the Flying Proa_ (New York, 1878); J.D.
Hayward, _Camping out with the British Canoe Association_; C.B. Vaux,
_Canoe Handling_ (New York, 1888); Stephens, _Canoe and Boat Building_
(New York, 1881).

CANON. The Greek word [Greek: kanon] means originally a straight rod or pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing upright or straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in Gal. vi. 16, and 2 Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former passage a measure, in the latter what is measured, a district. The general applications of the word fall mainly into two groups, in one of which the underlying meaning is that of rule, in the other that of a list or catalogue, i.e. of books containing the rule. Of the first, such uses as that of a standard or rule of conduct or taste, or of a particular form of musical composition (see below) may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of the laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see CANON LAW). In the second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below), that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints by the Church (see CANONIZATION), and that of the authoritative body of Scriptures (see below) are examples.

_Music._--A canon in part-music is the form taken by the earliest compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts having the same melody, but each beginning at a stated period after its precursor or antecedent. In many early polyphonic compositions, one or more voices were imitated note for note by the others, so that the other parts did not need to be written out at all, but were deduced from the leaders by a rule or canon. Sir Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way the term "canon" came to supersede the old name of the art-form, _Fuga ligata_. (See also under FUGUE, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS and Music.) When the first part completes its rhythmical sentence before the second enters, and then continues the melody as an accompaniment to the second, and so on for the third or fourth, this form of canon in England was styled a "round" or "catch"; the stricter canon being one in which the succession of parts did not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England catches and canons were undifferentiated. The "round" derived its name from the fact that the first part returned to the beginning while the others continued the melody; the "catch" meant that each later part caught up the tune. The problem of the canon, as an artistic composition, is to find one or more points in a melody at which one or more successive parts may start the same tune harmoniously. Catches were familiar in English folk music until after the Restoration; different trades having characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of Charles II they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental. Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now survives mainly in its historical interest. (H. Ch.)

_The Church Dignitary_.--A canon is a person who possesses a prebend, or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate church. Though the institute of canons as it at present exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it has a long history behind it. The name is derived from the list (_matricula_) of the clergy belonging to a church, [Greek: kanon] being thus used in the council of Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea the adjective [Greek: kanonikos] is found in this sense (c. 15); and during the 6th century the word _canonicus_ occurs commonly in western Europe in relation to the clergy belonging to a cathedral or other church. Eusebius of Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to introduce the system whereby the cathedral clergy dwelt together, leading a semi-monastic life in common and according to rule; and St Augustine established a similar manner of life for the clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely over Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory's injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his clergy should live a common life together, similar to the monastic life in which he had been trained; that these "clerics" at Canterbury were not monks is shown by the fact that those of them in the lower clerical grades were free to marry and live at home, without forfeiting their position or emoluments as members of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ i. 27). This mode of life for the secular clergy, which became common in the west, seems never to have taken root in the east. It came to be called _vita canonica_, canonical life, and it was the object of various enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries. The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it to rule was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (c. 750), who composed a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure an adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular clergy living in common. Chrodegang's Rule was adopted in many churches, both cathedral and collegiate (i.e. those served by a body of clergy). In 816 the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see _Mon. Germ. Concil._ ii. 307) made further regulations for the canonical life, which became the law in the Frankish empire for cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of Chrodegang was taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some points mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a common dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon was allowed a dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh meat was permitted, and the clothing was of better quality than that of monks. Each canon retained the use of his private property and money, but the revenues of the cathedral or church were treated as a common fund for the maintenance of the whole establishment. The chief duty of the canons was the performance of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks, but secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic vows or resigning their private means--a form of life somewhat resembling that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham Oratory in our day. The bishop was expected to lead the common life along with his clergy.

The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted in the 9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this intermediate form of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a constant tendency to relax the bonds of the common life, and attempts in various directions to restore it. In England, by the middle of the 10th century, the prescriptions of the canonical life seem to have fallen into desuetude, and in nine cathedrals the canons were replaced by communities of Benedictines. In the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced into certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The turning point came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the Lateran, exhorted the clergy of all cathedral and collegiate churches to live in community, to hold all property and money in common, and to "lead the life of the Apostles" (cf. Acts ii. 44, 45). The clergy of numerous churches throughout Western Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set themselves to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement grew the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons (q.v.). The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced the institute of secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral were divided into two parts, that of the bishop and that of the clergy; this latter was again divided among the clergy themselves, so that each member received his own separate income, and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical grade, were the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In England the final establishment of this order of things was due to St Osmund (1090). The nature and functions of the institute of secular canons are described in the article CATHEDRAL.

See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, under "Canonicus"; Amort, _Vetus
Disciplina Canonicorum_ (1747), to be used with caution for the
earlier period; C. du Molinet, _Reflexions historiques et curieuses
sur les antiquites des chanoines tant seculiers que reguliers_ (1674);
Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Kapitel"; Wetzer und
Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonica vita" and
"Canonikat." The history of the canonical institute is succinctly
told, and the best literature named, by Max Heimbucher, _Orden und
Kongregationen_, 1896, i. S 55; also by Otto Zockler, _Askese und
Monchtum_, 1897, pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard
work is Chr. Wordsworth's _Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral_ (1892-1897);
see also an article thereon by Edm. Bishop in _Dublin Review_, July
1898. (E. C. B.)

In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate churches retain their traditional character and functions, though they are now, of course, permitted to marry. Their duties were defined by the Canons of 1603, and included that of residence at the cathedrals according to "their local customs and statutes," and preaching in the cathedral and in the churches of the diocese, "especially those whence they or their church receive any yearly rent or profit." A canonry not being legally a "cure of souls," a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his prebend, in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons of 1603 he was subject to discipline if he made his canonry an excuse for neglecting his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming cathedral chapters the number of canonries was greatly reduced, while some were made applicable to the endowment of archdeaconries and professorships. At the same time it was enacted that a canon must have been six years in priest's orders, except in the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or other office in any university. The obligatory period of residence, hitherto varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform period of three months. The right of presentation to canonries is now vested in some cases in the crown, in others in the lord chancellor, the archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese.

Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or other emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the case of old cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving clergymen by the bishop as a mark of distinction. In new cathedrals, e.g. Manchester or Birmingham, where no endowment exists for a chapter, the bishop is empowered to appoint honorary canons, who carry out the ordinary functions of a cathedral body (see CATHEDRAL).

Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed by the dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to sing the service, and they are selected therefore mainly for their voices and musical qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if it lies within 6 m. of the cathedral.

In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony, however, certain chapters, secularized at the Reformation, still exist. The canons (_Domherren_) are, however, laymen with no ecclesiastical character whatever, and their rich prebends are merely sources of endowment for the cadets of noble families.

See Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, 2 vols. (London, 1895). (W. A. P.)

_The Scriptures._--There are three opinions as to the origin of the application of the term "canon" to the writings used by the Christian Church. According to Semler, Baur and others, the word had originally the sense of list or catalogue--the books publicly read in Christian assemblies. Others, as Steiner, suppose that since the Alexandrian grammarians applied it to collections of old Greek authors as models of excellence or classics, it meant classical (canonical) writings. According to a third opinion, the term included from the first the idea of a regulating principle. This is the more probable, because the same idea lies in the New Testament use of the noun, and pervades its applications in the language of the early Fathers down to the time of Constantine, as Credner has shown.[1] The "[Greek: kanon] of the church" in the Clementine homilies,[2] the "ecclesiastical [Greek: kanon]"[3] and the "[Greek: kanon] of the truth" in Clement and Irenaeus,[4] the [Greek: kanon] of the faith in Polycrates,[5] the _regula fidei_ of Tertullian,[6] and the _libri regulares_ of Origen[7] imply a _normative principle_. Credner's view of [Greek: kanon] as an abbreviation of [Greek: grachai kanonos], equivalent to _Scripturae legis_ in Diocletian's Act,[8] is too artificial, and is unsanctioned by usage.

The earliest example of its application to a catalogue of the Old or New Testament books occurs in the Latin translation of Origen's homily on Joshua, where the original seems to have been [Greek: kanon]. The word itself is certainly in Amphilochius,[9] as well as in Jerome[10] and Rufinus.[11] As the Latin translation of Origen has _canonicus_ and _canonizatus_, we infer that he used [Greek: kanonikos], opposed as it is to _apocryphus_ or _secretus_. The first occurrence of [Greek: kanonikos] is in the 59th canon of the council of Laodicea, where it is contrasted with [Greek: idiotikos] and [Greek: akanonistos]. [Greek: Kanonixomena], "_canonized_ books," is first used in Athanasius's festal epistle.[12] The kind of rule which the earliest Fathers thought the Scriptures to be can only be conjectured; it is certain that they believed the Old Testament books to be a divine and infallible guide. But the New Testament was not so considered till towards the close of the 2nd century, when the conception of a Catholic Church was realized. The collection of writings was not called _Scripture_, or put on a par with the Old Testament as sacred and inspired, till the time of Theophilus of Antioch (about 180 A.D.). Hence Irenaeus applies the epithets divine and perfect to the Scriptures; and Clement of Alexandria calls them inspired.

When distinctions were made among the Biblical writings other words were employed, synonymous with [Greek: kanonixomena] or [Greek: kekanonismena], such as [Greek: endiathaeka], [Greek: orismena]. The canon was thus a catalogue of writings, forming a rule of truth, sacred, divine, revealed by God for the instruction of men. The rule was perfect for its purpose. (See BIBLE: section _Canon_.)

The term "canonical," i.e. that which is approved or ordered by the "canon" or rule, is applied to ecclesiastical vestments, "canonicals," and to those hours set apart by the Church for prayer and devotion, the "Canonical Hours" (see BREVIARY). (S. D.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Zur Geschichte des Kanons_, pp. 3-68.

[2] _Clement Hom._, ap. Coteler. vol. i. p. 608.

[3] _Stromata_, vi. 15, p. 803, ed. Potter.

[4] _Adv. Haeres._ i. 95.

[5] Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24.

[6] _De praescript. Haereticorum_, chs. 12, 13.

[7] _Comment. in Mat._ iii. p. 916, ed. Delarue.

[8] _Monumenta vetera ad Donatistarum historiam pertinentia_, ed.
Dupin, p. 168.

[9] At the end of the _Iambi ad Seleucum_, on the books of the New
Testament, he adds, [Greek: outos acheudestatos kanon an ein ton
theopneuston grachon].

[10] _Prologus galeatus in ii. Reg._

[11] _Expos. in Symb. Apost._ 37, p. 374, ed. Migne.

[12] After the word is added [Greek: kai paradothenta, pioteuthenta
te theia einai]. _Opp._ vol. i. p. 961, ed. Benedict.

CANONESS (Fr. _chanoinesse_, Ger. _Kanonissin_, Lat. _canonica_ or _canonica virgo_), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In the 8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish empire, and in imitation of these certain women took common vows of obedience and chastity, though not of poverty. Like nuns they had common table and dormitory, and recited the breviary, but generally the rule was not so strict as in the case of nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and were also employed in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and transcribing liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular and secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable feudal princesses. In Germany several foundations of this kind (e.g. Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were practically secular institutions before the Reformation, adopted the Protestant faith, and still exist, requiring of their members the simple conditions of celibacy and obedience to their superior during membership. These institutions (_Stifter_) are now practically almshouses for the unmarried daughters of noble families. In some cases the right of presentation belongs to the head of the family, sometimes admission is gained by purchase; but in modern times a certain number of prebends have been created for the daughters of deserving officials. The organization of the _Stift_ is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient titles of abbess, prioress or provostess (_Probstin_), and the canonesses (_Stiftsdamen_) meet periodically in _Konvent_ for the discussion of the affairs of the community. The ladies are not bound to residence. In many of these _Stifter_ quaint pre-Reformation customs and ceremonies still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the _Konvent_ is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax head of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table round which the canonesses sit.

CANONIZATION, in its widest sense, an act by which in the Christian Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased believer the honour of public _cultus_. In the early Church there was no formal canonization. The _cultus_ applied at first to local martyrs, and it was only in exceptional circumstances that a kind of judiciary inquiry and express decision became necessary to legitimate this _cultus_. The peculiar situation of the Church of Africa explains the _Vindicatio martyrum_, which was early practised there (_Optatus Milevit._, i. 16). In the _cultus_ rendered to confessors, the authorization of the Church had long been merely implicit. But when an express decision was given, it was the bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the pope the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of Ulric of Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in A.D. 993. From that time the pontifical intervention became more and more frequent, and, in practice, the right of the bishops in the matter of canonization continued to grow more restricted. In 1170 the new right was sufficiently established for Pope Alexander III. to affirm that the bishops could not institute the _cultus_ of a new saint without the authority of the Roman Church (Cap. _Audivimus_, Decret. _De Rell. et venerat. Sanctorum_, iii. 115). The 12th and, especially, the 13th centuries furnish many examples of canonizations pronounced by the popes, and the procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much more summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of those who had known the holy personages was collected on the spot. The inquiry was as rapid as the judgment, and both often took place a short time after the death of the saint, as in the cases of St Thomas of Canterbury (died 1170, canonized 1173), St Peter of Castelnau (died on the 15th of January 1208, canonized on the 12th of March of the same year), St Francis of Assisi (died on the 4th of October 1226, canonized on the 19th of July 1228), and St Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June 1231, canonized on the 3rd of June 1232).

At this period there was no marked difference between canonization and beatification. In modern practice, as definitively settled by the decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the two acts are totally distinct. Canonization is the solemn and definitive act by which the pope decrees the plenitude of public honours. Beatification consists in permitting a _cultus_, the manifestations of which are restricted, and is merely a step towards canonization.

The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either _exceptional_ or _common_. The approval of immemorial _cultus_ comes within the category of exceptional procedure. Urban VIII., while forbidding the rendering of a public _cultus_ without authorization from the Holy See, made an exception in favour of the blessed who were at that time (1625) in possession of an immemorial _cultus_, i.e. dating back at least a century (1525). The procedure _per viam casus excepti_ consists in the legitimation of a _cultus_ which has been rendered to a saint for a very long time. The causes of the martyrs (_declarationis martyrii_) also are exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the _fact_ of the martyrdom and of its _cause_, i.e. it must be established that the servant of God was put to death through hatred of the faith. These are the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure.

The _common_ procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted _per viam non cultus_. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded before the tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent commission of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of subordinate officers and presided over by a cardinal. The supreme judge in the matter is the pope himself. The _postulator_, who is the mandatory of a diocese or ecclesiastical commonalty, is the solicitor. He must furnish the proofs, which are collected according to very stringent rules. The _promoter of the faith_, popularly called the "devil's advocate" (_advocatus diaboli_), is the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the tribunal the weak points of the case.

The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the historical explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system, and which considerably delay the progress of the causes. The first decisive step is the _introduction of the cause_. If, by the advice of the cardinals who have examined the documents, the pope pronounce his approval, the servant of God receives the title of "Venerable," but is not entitled to any manifestation of _cultus_. Only in the event of the claimant passing this test successfully can the essential part of the procedure be begun, which will result in conferring on the Venerable the title of "Blessed." This part consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a reputation for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the virtues, (3) to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on all three of these tests is called the decree _de tuto_, by which the pope decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification of the servant of God (_Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V.S.D.N. beatificationem_). In the ceremony of beatification the essential part consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the Venerable in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a solemn mass, celebrated with special rites in the great hall above the vestibule of the basilica of St Peter.

The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification, is usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of the miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession of the Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great number of formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the sentence, and indicates eventually the day on which he will proceed to the ceremony of canonization, which takes place with great solemnity in the basilica of St Peter.

The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for the conduct of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for exercising rigour and discretion, considerably retards the progress of the causes, and necessitates a numerous staff. This circumstance, together with the custom of ornamenting the basilica of St Peter very richly on the day of the ceremony, accounts for the considerable cost which a canonization entails. To prevent abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up during the pontificate of Leo XIII.

The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constantinople, and the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod, also canonize their saints after a preliminary examination of their titles to public _cultus_. Their procedure is less rigorous than that of the Roman Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly studied.

See J. Fontanini, _Codex Constitutionum quas summi pontifices
ediderunt in solemni canonizatione sanctorum_ (Rome, 1729, a
collection of original documents); Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict
XIV.), _De servorum Dei beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione_
(Bologna, 1734-1738), several times reprinted, and more remarkable for
erudition and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism;
Al. Lauri, _Codex pro postulatoribus causarum beatificationis et
canonizationis, recognovit Joseph Fornari_ (Romae, 1899); F.W. Faber,
_Essay on Beatification, Canonization, &c._ (London, 1848); A.
Boudinhon, _Les Proces de beatification et de canonisation_ (Paris,
1905); E. Golubinskij, _Istorija Kanonizacii sviatich v russko j
cerkvi_ (Moscow, 1903). (H. De.)

CANON LAW. Canon law, _jus canonicum_, is the sum of the laws which regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is also called ecclesiastical law, _jus ecclesiasticum_. It is also referred to under the name of _canones, sacri canones_, a title of great antiquity, for the [Greek: kanones], _regulae_, were very early distinguished from the secular laws, the [Greek: nomoi], _leges_.

Word "canon." Different meanings.

The word [Greek: kanon], canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical literature in several different senses (see CANON above). The disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for example (can. 1, 2, &c.), employ it in the sense of an established rule, ecclesiastical in its origin and in its object. But the expression is most frequently used to designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished from dogmatic definitions. With regard to form, the decisions of councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the definitions of the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which generally begin with the words "_Si quis dixerit_," and end with the anathema, are canons; while the long chapters, even when dealing with matters of discipline, retain the name of chapters or decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to give the name of canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical compilations such as the _Decretum_ of Gratian, while the name of chapters is given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the Decretals. It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the expression _jus canonicum_, it implies the systematic codification of ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the labours which resulted in the _Corpus juris canonici_.

Divisions.

Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the former is concerned with the constitution of the Church, and, consequently, with the relations between her and other bodies, religious and civil; the latter has as its object the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical body and its members. This division, which has been found convenient for the study of canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts. With regard to the texts now in force, the name of _jus antiquum_, ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the _Corpus juris canonici_; the legislation of this _Corpus_ has been called _jus novum_, new law; and finally, the name of recent law, _jus novissimum_, has been given to the law established by the council of Trent and subsequent papal constitutions. There is a further distinction between the written law, _jus scriptum_, laws made by the councils or popes, which are to be found in the collections, and the unwritten law, _jus non scriptum_, a body of practical rules arising rather from natural equity and from custom than from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law. In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the unwritten customary law has undergone a gradual diminution in importance, as a consequence of centralization and the accumulation of written laws; nowadays it need not be reckoned with, save in cases where local customs are involved. The common law is that which is intended to regulate the whole body; special or local law is that which is concerned with certain districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation from or addition to the common law.

Sources.