Chapter XIV: Part 14

CAREW, RICHARD (1555-1620), English poet and antiquary, was born on the 17th of July 1555, at Antony House, East Antony, Cornwall. At the age of eleven, he entered Christ Church, Oxford, and when only fourteen was chosen to carry on an extempore debate with Sir Philip Sidney, in presence of the earls of Leicester and Warwick and other noblemen. From Oxford he removed to the Middle Temple, where he spent three years, and then went abroad. By his marriage with Juliana Arundel in 1577 he added Coswarth to the estates he had already inherited from his father. In 1586 he was appointed high-sheriff of Cornwall; he entered parliament in 1584; and he served under Sir Walter Raleigh, then lord lieutenant of Cornwall, as treasurer. He became a member of the Society of Antiquaries in 1589, and was a friend of William Camden and Sir Henry Spelman. His great work is the _Survey of Cornwall_, published in 1602, and reprinted in 1769 and 1811. It still possesses interest, apart from its antiquarian value, for the picture it gives of the life and interests of a country gentleman of the days of Elizabeth. Carew's other works are:--a translation of the first five Cantos of Tasso's _Gerusalemme_ (1594), printed in the first instance without the author's knowledge, and entitled _Godfrey of Balloigne, or the Recouerie of Hierusalam_; _The Examination of Men's Wits_ (1594), a translation of an Italian version of John Huarte's _Examen de Ingenios_; and _An Epistle concerning the Excellences of the English Tongue_ (1605). Carew died on the 6th of November 1620.

His son, Sir RICHARD CAREW (d. 1643?), was the author of a _True and Readie Way to learn the Latine Tongue_, by writers of three nations, published by Samuel Hartlib in 1654.

CAREW, THOMAS (1595-1645?), English poet, was the son of Sir Matthew Carew, master in chancery, and his wife, Alice Ingpenny, widow of Sir John Rivers, lord mayor of London. The poet was probably the third of the eleven children of his parents, and was born at West Wickham in Kent, in the early part of 1595, for he was thirteen years of age in June 1608, when he matriculated at Merton College, Oxford. He took his degree of B.A. early in 1611, and proceeded to study at the Middle Temple. Two years later his father complained to Sir Dudley Carleton that he was doing little at the law. He was in consequence sent to Italy, as a member of Sir Dudley's household, and when the ambassador returned from Venice, he seems to have kept Thomas Carew with him, for he is found in the capacity of secretary to Sir Dudley Carleton, at the Hague, early in 1616. From this office he was dismissed in the autumn of that year for levity and slander; he had great difficulty in finding another situation. In August 1618 his father died, and Carew entered the service of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, in whose train he started for France in March 1619, and it is believed that he travelled in Herbert's company until that nobleman returned to England, at the close of his diplomatic missions, in April 1624. Carew "followed the court before he was of it," not receiving the definite appointment of gentleman of the privy chamber until 1628. While Carew held this office, he displayed his tact and presence of mind by stumbling and extinguishing the candle he was holding to light Charles I. into the queen's chamber, because he saw that Lord St Albans had his arm round her majesty's neck. The king suspected nothing, and the queen heaped favours on the poet. Probably in 1630, Carew was made "server" or taster-in-ordinary to the king. To this period may be attributed his close friendship with Sir John Suckling, Ben Jonson and Clarendon; the latter says that Carew was "a person of pleasant and facetious wit." Donne, whose celebrity as a court-preacher lasted until his death in 1631, exercised a powerful if not entirely healthful influence over the genius of Carew. In February 1633 a masque by the latter, entitled _Coelum Britanicum_, was acted in the banqueting-house at Whitehall, and was printed in 1634. The close of Carew's life is absolutely obscure. It was long supposed that he died in 1639, and this has been thought to be confirmed by the fact that the first edition of his _Poems_, published in 1640, seems to have a posthumous character. But Clarendon tells us that "after fifty years of life spent with less severity and exactness than it ought to have been, he died with the greatest remorse for that licence." If Carew was more than fifty years of age, he must have died in or after 1645, and in fact there were final additions made to his _Poems_ in the third edition of 1651. Walton tells us that Carew in his last illness, being afflicted with the horrors, sent in great haste to "the ever-memorable" John Hales (1584-1656); Hales "told him he should have his prayers, but would by no means give him then either the sacrament or absolution."

Carew's poems, at their best, are brilliant lyrics of the purely sensuous order. They open to us, in his own phrase, "a mine of rich and pregnant fancy." His metrical style was influenced by Jonson and his imagery still more clearly by Donne, for whom he had an almost servile admiration. His intellectual power was not comparable with Donne's, but Carew had a lucidity and directness of lyrical utterance unknown to Donne. It is perhaps his greatest distinction that he is the earliest of the Cavalier song-writers by profession, of whom Rochester is the latest, poets who turned the disreputable incidents of an idle court-life into poetry which was often of the rarest delicacy and the purest melody and colour. The longest and best of Carew's poems, "A Rapture," would be more widely appreciated if the rich flow of its imagination were restrained by greater reticence of taste.

The best edition of Carew's _Poems_ is that prepared by Arthur Vincent
in 1899. (E. G.)

CAREY, HENRY (d. 1743), English poet and musician, reputed to be an illegitimate son of George Savile, marquess of Halifax, was born towards the end of the 17th century. His mother is supposed to have been a schoolmistress, and Carey himself taught music at various schools. He owed his knowledge of music to Olaus Linnert, and later he studied with Roseingrave and Geminiani. He wrote the words and the music of _The Contrivances; or More Ways than One_, a farce produced at Drury Lane in 1715. His _Hanging and Marriage; or The Dead Man's Wedding_ was acted at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1722. _Chrononhotonthologos_ (1734), described as "The most Tragical Tragedy that ever was tragedized by any Company of Tragedians," was a successful burlesque of the bombast of the contemporary stage. The best of his other pieces were _A Wonder; or the Honest Yorkshireman_ (1735), a ballad opera, and the _Dragon of Wantley_ (1737), a burlesque opera, the music of which was by J.F. Lampe. He was the author of _Namby-Pamby_, a once famous parody of Ambrose Philips's verses to the infant daughter of the earl of Carteret. Carey is best remembered by his songs. "Sally in our Alley" (printed in his _Musical Century_) was a sketch drawn after following a shoemaker's 'prentice and his sweetheart on a holiday. The present tune set to these words, however, is not the one written by Carey, but is borrowed from an earlier song, "The Country Lasse," which is printed in _The Merry Musician_ (vol. iii., c. 1716). It has been claimed for him that he was the author of "God save the King" (see NATIONAL ANTHEMS). He died in London on the 4th of October 1743, and it was asserted, without justification, that he had committed suicide. Edmund Kean, the tragedian, was one of his great-grandchildren.

The completest edition of his poems is _Poems on Several Occasions_
(1729). His dramatic works were published by subscription in 1743.

CAREY, HENRY CHARLES (1793-1879), American economist, was born in Philadelphia on the 15th of December 1793. At the age of twenty-eight he succeeded his father, Mathew Carey (1760-1839)--an influential economist, political reformer, editor, and publisher, of Irish birth, but for many years a resident of Philadelphia--as a member of the publishing firm of Carey & Lea, which was long the most conspicuous in America. He died in Philadelphia on the 13th of October 1879.

Among Mathew Carey's many writings had been a collection (1822) of _Essays on Political Economy_, one of the earliest of American treatises favouring protection, and Henry C. Carey's life-work was devoted to the propagation of the same theory. He retired from business in 1838, almost simultaneously with the appearance (1837-1840) of his _Principles of Political Economy_. This treatise, which was translated into Italian and Swedish, soon became the standard representative in the United States of the school of economic thought which, with some interruptions, has since dominated the tariff system of that country. Carey's first large work on political economy was preceded and followed by many smaller volumes on wages, the credit system, interest, slavery, copyright, &c.; and in 1858-1859 he gathered the fruits of his lifelong labours into _The Principles of Social Science_, in three volumes. This work is a most comprehensive as well as mature exposition of his views. In it Carey sought to show that there exists, independently of human wills, a natural system of economic laws, which is essentially beneficent, and of which the increasing prosperity of the whole community, and especially of the working classes, is the spontaneous result--capable of being defeated only by the ignorance or perversity of man resisting or impeding its action. He rejected the Malthusian doctrine of population, maintaining that numbers regulate themselves sufficiently in every well-governed society, and that their pressure on subsistence characterizes the lower, not the more advanced, stages of civilization. He denied the universal truth, for all stages of cultivation, of the law of diminishing returns from land.

His fundamental theoretic position relates to the antithesis of wealth and value. Carey held that land, as we are concerned with it in industrial life, is really an instrument of production which has been formed as such by man, and that its value is due to the labour expended on it in the past--though measured, not by the sum of that labour, but by the labour necessary under existing conditions to bring new land to the same stage of productiveness. He studied the occupation and reclamation of land with peculiar advantage as an American, for whom the traditions of first settlement were living and fresh, and before whose eyes the process was indeed still going on. The difficulties of adapting a primitive soil to the work of yielding organic products for man's use can be lightly estimated only by an inhabitant of a country long under cultivation. It is, in Carey's view, the overcoming of these difficulties by arduous and continued effort that entitles the first occupier of land to his property in the soil. Its present value forms a very small proportion of the cost expended on it, because it represents only what would be required, with the science and appliances of our time, to bring the land from its primitive into its present state. Property in land is therefore only a form of invested capital--a quantity of labour or the fruits of labour permanently incorporated with the soil; for which, like any other capitalist, the owner is compensated by a share of the produce. He is not rewarded for what is done by the powers of nature, and society is in no sense defrauded by his sole possession. The so-called Ricardian theory of rent is a speculative fancy, contradicted by all experience. Cultivation does not in fact, as that theory supposes, begin with the best, and move downwards to the poorer soils in the order of their inferiority. The light and dry higher lands are first cultivated; and only when population has become dense and capital has accumulated, are the low-lying lands, with their greater fertility, but also with their morasses, inundations, and miasmas, attacked and brought into occupation. Rent, regarded as a proportion of the produce, sinks, like all interest on capital, in process of time, but, as an absolute amount, increases. The share of the labourer increases, both as a proportion and an absolute amount. And thus the interests of these different social classes are in harmony. But, Carey proceeded to say, in order that this harmonious progress may be realized, what is taken from the land must be given back to it. All the articles derived from it are really separated parts of it, which must be restored on pain of its exhaustion. Hence the producer and the consumer must be close to each other; the products must not be exported to a foreign country in exchange for its manufactures, and thus go to enrich as manure a foreign soil. In immediate exchange value the landowner may gain by such exportation, but the productive powers of the land will suffer.

Carey, who had set out as an earnest advocate of free trade, accordingly arrived at the doctrine of protection: the "coordinating power" in society must intervene to prevent private advantage from working public mischief. He attributed his conversion on this question to his observation of the effects of liberal and protective tariffs respectively on American prosperity. This observation, he says, threw him back on theory, and led him to see that the intervention referred to might be necessary to remove (as he phrases it) the obstacles to the progress of younger communities created by the action of older and wealthier nations. But it seems probable that the influence of List's writings, added to his own deep-rooted and hereditary jealousy and dislike of English predominance, had something to do with his change of attitude (see PROTECTION).

CAREY, WILLIAM (1761-1834), English Oriental scholar, and the pioneer of modern missionary enterprise, was born at Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, on the 17th of August 1761. When a youth he worked as a shoemaker; but having joined the Baptists when he was about twenty-one, he devoted much of his time to village preaching. In 1787 he became pastor of a Baptist church in Leicester, and began those energetic movements among his fellow religionists which resulted in the formation of the Baptist Missionary Society, Carey himself being one of the first to go abroad. On reaching Bengal in 1793, he and his companions lost all their property in the Hugli; but having received the charge of an indigo factory at Malda, he was soon able to prosecute the work of translating the Bible into Bengali. In 1799 he quitted Malda for Serampore, where he established a church, a school, and a printing-press for the publication of the Scriptures and philological works. In 1801 Carey was appointed professor of Oriental languages in a college founded at Fort William by the marquess of Wellesley. From this time to his death he devoted himself to the preparation of numerous philological works, consisting of grammars and dictionaries in the Mahratta, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Telinga, Bengali and Bhotanta dialects. The Sanskrit dictionary was unfortunately destroyed by a fire which broke out in the printing establishment. From the Serampore press there issued in his lifetime over 200,000 Bibles and portions in nearly forty different languages and dialects, Carey himself undertaking most of the literary work. He died on the 9th of June 1834.

See _Lives_ by J. Culross (1881) and G. Smith (1884).

CARGILL, DONALD (1610-1681), Scottish Covenanter, was born in 1610. He was educated at St Andrews, and afterwards attached himself to the Protesters. After his appointment to one of the churches in Glasgow, he openly resisted the measures of the government. Compelled to remain at a distance from his charge, he ventured back to celebrate the Communion, and was arrested, but was liberated at the instance of some of his private friends. He was afterwards wounded at the battle of Bothwell Bridge, and fled to Holland, where he remained a few months. On his return he joined Richard Cameron in publishing the Sanquhar declaration, and boldly excommunicated the king and his officials. He was soon afterwards apprehended, and brought to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded on the 27th of July 1681.

CARGO (Span. for "loading," from Lat. _carrus_, car), a shipload, or the goods (or even, less technically, persons) carried on board a ship; and so, by analogy, a term used for any large amount. The maritime law affecting the cargo of a ship is dealt with in the articles AVERAGE, AFFREIGHTMENT, INSURANCE, SALVAGE, BOTTOMRY, LIEN; and the specialities of cargo-ships under SHIP.

CARIA, an ancient district of Asia Minor, bounded on the N. by Ionia and Lydia, on the W. and S. by the Aegean Sea, and on the E. by Lycia and a small part of Phrygia. The coast-line consists of a succession of great promontories alternating with deep inlets. The most important inlet, the Ceramic Gulf, or Gulf of Cos, extends inland for 70 m., between the great mountain promontory terminating at Myndus on the north, and that which extends to Cnidus and the remarkable headland of Cape Krio on the south. North of this is the deep bay called in ancient times the Gulf of Iasus (now known as the Gulf of Mendeliyah), and beyond this again was the deeper inlet which formerly extended inland between Miletus and Priene, but of which the outer part has been entirely filled up by the alluvial deposits of the Maeander, while the innermost arm, the ancient Latmic Gulf, is now a lake. South of Cape Krio again is the gulf known as the Gulf of Doris, with several subordinate inlets, bounded on the south by the rugged promontory of Cynossema (mod. Cape Alupo). Between this headland and the frontier of Lycia is the sheltered bay of Marmarice, noted in modern times as one of the finest harbours of the Mediterranean.

Almost the whole of Caria is mountainous. The two great masses of Cadmus (Baba-dagh) and Salbacum (Boz-dagh), which are in fact portions of the great chain of Taurus (see ASIA MINOR), form the nucleus to which the whole physical framework of the country is attached. From these lofty ranges there extends a broad tableland (in many parts more than 3000 ft. high), while it sends down offshoots on the north towards the Maeander, and on the west towards the Aegean. Of these ranges the summit of Mt Latmus alone reaches 4500 ft.

The coast is fringed by numerous islands, in some instances separated only by narrow straits from the mainland. Of these the most celebrated are Rhodes and Cos. Besides these are Syme, Telos, Nisyros, Calymnos, Leros and Patmos, all of which have been inhabited, both in ancient and modern times, and some of which contain excellent harbours. Of these Nisyros alone is of volcanic origin; the others belong to the same limestone formation with the rocky headlands of the coast. The country known as Caria was shared between the Carians proper and the Caunians, who were a wilder people, inhabiting the district between Caria and Lycia. They were not considered to be of the same blood as the Carians, and were, therefore, excluded from the temple of the Carian Zeus at Mylasa, which was common to the Carians, Lydians and Mysians, though their language was the same as that of the Carians proper. Herodotus (i. 172) believed the Caunians to have been aborigines, the Carians having been originally called Leleges, who had been driven from the Aegean islands by the invading Greeks. This seems to have been a prevalent view among the Greek writers, for Thucydides (i. 8) states that when Delos was "purified" more than half the bodies found buried in it were those of "Carians." Modern archaeological discovery, however, is against this belief; and the fact that Mysus, Lydus and Car were regarded as brothers indicates that the three populations who worshipped together in the temple of Mylasa all belonged to the same stock. Homer (_Il_. x. 428-429) distinguishes the Leleges (_q.v._) from the Carians, to whom is ascribed the invention of helmet-crests, coats of arms, and shield handles.

A considerable number of short Carian inscriptions has been found, most of them in Egypt. They were first noticed by Lepsius at Abu-Simbel, where he correctly inferred that they were the work of the Carian mercenaries of Psammetichus. The language, so far as it has been deciphered, is "Asianic" and not Indo-European.

The excavations of W.R. Paton at Assarlik (_Journ. Hell. Studies_, 1887) and of F. Winter at Idrias have resulted in the discovery of Late-Mycenaean and Geometric pottery. Caria, however, figured but little in history. It was absorbed into the kingdom of Lydia, where Carian troops formed the bodyguard of the king. Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the coast were colonized by Dorians. At Halicarnassus (q.v.) the Mausoleum, the monument erected by Artemisia to her husband Mausolus, about 360 B.C., was excavated by Sir C.T. Newton in 1857-1858. Cnidus (q.v.) was excavated at the same time, when the "Cnidian Lion," now in the British Museum, was found crowning a tomb near the site of the old city (C.T. Newton, _History of Discoveries at Cnidus, Halicarnassus and Branchidae_). On the border-land between Caria and Lydia lay other Greek cities, Miletus, Priene, and Magnesia (see articles s.v.), colonized in early times by the Ionians. Inland was Tralles (mod. Aidin), which also had an Ionic population, though it never belonged to the Ionic confederacy (see TRALLES). The excavations of the English in 1868-1869, of the French under O. Rayet and A. Thomas in 1873, and more recently of the Germans under Th. Wiegand and Schrader in 1895-1898 have laid bare the site of the Greek Priene, and the same has been done for the remains of Magnesia ad Maeandrum by French excavators in 1842-1843 and the German expedition under K. Humann in 1891-1893. A German expedition under Th. Wiegand carried on excavations at Miletus (see articles on these towns).

In the Persian epoch, native dynasts established themselves in Caria and even extended their rule over the Greek cities. The last of them seems to have been Pixodarus, after whose death the crown was seized by a Persian, Orontobates, who offered a vigorous resistance to Alexander the Great. But his capital, Halicarnassus, was taken after a siege, and the principality of Caria conferred by Alexander on Ada, a princess of the native dynasty. Soon afterwards the country was incorporated into the Syrian empire and then into the kingdom of Pergamum.

See W.M. Ramsay, "Historical Geography of Asia Minor" (_R.G.S._ iv.,
1890); W. Ruge and E. Friedrich, _Archaologische Karte von Kleinasien_
(1899); Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria
and Lycia_ (Eng. trans., 1892); A.H. Sayce, "The Karian Language and
Inscriptions" (_T.S.B.A._ ix. 1, 1887); P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in
die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 376-384 (1896). For the
coinage see NUMISMATICS. (A. H. S.)

CARIACO, or SAN FELIPE DE AUSTRIA, a town on the north coast of Venezuela, 40 m. east of the city of Cumana at the head of the gulf bearing the same name. Pop. (1908, estimate) 7000. It stands a short distance up the Cariaco river and its port immediately on the coast is known as Puerto Sucre. The surrounding district produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, cattle and fruit, and there is considerable trade through Puerto Sucre, although that port has no regular connexion with foreign ports.

CARIBBEE ISLANDS, a name chiefly of historical importance, sometimes applied to the whole of the West Indies, but strictly comprehending only the chain of islands stretching from Porto Rico to the coast of South America. These are also known as the Lesser Antilles, and the bulk of them are divided into the two groups of the Leeward and Windward Islands.

CARIBS, the name, used first by Columbus (from _Cariba_, said to mean "a valiant man"), of a South American people, who, at the arrival of the Spanish, occupied parts of Guiana and the lower Orinoco and the Windward and other islands in what is still known as the Caribbean Sea. They were believed to have had their original home in North America, spreading thence through the Antilles southward to Venezuela, the Guianas, and north-east Brazil. This view has been abandoned, as Carib tribes, the Bakairi and Nahuquas, using an archaic type of Carib speech and primitive in habits, have been met by German explorers in the very heart of Brazil. It may thus be assumed that the cradle of the race was the centre of South America; their first migrating movements being to Guiana and the Antilles. A cruel, ferocious and warlike people, they made a stout resistance to the Spaniards. They were cannibals, and it is to them that we owe that word, Columbus's _Caribal_ being transformed into _Cannibal_ in apparent reference to the _canine_ voracity of the Caribs. They are physically by no means a powerful race, being distinguished by slight figures with limbs well formed but lacking muscle, and with a tendency to be pot-bellied, due apparently to their habit of drinking _paiwari_ (liquor prepared from the cassava plant) in great quantities. Their colour is a red cinnamon, but varies with different tribes. Their hair is thick, long, very black, and generally cut to an even edge, at right angles to the neck, round the head. The features are strikingly Mongoloid. Among the true Caribs a 2-in. broad belt of cotton is knitted round each ankle, and just below each knee of the young female children. All body-hair in both sexes is pulled out, even to the eye-brows. Among the women the lower lips are often pierced, pins of wood being passed through and forming a sort of _chevaux de frise_ round the mouth. Sometimes a bell-shaped ornament is hung by men to a piece of string passed through the lower lip. The Carib government was patriarchal. Though the women did most of the hard work, they were kindly treated. Polygamy prevailed. Very little ceremony attended death. The Caribs of the West Indies, known as "Red" and "Black," the first pure, the second mixed with negro blood, after a protracted war with the British were transported in 1796 to the number of 5000 from Dominica and St Vincent to the island of Ruatan near the coast of Honduras. A few were subsequently allowed back to St Vincent, but the majority are settled in Honduras and Nicaragua.

CARICATURE (Ital. _caricatura, i.e. "ritratto ridicolo,"_ from _caricare_, to load, to charge; Fr. _charge_), a general term for the art of applying the grotesque to the purposes of satire, and for pictorial and plastic ridicule and burlesque. The word, "caricatura" was first used as English by Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), in his _Christian Morals_, a posthumous work; it is next found, still in its Italian form, in No. 537 of the _Spectator_; it was adopted by Johnson in his dictionary (1757), but does not appear in Bailey's dictionary, for example, as late as 1773; and it only assumed its modern guise towards the end of the 18th century, when its use and comprehension became general.

Little that is not conjectural can be written concerning caricature among the ancients. Few traces of the comic are discoverable in Egyptian art--such papyri of a satirical tendency as are known to exist appearing to belong rather to the class of ithyphallic drolleries than to that of the ironical grotesque. Among the Greeks, though but few and dubious data are extant, it seems possible that caricature may not have been altogether unknown. Their taste for pictorial parody, indeed, has been sufficiently proved by plentiful discoveries of pottery painted with burlesque subjects. Aristotle, moreover, who disapproved of grotesque art, condemns in strong terms the pictures of a certain Pauson, who, alluded to by Aristophanes, and the subject of one of Lucian's anecdotes, is hailed by Champfleury as the _doyen_ of caricaturists. That the grotesque in graphic art conceived in the true spirit of intentional caricature was practised by the Romans is evident from the curious frescoes uncovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum; from the mention in Pliny of certain painters celebrated for burlesque pictures; from the curious fantasies graven in gems and called Grylli; and from the number of ithyphallic caprices that have descended to modern times. But in spite of these evidences of Greek and Roman humour, in spite of the famous comic statuette of Caracalla, and of the more famous _graffito_ of the Crucifixion, the caricaturists of the old world must be sought for, not among its painters and sculptors, but among its poets and dramatists. The comedies of Aristophanes and the epigrams of Martial were, to the Athens of Pericles and the Rome of Domitian, what the etchings of Gillray and the lithographs of Daumier were to the London of George III. and the Paris of the Citizen King.

During the middle ages a vast mass of grotesque material was accumulated, but selection becomes even more difficult than with the scarce relics of antiquity. With the building of the cathedrals originated a new style of art; a strange mixture of memories of paganism and Christian imaginings was called into being for the adornment of those great strongholds of urban Catholicism, and in this the coarse and brutal materialism of the popular humour found its largest and freest expression. On missal-marge and sign-board, on stall and entablature, in gargoyle and initial, the grotesque displayed itself in an infinite variety of forms. The import of this inextricable tangle of imagery, often obscene and horrible, often quaint and fantastic, is difficult, if not impossible, to determine. We recognize the prevalence of three great popular types or figures, each of which may be credited with a satirical intention--of Reynard the Fox, the hero of the famous medieval romance; of the Devil, that peculiarly medieval antithesis of God; and of Death, the sarcastic and irreverent skeleton. The popularity of the last is evidenced by the fact that no fewer than forty-three towns in England, France and Germany are enumerated as possessing sets of the Dance of Death, that grandiose all-levelling series of caprices in the contemplation of which the middle ages found so much consolation. It was reserved for Holbein (1498-1554), seizing the idea and resuming all that his contemporaries thought and felt on the subject, to produce, in his fifty-three magnificent designs of the Danse Macabre, the first and perhaps the greatest set of satirical moralities known to the modern world.

It is in the tumult of the Renaissance, indeed, that caricature in its modern sense may be said to have been born. The great popular movements required some such vehicle of comment or censure; the perfection to which the arts of design were attaining supplied the means; the invention of printing ensured its dissemination. The earliest genuine piece of graphic irony that has been discovered is a caricature (1499) relating to Louis XII. and his Italian war. But it was the Reformation that produced the first full crop of satirical ephemerae, and the heads of Luther and Alexander VI. are therefore the direct ancestors of the masks that smirk and frown from the "cartoons" of _Punch_ and the _Charivari_. Fairly started by Lucas Cranach, a friend of Luther, in his _Passionale of Christ and Antichrist_ (1521), caricature was naturalized in France under the League, but only to pass into the hands of the Dutch, who supplied the rest of Europe with satirical prints during the whole of the next century. A curious reaction is visible in the work of Pieter Breughel (1510-1570) towards the grotesque _diablerie_ and macaberesque morality of medieval art, the last original and striking note of which is caught in the compositions of Jacques Callot (1593-1635), and, in a less degree, in those of his followers, Stefano della Bella (1610-1664) and Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). On the other hand, however, Callot, one of the greatest masters of the grotesque that ever lived, in certain of his _Caprices_, and in his two famous sets of prints, the _Miseres de la guerre_, may be said to anticipate certain productions of Hogarth and Goya, and so to have founded the modern school of ironic _genre_.

In England one of the earliest caricatures extant is that in the margin of the Forest Roll of Essex, 5, ed. 1, now at the Record Office; it is a grotesque portrait of "Aaron fil Diabole" (Aaron, son of the devil), probably representing Cok, son of Aaron. It is dated 1277. Another caricature, undated, appears on a Roll containing an account of the tallages and fines paid by Jews, 17. Henry III., belonging to 1233 (Exch. of Receipt, Jews' Roll, No. 8). It is an elaborate satirical design of Jews and devils, arranged in a pediment. During the 16th century, caricature can hardly be said to have existed at all,--a grotesque of Mary Stuart as a mermaid, a pen and ink sketch of which is yet to be seen in the Rolls Office, being the only example of it known. The Great Rebellion, however, acted as the Reformation had done in Germany, and Cavaliers and Roundheads caricatured each other freely. At this period satirical pictures usually did duty as the title-pages of scurrilous pamphlets; but one instance is known of the employment during the war of a grotesque allegory as a banner, while the end of the Commonwealth produced a satirical pack of playing cards, probably of Dutch origin. The Dutch, indeed, as already has been stated, were the great purveyors of pictorial satire at this time and during the early part of the next century. In England the wit of the victorious party was rather vocal than pictorial; in France the spirit of caricature was sternly repressed; and it was from Holland, bold in its republican freedom, and rich in painters and etchers, that issued the flood of prints and medals which illustrate, through cumbrous allegories and elaborate symbolization, the principal political passages of both the former countries, from the Restoration (1660) to the South Sea Bubble (1720). The most distinguished of the Dutch artists was Romain de Hooghe (1638-1720), a follower of Callot, who, without any of the weird power of his master, possessed a certain skill in grouping and faculty of grotesque suggestiveness that made his point a most useful weapon to William of Orange during the long struggle with Louis XIV.

The 18th century, however, may be called emphatically the age of caricature. The spirit is evident in letters as in art; in the fierce grotesques of Swift, in the coarser _charges_ of Smollett, in the keen ironies of Henry Fielding, in the Aristophanic tendency of Foote's farces, no less than in the masterly moralities of Hogarth and the truculent satires of Gillray. The first event that called forth caricatures in any number was the prosecution (1710) of Dr Sacheverell; most of these, however, were importations from Holland, and only in the excitement attendant on the South Sea Bubble, some ten years later, can the English school be said to have begun. Starting into active being with the ministry of Walpole (1721), it flourished under that statesman for some twenty years,--the "hieroglyphics," as its prints were named, graphically enough, often circulating on fans. It continued to increase in importance and audacity till the reign of Pitt (1757-1761), when its activity was somewhat abated. It rose, however, to a greater height than ever during the rule of Bute (1761-1763), and since that time its influence has extended without a check. The artists whose combinations amused the public during this earlier period are, with few exceptions, but little known and not greatly esteemed. Among them were two amateurs, Dorothy, wife of Richard Boyle, 3rd earl of Burlington, and General George Townshend (afterwards 1st Marquess Townshend); Goupy, Boitard and Liotard were Frenchmen; Vandergucht and Vanderbank were Dutchmen. This period witnessed also the rise of William Hogarth (1697-1764). As a political caricaturist Hogarth was not successful, save in a few isolated examples, as in the portraits of Wilkes and Churchill; but as a moralist and social satirist he has not yet been equalled. The publication, in 1732, of his _Modern Midnight Conversation_ may be said to mark an epoch in the history of caricature. Mention must also be made of Paul Sandby (1725-1809), who was not a professional caricaturist, though he joined in the pictorial hue-and-cry against Hogarth and Lord Bute, and who is best remembered as the founder of the English school of water-colour; and of John Collet (1723-1788), said to have been a pupil of Hogarth, a kindly and industrious humorist, rarely venturing into the arena of politics. During the latter half of the century, however, political caricature began to be somewhat more skilfully handled than of old by James Sayer, a satirist in the pay of the younger Pitt, while social grotesques were pleasantly treated by Henry William Bunbury (1750-1811) and George Moutard Woodward. These personalities, however, interesting as they are, are dwarfed into insignificance by the great figure of James Gillray (1757-1815), in whose hands political caricature became almost epic for grandeur of conception and far-reaching suggestiveness. It is to the works of this man of genius, indeed, and (in a less degree) to those of his contemporary, Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827), an artist of great and varied powers, that historians must turn for the popular reflection of all the political notabilia of the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries. England may be said to have been the chosen home of caricature during this period. In France, timid and futile under the Monarchy, it had assumed an immense importance under the Revolution, and a cloud of hideous pictorial libels was the result; but even the Revolution left no such notes through its own artists, though Fragonard (1732-1806) himself was of the number, as came from the gravers of Gillray and Rowlandson. In Germany caricature did not exist. Only in Spain was there to be found an artist capable of entering into competition with the masters of the satirical grotesque of whom England could boast. The works of Francesco Goya y Lucientes (1746-1828) are described by Theophile Gautier as "a mixture of those of Rembrandt, Watteau, and the comical dreams of Rabelais," and Champfleury discovers analogies between him and Honore Daumier, the greatest caricaturist of modern France.

The satirical grotesque of the 18th century had been characterized by a sort of grandiose brutality, by a certain vigorous obscenity, by a violence of expression and intention, that appear monstrous in these days of reserve and restraint, but that doubtless sorted well enough with the strong party feelings and fierce political passions of the age. After the downfall of Napoleon (1815), however, when strife was over and men were weary and satisfied, a change in matter and manner came over the caricature of the period. In connection with this change, the name of George Cruikshank (1792-1878), an artist who stretches hands on the one side towards Hogarth and Gillray, and on the other towards Leech and Tenniel, deserves honourable mention. Those of Cruikshank's political caricatures which were designed for the squibs of William Hone (1779-1842) are, comparatively speaking, uninteresting; his ambition was that of Hogarth--the production of "moral comedies." Much of his work, therefore, may be said to form a link in the chain of development through which has passed that ironical _genre_ to which reference has already been made. In 1829, however, began to appear the famous series of lithographs, signed H.B., the work of John Doyle (1798-1868). These jocularities are interesting otherwise than politically; thin and weakly as they are, they inaugurated the style of later political caricature. In France, meanwhile, with the farcical designs of Edme Jean Pigal (b. 1794) and the realistic sketches of Henri Monnier (1805-1872), the admirable portrait-busts of Jean Pierre Dantan the younger (1800-1869) and the fine military and low-life drolleries of Nicolas Toussaint Charlet (1792-1845) were appearing. Up to this date, though journalism and caricature had sometimes joined hands (as in the case of the _Craftsman_ and the _Anti-Jacobin_, and particularly in _Les Revolutions de France et de Brabant_ and _Les Actes des Apotres_), the alliance had been but brief; it was reserved for Charles Philipon (1802-1862), who may be called the father of comic journalism, to make it lasting. The foundation of _La Caricature_, by Philipon in 1831, suppressed in 1835 after a brief but glorious career, was followed by _Le Charivari_ (December 1832), which is perhaps the most renowned of the innumerable enterprises of this extraordinary man. Among the artists he assembled round him, the highest place is held by Honore Daumier (1808-1879), a draughtsman of great skill, and a caricaturist of immense vigour and audacity. Another of Philipon's band was Sulpice Paul Chevalier (1801-1866), better known as Gavarni, in whose hands modern social caricature, advanced by Cruikshank and Charlet, assumed its present guise and became elegant. Mention must also be made of Grandville (J.I.I. Gerard) (1803-1847), the illustrator of La Fontaine, and a modern patron of the medieval skeleton; of Charles Joseph Travies de Villers, the father of the famous hunchback "Mayeux"; and of Amedee de Noe, or "Cham," the wittiest and most ephemeral of pictorial satirists. In 1840 the pleasantries of "H.B." having come to an end, there was founded, in imitation of this enterprise of Philipon, the comic journal which, under the title of _Punch, or the London Charivari_, has since become famous all over the world. Among its early illustrators were John Leech (1817-1864) and Richard Doyle (1824-1883), whose drawings were full of the richest grotesque humour.

In 1862 Carlo Pellegrini, in _Vanity Fair_, began a series of portraits of public men, which may be considered the most remarkable instances of personal caricature in England.

For the later developments of caricature, it is convenient to take them by countries in the following sections:--

_Great Britain_.--During the later 19th century the term caricature,
somewhat loosely used at all times, came gradually to cover almost
every form of humorous art, from the pictorial wit and wisdom of Sir
John Tenniel to the weird grotesques of Mr S.H. Sime, from the gay
pleasantries of Randolph Caldecott to the graceful but sedate fancies
of Mr Walter Crane. It is made to embrace alike the social studies,
satirical and sympathetic, of Du Maurier and Keene, the political
cartoons of Mr Harry Furniss and Sir F.C. Gould, the unextenuating
likenesses of "Ape," and "Spy," and "Max," the subtle conceits of Mr
Linley Sambourne, the whimsicalities of Mr E.T. Reed, the exuberant
burlesques of Mr J.F. Sullivan, the frank buffooneries of W.G. Baxter,
Of these diverse forms of graphic humour, some have no other object
than to amuse, and therefore do not call for serious notice. The work
of Mr Max Beerbohm ("Max") has the note of originality and
extravagance too; while that of "Spy" (Mr Leslie Ward) in _Vanity
Fair_, if it does not rival the occasional brilliancy of his
predecessor "Ape" (Carlo Pellegrini, 1839-1889), maintains a higher
average of merit. The pupil, too, is much more genial than the master,
and he is content if his pencil evokes the comment, "How ridiculously
like!" Caricature of this kind is merely an entertainment. Here we are
concerned rather with those branches of caricature which, merrily or
mordantly, reflect and comment upon the actual life we live. In
treating of recent caricature of this kind, we must give the first
place to _Punch_. Mr Punch's outlook upon life has not changed much
since the 'seventies of the last century. His influence upon the tone
of caricature made itself felt most appreciably in the days of John
Leech and Richard Doyle. Their successors but follow in their steps.
In their work, says a clever German critic, is to be found no vestige
of the "sour bilious temper of John Bull" that pervaded the pictures
of Hogarth and Rowlandson. Charles Keene (1823-1891) and Du Maurier
(1834-1896), he declares, are not caricaturists or satirists, but
amiable and tenderly grave observers of life, friendly optimists. The
characterization is truer of Keene, perhaps, than of Du Maurier.
Charles Keene's sketches are almost always cheerful; almost without
exception they make you smile or laugh. In many of Du Maurier's, on
the other hand, there is an underlying seriousness. While Keene looks
on at life with easy tolerance, an amused spectator, Du Maurier shows
himself sensitive, emotional, sympathetic, taking infinite delight in
what is pretty and gay and charming, but hurt and offended by the
sordid and the ugly. Thus while Keene takes things dispassionately as
they come, seeing only the humorous side of them, we find Du Maurier
ever and anon attacking some new phase of snobbishness or philistinism
or cant. For all his kindliness in depicting congenial scenes, he is
at times as unrelenting a satirist as Rowlandson. The other _Punch_
artists, whose work is in the same field, resemble Keene in this
respect rather than Du Maurier. Mr Leonard Raven-Hill recalls Charles
Keene not merely in temperament but in technique; like Keene, too, he
finds his subjects principally in _bourgeois_ life. Mr J. Bernard
Partridge, though, like Du Maurier, he has an eye for physical beauty,
is a spectator rather than a critic of life, yet he has made his mark
as a "cartoonist." Phil May (d. 1903), a modern Touchstone, is less
easily classified. Though he wears the cap and bells, he is alive to
the pity of things; he sees the pathos no less than the humour of his
street-boys and "gutter-snipes." He is, however, a jester primarily:
an artist, too, of high achievement. Two others stand out as masters
of the art of social caricature--Frederick Barnard and Mr J.F.
Sullivan. Barnard's illustrations to Dickens, like his original
sketches, have a lively humour--the humour of irrepressible high
spirits--and endless invention. High spirits and invention are
characteristics also of Mr Sullivan. It is at the British artisan and
petty tradesman--at the grocer given to adulteration and the plumber
who outstays his welcome--that he aims his most boisterous fun. He
rebels, too, delightfully, against red tape and all the petty
tyrannies of officialdom. In political caricature Sir John Tenniel
(_q.v._) remained the leading artist of his day. The death of Abraham
Lincoln, Bismarck's fall from power, the tragedy of Khartum--to
subjects such as these, worthy of a great painter, Tenniel has brought
a classic simplicity and a sense of dignity unknown previously to
caricature. It is hard to say in which field Tenniel most
excels--whether in those ingenious parables in which the British Lion
and the Russian Bear, John Chinaman, Jacques Bonhomme and Uncle Sam
play their part--or in the ever-changing scenes of the great
parliamentary Comedy--or in sombre dramas of Anarchy, Famine or
Crime--or in those London extravaganzas in which the symbolic
personalities of Gog and Magog, Father Thames and the Fog Fiend, the
duke of Mudford and Mr Punch himself, have become familiar. Subjects
similar to these have been treated also for many years by Mr Linley
Sambourne in his fanciful and often beautiful designs. In the field of
humorous portraiture also, as in cartoon-designing, Mr Sambourne has
made his mark, and he may be said almost to have originated, in a
small way, that practice of illustrating the doings of parliament with
comic sketches in which Mr Furniss, Mr E.T. Reed and Sir F.C. Gould
were his most notable successors. Mr Furniss satirized the Royal
Academy as effectively as the Houses of Parliament, but he has been
above all the illustrator of parliament--the creator of Mr Gladstone's
collars, the thief of Lord Randolph Churchill's inches, the
immortalizer of so many otherwise obscure politicians who has worked
the House of Commons and its doings into so many hundreds of eccentric
designs. But Mr Furniss was never, like Sir F.C. Gould (of the
_Westminster Gazette_), a politician first and a caricaturist
afterwards. Gould is an avowed partisan, and his caricatures became
the most formidable weapons of the Radical party. Caustic, witty and
telling, not specially well drawn, but drawn well enough--the
likenesses unfailingly caught and recognizable at a glance--his
"Picture Politics" won him a place unique in the ranks of
caricaturists. There is no evidence of such strenuousness in the work
of Mr E.T. Read (of _Punch_). In his parliamentary sketches, as in
his "Animal Land" and "Prehistoric Peeps," Mr Reed is a wholly
irresponsible humorist and parodist. One finds keen satire, however,
in those "Ready-made Coats of Arms," in which he turned at once his
heraldic lore and his insight into character to excellent account. In
his more serious picture in which he has drawn a parallel between the
_tricoteuses_ awaiting with grim enjoyment the fall of the guillotine
and those modern English gentlewomen who flock to the Old Bailey as to
the play, we have the true Hogarthian touch. Mr Gunning King, Mr F.H.
Townshend, Mr C.E. Brock, Mr Tom Browne, are among the younger
humorists who have advanced to the front rank. Though there have been
some notable competitors with _Punch_, there has never been a really
"good second." In Matt Morgan the _Tomahawk_ (1865-1867) could boast
an original cartoonist after Tenniel's style, but without Tenniel's
power and humour. Morgan's _Tomahawk_ cartoons gained in effect from
an ingenious method of printing in two colours. In Fred Barnard, W.G.
Baxter, and Mr J.F. Sullivan, _Judy_ (founded in 1867) possessed a
trio of pictorial humorists of the first rank, and in W. Bowcher a
political cartoonist thoroughly to the taste of those hot and strong
Conservatives to whom _Punch's_ faint Whiggery was but Radicalism in
disguise. His successor, Mr William Parkinson, was not less loyal to
Tory ideas, though more urbane in his methods. _Fun_ has had
cartoonists of high merit in Mr Gordon Thomson and in Mr John Proctor,
who worked also for _Moonshine_ (founded in 1879, now extinct).
_Moonshine_ afterwards enlisted the services of Alfred Bryan, to whose
clever pencil the Christmas number of the _World_ was indebted for
many years. _Ally Sloper_, founded in 1884, is notable only as the
widely circulated medium for W.G. Baxter's wild humours, kept up in
the same spirit by Mr W.F. Thomas, his successor. _Pick-me-up_ could
once count a staff which rivalled at least the social side of _Punch_;
Mr Raven-Hill, Phil May, Mr Maurice Greiffenhagen and Mr Dudley Hardy
all contributed in their time to its sprightly pages, while Mr S.H.
Sime made it the vehicle for his "squint-brained" imaginings. The
_Will o' the Wisp_, the _Butterfly_ and the _Unicorn_, kindred
ventures, though on different lines, all met with an early death.
_Lika Joko_, founded in 1894 by Mr Harry Furniss, who in that year
abandoned _Punch_, and afterwards _Fair Game_, were also short-lived.
To this brief list of purely comic or satirical journals should be
added the names of several daily and weekly publications--and among
monthlies the _Idler_, with its caricatures by Mr Scott Rankin, Mr
Sime and Mr Beerbohm--which have made a special feature of humorous
art. Among these are the _Graphic_, whose Christmas numbers were first
brightened by Randolph Caldecott; the _Daily Graphic_, enlivened
sometimes by Phil May and Mr A.S. Boyd; _Vanity Fair_, with its
grotesque portraits; _Truth_, to whose Christmas numbers Sir F.C.
Gould contributed some of his best and most ambitious work, printed in
colours; the _Sketch_, with Phil May and others; _Black and White_,
with Mr Henry Meyer; the _Pall Mall Gazette_, first with Sir F.C.
Gould, and later with Mr G.R. Halkett. The _St Stephen's Review_,
whose crudely powerful cartoons, the work of Tom Merry, were so
popular, ceased publication in 1892. A tribute should be paid in
conclusion to the coloured cartoons of the _Weekly Freeman_ and other
Irish papers, often remarkable for their humour and talent. (See also
CARTOON and ILLUSTRATION.)