Chapter XV: Part 15

_France_.--In that peculiar branch of art which is based on irony,
fun, oddity and wit, and in which Honore Daumier (1808-1879), next to
"Gavarni" (1804-1866), remains the undisputed master, France--as has
already been shown--can produce an unbroken series of draughtsmen of
strong individuality. Though "Cham" died in 1879, Eugene Giraud in
1881, "Randon" in 1884, "Andre Gill" in 1885, "Marcelin" in 1887,
Edouard de Beaumont in 1888, Lami in 1891, Alfred Grevin in 1892, and
"Stop" in 1899, a new group arose under the leadership of "Nadar" (b.
1820) and Etienne Carjat (b. 1828). Mirthful or satirical, and less
philosophical than of yore, neglecting history for incident, and
humanity for the puppets of the day, their drawings, which illustrate
daily events, will perpetuate the manner and anecdotes of the time,
though the illustrations to newspapers, or prints which need a
paragraph of explanation, show nothing to compare with the _Propos de
Thomas Virelocque_ by "Gavarni." Quantity perhaps makes up for
quality, and some of these artists deserve special mention. "Draner"
(b. 1833) and "Henriot" (b. 1857) are journalists, carrying on the
method first introduced by "Cham" in the _Univers Illustre_: realistic
sketches, with no purpose beyond the droll illustration of facts,
amusing at the time, but of no value to the print-collector. M. J.L.
Forain, born at Reims in 1852, studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts
under Jean Leon Gerome and J.B. Carpeaux. He first worked for the
_Courrier Francais_ in 1887, and afterwards for _Figaro_; he was then
drawn into the polemical work of politics. Though he has created some
great types of flunkeydom, the explanatory story is more to him than
the picture, which is often too sketchy, though masterly. Reduced
reproductions of his work have been issued in volumes, a common form
of popularity never attempted with Daumier's fine lithographs. M. A.L.
Willette, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1857, a son of Colonel
Willette, the aide-de-camp to Marshal Bazaine, worked for four years
in Alexandre Cabanel's studio, and so gained an artistic training
which alone would have distinguished him from his fellows, even
without the delightful poetical fancy and Watteau-like grace which are
somewhat unexpected amid the ugliness of modern life. His work has
the value, no doubt, of deep and various meaning, but it has also
intrinsic artistic worth. M. Willette is, in fact, the ideal
delineator of the more voluptuous and highly spiced aspects of
contemporary life. "Caran d'Ache," a native of Moscow, born in 1858,
borrowed from the German caricaturists--mainly from W. Busch--his
methods of illustrating "a story without words." He makes fun even of
animals, and is a master of canine physiognomy. His simple and
unerring outline is a method peculiarly his own; now and again his wit
rises to grandiloquence, as in his _Bellona_, rushing on an automobile
through massacre and conflagrations, and in his _Epopee_ (Epic) of
shadows thrown on a sheet. Among his followers may be included A.
Guillaume and Gerbault. M.C.L. Leandre, born at Champsecret (Orne), in
1862, is, like "Andre Gill," a draughtsman of monstrosities; he can
get a perfect likeness of a face while exaggerating some particular
feature, gives his figure a hump-back, as Dantan did in his
statuettes, and has a facial dexterity which sometimes does scant
justice to his very original wit. At the same time he has a true sense
of beauty. M. Theophile A. Steinlen, born at Lausanne in 1859, went to
Paris in 1881. He should be studied in his illustrations to _Bruant_.
He knows the inmost core of the Butte-Montmartre, and depicts it with
realistic and brutal relish. M. Albert Robida, born at Compiegne in
1848, collaborated with Decaux in 1871 to found _La Caricature_; he is
a paradoxical seer of the possible future and a curiosity-hunter of
the past. Old Paris has no secrets from him; he knows all the old
stones and costumes of the middle ages, and has illustrated Rabelais;
and for fertility of fancy he reminds us of Gustave Dore, but with a
sense of movement so vibrant as to be almost distressing. "Bac," born
at Vienna in 1859, has infused a strain of the Austrian woman into the
Parisienne; representing her merely as a pleasure- and love-seeking
creature, as the toy of an evening, he has recorded her peccadilloes,
her witcheries and her vices. Others who have shot folly as it flies
are M. Albert Guillaume, who illustrated the Exhibition of 1900 in a
series of remarkable silhouettes; "Mars"; "Henri Somm"; Gerbault; and
Grun. M. Huard depicts to perfection the country townsfolk in their
elementary psychology. M. Hermann Paul, M. Forain's not unworthy
successor on the _Figaro_, is a cruel satirist, who in a single face
can epitomize a whole class of society, and could catalogue the actors
of the _comedie humaine_ in a series of drawings. M. Jean Veber loves
fantastic subjects, the gnomes of fairy-tales and myths; but he has a
biting irony for contemporary history, as in the _Butcher's Shop_,
where Bismarck is the blood-stained butcher. M. Abel Faivre, a refined
and charming painter, is a whimiscal humorist with the pencil. He
shows us monstrous women, fabulously hideous, drawing them with a sort
of realism which is droll by sheer ugliness. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
startles us by extraordinary dislocations, scrawled limbs and
inexplicable anatomy; he has left an inimitable series of sketches of
Mme Yvette Guilbert when she was at her thinnest. M. Felix Vallotton
reproduces crows in blots of black with a Japanese use of the brush.
M. G. Jeanniot, a notable illustrator, sometimes amuses himself by
contributing to _Le Rire, Le Sourire, Le Pompon, L'Assiette au
Beurre_, &c., drawing the two types he most affects: the fashionable
world and soldiers. M. Ibels, Capiello and many more might be
enumerated, but it is impossible to chronicle all the clever humorous
artists of the illustrated papers.

It is the frequent habit of French caricaturists to employ a
_nom-de-guerre_. We therefore give here a list of the genuine names
represented by the pseudonyms used above, together with others
familiar to the public:--

"Andre Gill" = L.A. Gosset de Guine (1840-1885).
"Bac" ("Cab" and
"Saro") = Ferdinand Bach (b. 1859).
"Caran d'Ache" = Emmanuel Poire.
"Cham" = Comte Amedee de Noe (b. 1818).
"Crafty" = Victor Gerusez (b. 1840).
"Draner" (and "Paf") = Jules Renard (b. 1833).
"Faustin" = Faustin Betbeder (b. 1847).
"Gavarni" = S.G. Chevalier (1804-1866).
"Gedeon" = Gedeon Baril (b. 1832).
"Grandville" = J.I.I. Gerard (1803-1847).
"Henriot" (and "Piff") = Henri Maigrot (b. 1857).
"Henri Somm" = Henri Sommier (b. 1844).
"Job" = J.O. de Breville (b. 1858).
"Marcelin" = Emile Planat (1825-1887).
"Mars" = Maurice Bonvoisin (b. 1849).
"Moloch" = Colomb (b. 1849).
"Montbard" = C.A. Loye (1841-1905).
"Nadar" = Felix Tournachon (b. 1820).
"Pasquin" = Georges Coutan (b. 1853).
"Pepin" = Ed. Guillaume (b. 1842).
"Randon" = Gilbert (1814-1845).
"Sahib" = L.E. Lesage (b. 1847).
"Said" = Alphonse Levy (b. 1845).
"Sem" = George Goursat.
"Stop" = L.P. Morel-Retz (b. 1825).

_Germany_.--During the later 19th century German caricature flourished
principally in the comic papers _Kladderadatsch_ of Berlin and
_Fliegende Blatter_ of Munich; the former a political paper with
little artistic value, in which the ideas alone are clever, whilst
the illustrations are merely a more or less clumsy adjunct to the
text, while the _Fliegende Blatter_, on the contrary, has artistic
merit as well as wit. Wilhelm Busch (b. 1832), the most brilliant
German draughtsman of the last generation, made his _debut_ with an
illustrated poem "The Peasant and the Miller," and won a world-wide
reputation with the following works: _Pater Filucius, Die Fromme
Helene, Max und Moritz, Der heilige Antonius, Maler Kleksel, Balduin
Bahlamm, Die Erlebnisse Knopps des Junggesellen_. Busch stands alone
among the caricaturists of his nation, inasmuch as he is both the
author and the illustrator of these works, his witty doggerel
supplying Germany with household words. The drawings that accompany
the text are amazing for the skill and directness with which he hits
the vital mark. A flourish or two and a few touches are enough to set
before us figures of intensely comical aspect. This distinguishes
Busch from Adolf Oberlander (1845), who became the chief draughtsman
on _Fliegende Blatter_. Busch's drawings would have no meaning apart
from the humorous words. Oberlander works with the pencil only. Men,
animals, trees, objects, are endowed by him with a mysterious life of
their own. Without the help of any verbal joke, he achieves the
funniest results simply by seeing and accentuating the comical side of
everything. His drawings are caricature in the strict sense of the
word, its principle being the exaggeration of some natural
characteristic. The new generation of contributors to _Fliegende
Blatter_ do not work on these lines. Busch and Oberlander were both
offshoots of the romantic school; they made fun of modern novelties.
Hermann Schlittgen, Meggendorfer, H. Vogel-Plauen, Rene Reinicke,
Adolf Hengeler and Fritz Wahle are the sons of a self-satisfied time,
triumphing in its own _chic_, elegance and grace; hence they do not
parody what they see, but simply depict it. The wit lies exclusively
in the text; the illustrations aim merely at a direct representation
of street or drawing-room scenes. It is this which gives to _Fliegende
Blatter_ its value as a pictorial record of the history of German
manners. Its pages are a permanent authority on the subject for those
who desire to see the social aspects of Germany during the last
quarter of the 19th century onwards. At the same time a falling-off in
the brilliancy of this periodical was perceptible. Its fun became
domestic and homely; it has faithfully adhered to the old technique of
wood-engraving, and made no effort to keep pace with the modern
methods of reproduction. German caricature, to live and flourish, was
not keeping pace with the development of the art; it had to take into
its service the gay effects of colour, and derive fresh inspiration
from the sweeping lines of the ornamental draughtsman. This led to the
appearance of three new weekly papers: _Jugend, Das Narrenschiff_ and
_Simplicissimus_. _Jugend_, started in 1896 by Georg Hirth in Munich,
collected from the first a group of gifted young artists, more
especially Thony, Bernhard Pankok and Julius Diez, who based their
style on old German wood-engraving; Fidus, who lavished the utmost
beauty of line in unshaded pen-and-ink work; Rudolf Wilke, whose
grotesques have much in common with Forain's clever drawings; Angelo
Jank and R.M. Eichler, who work with a delightful _bonhomie_. Among
the draughtsmen on the _Narrenschiff_ (The Ship of Fools), Hans
Baluschek is worthy of mention as having made the types of Berlin life
all his own; and while this paper gives us for the most part
inoffensive satire on society, _Simplicissimus_, first printed at
Munich and then at Zurich, under the editorship of Albert Langen,
shows a marked Socialist and indeed Anarchist tendency, subjecting to
ridicule and mockery everything that has hitherto been held as
unassailable by such weapons; it reminds us of the scathing satire of
Honore Daumier in _La Caricature_ at the time of Louis Philippe.
Thomas Theodor Heine (1867) is unsurpassed in this style for his power
of expression and variety of technique. We must admire his delicate
draughtsmanship, or again, his drawing of the figure with the heavy
line of heraldic ornament, and his broad and monumental grasp of the
grotesque. His laughter is often insolent, but he is more often the
preacher, scourge in hand, who ruthlessly unveils all the dark side of
life. Next to him come Paul, an incomparable limner of student life
and the manners and customs of the Bavarian populace; E. Thony, a
wonderfully clever caricaturist of the airs and assumption of the
Prussian _Junker_ and the Prussian subaltern; J.C. Eugh and F. von
Regnieck, who make fun of the townsman and political spouter in biting
and searching satire. The standard of caricature is at the present
time a high one in Germany; indeed, the modern adoption of the
pen-line, which has arisen since the impressionists in oil-painting
repudiated line, had its origin in the influence of caricature.

_United States._--The proverbial irreverence of the American mind even
towards its most cherished personages and ideals has made it
particularly responsive to the appeal of caricature. At first an
importation, it developed but slowly; then it burst into luxuriant
growth, sometimes exceeding the limits of wise and careful
cultivation. In the early period of American caricature, almost the
only native is F.O.C. Darley (1822-1888), an illustrator of some
importance; the other names include the engraver Paul Revere (chiefly
famous for a picturesque exploit in the War of Independence); a
Scotsman, William Charles; the Englishmen, Matt Morgan and E.P.
Bellew; and the Germans, Thomas Nast and Joseph Keppler.

The name of Thomas Nast overshadows and sums up American political
caricature. Nast, who was born in Bavaria in 1840, was brought to
America at the age of six; and his training and all his interests were
strongly American. At fourteen he was an illustrator on _Leslie's
Weekly_, and was sent at twenty to England to illustrate the famous
Sayers-Heenan prize-fight. He then went as recorder of Garibaldi's
campaign of 1860. He returned to America known only as an illustrator.
The Civil War did not awaken his latent genius till 1864, when he
published a cartoon of fierce irony against the political party which
opposed Lincoln's re-election and advocated peace measures with the
Southern confederacy. This cartoon not only made Nast famous, but may
be said to contain the germ of American caricature; for all that had
gone before was too crude in technique to pass muster even as good
caricature.

The magnificent corruption of Tammany Hall under the leadership of
William M. Tweed, the first of the great municipal "bosses," gave Nast
a subject worth attacking. Siegfried, earnest but light-hearted, armed
with the mightier sword of the pen of ridicule, assailed the monster
ensconced in his treasure-cave, and after a long battle won a
brilliant victory. Nast did not always rely on a mere picture to carry
his thrust; often his cartoon consisted of only a minor figure or two
looking at a large placard on which a long and poignantly-worded
attack was delivered in cold type. At other times the most ingenious
pictorial subtlety was displayed. This long series sounds almost the
whole gamut of caricature, from downright ridicule to the most lofty
denunciation. A very happy device was the representation of Tweed's
face by a money-bag with only dollar marks for features, a device
which, strangely enough, made a curiously faithful likeness of the
"boodle"-loving despot. When, finally, Tweed took to flight, to escape
imprisonment, he was recognized and caught, it is said, entirely
through the wide familiarity given to his image in Nast's cartoons.

When Nast retired from _Harper's Weekly_, he was succeeded by Charles
Green Bush (born 1842; died 1909). With even greater technical
resources, he poured forth a series of cartoons of remarkable evenness
of skill and interest; he soon left weekly for daily journalism. He
never won, single-handed, such a battle as Nast's, but his drawings
have a more general, perhaps a more lasting interest. When he left
_Harper's Weekly_ he was succeeded by W.A. Rogers, who composed many
ingenious and telling cartoons.

The vogue which, through Nast, _Harper's Weekly_ gave to caricature,
prepared the way for the first purely comic weekly paper, _Puck_,
founded by two Germans, and for long published in a German as well as
an English edition--a journal which has cast its influence generally
in favour of the Democratic party. It is worth noting that not only
the founders but the spirit of American caricature have been rather
German than English, the American comic papers more closely resembling
_Fliegende Blatter_, for example, than _Punch._ One of the founders of
_Puck_ was Joseph Keppler (1838-1894), long its chief caricaturist.

The Republican party soon found a champion in _Judge_, a weekly
satirical paper which resembles _Puck_ closely in its crudely coloured
pages, though somewhat broader and less ambitious in the spirit and
execution of its black-and-white illustrations. These two papers have
kept rather strictly to permanent staffs, and have furnished the
opening for many popular draughtsmen, such as Bernhard Gillam (d.
1896), and his brother, Victor; J.A. Wales (d. 1886); E. Zimmerman,
whose extremely plebeian and broadly treated types often obscure the
observation and Falstaffian humour displayed in them; Grant Hamilton;
Frederick Opper, for many years devoted to the trials of suburban
existence, and later concerned in combating the trusts; C.J. Taylor, a
graceful technician; H. Smith; Frank A. Nankivell, whose pretty
athletic girls are prone to attitudinizing; J. Mortimer Flagg; F.M.
Howarth; Mrs Frances O'Neill Latham, whose personages are singularly
well modelled and alive; and Miss Baker Baker, a skilful draughtswoman
of animals.

A stimulus to genuine art in caricature was given by the establishment
(1883) of the weekly _Life_, edited by J.A. Mitchell, a clever
draughtsman as well as an original writer. It is to this paper that
America owes the discovery and encouragement of its most remarkable
artist humorist, Charles Dana Gibson, whose technique has developed
through many interesting phases from exceeding delicacy to a
sculpturesque boldness of line without losing its rich texture, and
without becoming monotonous. Mr Gibson is chiefly beloved by his
public for his almost idolatrous realizations of the beautiful
American woman of various types, ages and environments. His works are,
however, full of the most subtle character-observations, and American
men of all walks of life, and foreigners of every type, impart as much
importance and humour to his pages as his "Gibson girls" give
radiance. His admitted devotion to Du Maurier, in reverence for the
beautiful woman beautifully attired, has led some critics to set him
down as a mere disciple, while his powerful individuality has led
others to accuse him of monotony; but a serious examination of his
work has seemed to reveal that he has gone beyond the genius of Du
Maurier in sophistication, if not in variety, of subjects and
treatment. As much as any other artist Mr Gibson has studiously tried
new experiments in the new fields opened by modernized processes of
photo-engraving, and has been an important influence in both English
and American line-illustration.

Among other students of society, particular success has been achieved
by C.S. Reinhart (1844-1896), Charles Howard Johnson (d. 1895), H.W.
M'Vickar, S.W. van Schaick, A.E. Sterner, W.H. Hyde, W.T. Smedley and
A.B. Wenzell, each of them strongly individual in manner and often
full of _verve_ and truth.

_Life_, and other comic papers, including for many years _Truth_, also
brought forward caricaturists of distinct worth and a marked tendency
to specialization. F.E. Atwood (d. 1900) was ingenious in cartoons
lightly allegorical; Oliver Herford has shown a fascination elusive of
analysis in his drawings as in his verse; T.S. Sullivant has made a
quaintly intellectual application of the old-world devices of large
heads, small bodies, and the like; Peter Newell has developed
individuality both in treatment and in humour; E.W. Kemble is
noteworthy among the exploiters of negro life; and H.B. Eddy, Augustus
Dirk, Robert L. Wagner, A. Anderson, F. Sarka and J. Swinnerton have
all displayed marked individuality.

In distinction from the earlier period, the modern school of American
caricature is strongly national, not only in subject, but in origin,
training and in mental attitude, exception being made of a few notable
figures, such as Michael Angelo Woolf, born in England, and of a
somewhat Cruikshankian technique. He came to America while young, and
contributed a long series of what may be called slum-fantasies,
instinct alike with laughter and sorrow, at times strangely combining
extravagant melodrama with a most plausible and convincing
impossibility. His drawings must always lie very close to the
affections of the large audience that welcomed them. American also by
adoption is Henry Mayer, a German by birth, who has contributed to
many of the chief comic papers of France, England, Germany and
America.

Entirely native in every way is the art of A.B. Frost (b. 1851), a
prominent humorist who deals with the life of the common people. His
caricature (he is also an illustrator of versatility and importance)
is distinguished by its anatomical knowledge, or, rather, anatomical
imagination. Violent as the action of his figures frequently is, it is
always convincing. Such triumphs as the tragedy of the kind-hearted
man and the ungrateful bull-calf; the spinster's cat that ate rat
poison, and many others, force the most serious to laughter by their
amazing velocity of action and their unctuousness of expression. Frost
is to American caricature what "Artemus Ward" has been to American
humour, and his field of publication has been chiefly the monthly
magazine.

The influence of the weekly periodicals has been briefly traced. A
later development was the entrance of the omnivorous daily newspaper
into the field of both the magazine and the weekly. For many years
almost every newspaper has printed its daily cartoon, generally of a
political nature. Few of the cartoonists have been able to keep up the
pace of a daily inspiration, but C.G. Bush has been unusually
successful in the attempt. Yet an occasional success atones for many
slips, and the cartoonists are known and eagerly watched. The most
influential has doubtless been Homer C. Davenport, whose slender
artistic resources have been eked out by a vigour and mercilessness of
assault rare even in American annals. He has a Rabelaisian complacency
and skill in making a portrait magnificently repulsive, and his
caricatures are a vivid example of the school of cartoonists who
believe in slashing rather than merely prodding or tickling the object
of attack. Charles Nelan (1859-1904) frequently scored, and in the
wide extent of the United States one finds keen wits busily assailing
the manifold evils of life. Noteworthy among them are: Thos. E.
Powers, H.R. Heaton, Albert Levering, Clare Angell and R.C. Swayne.

_Scandinavia._--Caricature flourishes also in the Scandinavian
countries, but few names are known beyond their borders. Professor
Hans Tegner of Denmark is an exception; his illustrations to Hans
Andersen (English edition, 1900) have carried his name wherever that
author is appreciated, yet his reputation was made in the Danish
_Punch_, which was founded after the year 1870 but has long ceased to
exist. Alfred Schmidt and Axel Thiess have contributed notable
sketches to _Puk_ and its successor _Klockhaus_, but in point of style
they scarcely carry on the tradition of their predecessor, Fritz
Jurgensen. Among humorous artists of Norway, Th. Kittelsen perhaps
holds the leading place, and in Sweden, Bruno Liljefors, best known as
a brilliant painter of bird life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Rules for Drawing Caricature, with an Essay on Comic
Painting_, by Francis Grose (8vo, London, 1788); _Historical Sketch of
the Art of Caricaturing_, by J. Peller Malcolm (4to, London, 1813);
_History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art_, by Thomas
Wright (8vo, London, 1865); _Musee de la caricature_, by Jaime; (a)
_Histoire de la caricature antique_; (b) _Histoire de la caricature au
moyen age et sous la renaissance_; (c) _Histoire de la caricature sous
la reforme et la ligue_; (d) _Histoire de la caricature sous la
republique, l'empire, et la restauration_; (e) _Histoire de la
caricature moderne_ (5 vols.), by Champfleury (i.e. Jules Fleury),
(8vo, Paris); _Le Musee secret de la caricature_, by Champfleury (i.e.
Jules Fleury), (8vo, Paris); _L'Art du rire et de la caricature_, by
Arsene Alexandre (8vo, Paris); _Caricature and other Comic Art_, by
James Parton (sm. 4to, New York, 1878); _Le Miroir de la vie: la
Caricature_, by Robert de la Sizeranne (8vo, Paris, 1902), (tracing
the aesthetic development of the art and spirit of caricature); _La
Caricature a travers les siecles_, by Georges Veyrat (4to, Paris); _La
Caricature et les caricaturistes_, by Emile Bagaud (with a preface by
Ch. Leandre), (fo., Paris); _Le Rire et la caricature_, by Paul
Gaultier (with a preface by Sully Prudhomme), (8vo, Paris, 1906), (a
work of originality, dwelling not only on the aesthetic but on the
essentially pessimistic side of satiric art); _English Caricaturists
and Graphic Humorists of the Nineteenth Century_, by Graham Everitt
(i.e. William Rodgers Richardson), (4to, London, 1886), (a careful and
interesting survey); _La Caricature en Angleterre_, by Augustin Filva
(8vo, Paris, 1902), (an able criticism from the point of view of
psycho-sociology); _The History of Punch_, by M.H. Spielmann (8vo,
London, 1895), (dealing with caricature art of England during the
half-century covered by the book); _Magazine of Art_, passim, for
biographies of English caricaturists--"Our Graphic Humorists"; _Social
Pictorial Satire_, by George du Maurier (12mo, London, 1898); _Les
Moeurs et la caricature en France_, by J. Grand-Carteret (8vo, Paris,
1885); _La Caricature et l'humeur francais au XIXe siecle_, by Raoul
Deberdt (8vo, Paris); _Les Maitres de la caricature francaise en XIXe
siecle_, by Armand Dayot (Paris); _Nos humoristes_, by Ad. Brisson
(4to, Paris, 1900); _Les Moeurs et la caricature en Allemagne, &c._,
by J. Grand-Carteret (8vo, Paris, 1885). See also biographies of
Charles Keene, H. Daumier, John Leech, &c., indicated under those
names. (M. H. S.)

CARIGARA, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, on Carigara Bay, 22 m. W. of Tacloban, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,488, including that of Capoocan (3106), annexed to Carigara in the same year. Carigara is open to coast trade, exports large quantities of hemp, raises much rice, and manufactures cotton and abaca fabrics. It also has important fisheries.

CARIGNANO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin, 11 m. S. by steam tramway from the town of Turin. Pop. (1901) town, 4672, commune, 7104. It has a handsome church (S. Giovanni Battista) erected in 1756-1766 by the architect Benedetto Alfieri di Sostegno (1700-1767), uncle of the poet Alfieri. S. Maria delle Grazie contains the tomb of Bianca Palaeologus, wife of Duke Charles I. of Savoy, at whose court Bayard was brought up. The town passed into the hands of the counts of Savoy in 1418.

Carignano was erected by Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy into a principality as an appanage for his third son, Thomas Francis (1596-1656), whose descendant, Charles Albert, prince of Carignano, became king of Sardinia on the extinction of the elder line of the house of Savoy with the death of Charles Felix in 1831. The house of Carignano developed two junior branches, those of Soissons and Villafranca. The first of these, which became extinct in 1734, was founded by Eugene Maurice, second son of Thomas, by his wife Marie de Conde, countess of Soissons, who received his mother's countship as his appanage. In 1662 the town of Yvois in the Ardennes was raised by Louis XIV. into a duchy in his favour, its name being changed at the same time to Carignan. The famous Prince Eugene was the second son of the first duke of Carignan. The branch of Villafranca started with Eugene Marie Louis (d. 1785), second son of Louis Victor of Carignano, whose grandson Eugene (1816-1888), afterwards an admiral in the Italian navy, was created prince of Savoy-Carignano, by King Charles Albert in 1834. He had contracted a morganatic marriage, and in 1888, on the occasion of his silver wedding, the title of countess of Villafranca was bestowed upon his wife, his eldest son, Filiberto, being at the same time created count of Villafranca, and his younger son, Vittorio, count of Soissons.

CARILLON, an arrangement for playing tunes upon a set of bells by mechanical means. The word is said to be a Fr. form of Late Lat. or Ital. _quadriglio_, a simple dance measure on four notes or for four persons (Lat. _quattuor_); and is used sometimes for the tune played, sometimes (and more commonly in England) for the set of bells used in playing it. The earliest medieval attempts at bell music, as distinct from mere noise, seem to have consisted in striking a row of small bells by hand with a hammer, and illustrations in MSS. of the 12th and 13th centuries show this process on three, four or even eight bells. The introduction of mechanism in the form either of a barrel (see BARREL-ORGAN) set with pegs or studs and revolving in connexion with the machinery of a clock, or of a keyboard struck by hand (_carillon a clavier_), made it possible largely to increase the number of bells and the range of harmonies. In Belgium, the home of the _carillon_ the art of the _carillonneur_ was at one time brought to great perfection and held in high esteem (see BELL); but even there it is gradually giving way to mechanism. In England manual skill has never been much employed, though keyboards on the continental model have been introduced, e.g. at the Manchester town hall, at Eaton Hall, and elsewhere; carillon music being mainly confined to hymn tunes at regular intervals (generally three hours), or chimes at the hours and intervening quarters. The "Cambridge" and "Westminster" chimes are very familiar; and more recently chimes have been composed by Sir John Stainer for Freshwater in the Isle of Wight ("Tennyson" Chimes), and by Sir Charles Stanford for "Bow Bells" in London.

CARINI, a town in the province of Palermo, Sicily, 13 m. by rail W.N.W. of Palermo. Pop. (1901) 13,931. On the coast are some ruins of the ancient _Hyccara_, the only Sican settlement (probably a fishing village) on the coast. It was stormed and taken by the Athenians in 415 B.C., and the inhabitants, among them the famous courtesan Lais, sold as slaves. At La Grazia Christian catacombs have been found (_Not. degli Scavi_, 1899, 362).

CARINTHIA (Ger. _Karnten_), a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Styria, N. by Styria and Salzburg, W. by Tirol, and S. by Italy, Gorz and Gradisca and Carniola. It has an area of 4005 sq. m. Carinthia is for the most part a mountainous region, divided by the Drave, which traverses it from west to east into two parts. To the north of the valley of the Drave the duchy is occupied by the Hohe Tauern and the primitive Alps of Carinthia and Styria, which belong to the central zone of the Eastern Alps. The Hohe Tauern contains the massifs of the Gross Glockner (12,455 ft.); the Hochnarr (10,670 ft.) and the Ankogel (11,006 ft.), and is traversed by the saddles of the Hochthor and the Malnitzer Tauern, which separates these groups from one another. To the east of the Hohe Tauern stretches the group of the primitive Alps of Carinthia and Styria, namely the Pollaer Alps with the glacier-covered peak of the Hafner Eck (10,041 ft.); the Stang Alps with the highest peak the Eisenhut (8007 ft.); the Saualpe with the highest peak the Grosse Saualpe (6825 ft.); and finally the Koralpen chain or the Stainzer Alps (7023 ft.) separated from the preceding group by the Lavant valley. The country south of the Drave is occupied by several groups of the southern limestone zone, namely the Carnic Alps, the Julian Alps, the Karawankas and the Steiner Alps. The Carnic Alps are divided by the Gail valley into the South Carnic group and the northern Gailthal Alps. They are traversed by the Pontebba or Pontafel Pass, through which passes one of the principal Alpine roads from Italy to Austria. The road is covered by the fortress of Malborgeth, where Captain Hensel with a handful of men met with a heroic death defending the place against an overwhelming French force in the campaign of 1809. A similar fate overtook, on the same day, the 18th of May 1809, Captain Hermann von Hermannsdorf and his small garrison, who were defending the Predil fort. This fort covers the road which traverses the Predil Pass in the Julian Alps and is the principal road leading from Carinthia to the Coastland. Commemorative monuments have been erected in both places. The Gailthal Alps end with the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107 ft.), situated to the south-west of Villach (q.v.), which is celebrated as one of the finest views in the whole eastern Alps. South of Hermagor, the principal place of the Gail valley, is the chain of mountains which is famous as being the only place where the beautiful _Wulfenia Carinthiaca_ is found. The highest peaks in the Karawankas are the Grosse Mittagskogel (7033 ft.), the Och Obir (7023 ft.) and the Petzen (6934 ft.). The Ursula Berg (5563 ft.) ends the group of the Karawankas, which are continued by the Steiner Alps.

The principal river is the Drave, which flows from west to east through the length of the duchy, and receives in its course the waters of all the other streams, except the Fella, which reaches the Adriatic by its junction with the Tagliamento. Its principal tributaries are the Gail on the right, and the Moll, the Lieser, the Gurk with the Glan, and the Lavant on the left. Carinthia possesses a great number of Alpine lakes, which, unlike the other Alpine lakes, lie in the longitudinal valleys. The principal lakes are: the Millstatter-see (8-1/2 sq. m. in extent, 908 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1902 ft.), the Worther-see (17 sq. m. in extent, 212 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1438 ft.), the Ossiach-see (10-1/2 sq. m. in extent, 150 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1599 ft.), and the elongated Weissen-see (4-1/2 m. long, 309 ft. deep, at an altitude of 3037 ft.).

The climate is severe in the north and north-west parts, but the south and south-east districts are milder, while the most favoured part is the Lavant valley. Of the total area only 13.71% is arable land, 10.50% is occupied by meadows and gardens, 5.18% by pastures, while 44.24% is covered by forests, almost exclusively pine-forests. Cattle-rearing is well developed, and the horses bred in Carinthia enjoy a good reputation. The mineral wealth of Carinthia is great, and consists in lead, iron, zinc and coal. Iron ore is extracted in the region of the Saualpe, and is worked in the foundries of St Leonhard, St Gertraud, Pravali, Hirt, Treibach and Eberstein. About two-thirds of the total production of lead in Austria is extracted in Carinthia, the principal places being Bleiberg and Raibl. The metallurgic industries are well developed, and consist in the production of iron, steel, machinery, small-arms, lead articles, wire-cables and rails. The principal manufacturing places are Pravali, Bruckl, Klagenfurt, Lippitzbach, Wolfsberg, St Veit and Buchscheiden near Feldkirchen. The manufacture of small-arms is concentrated at Ferlach. Other trades are the manufacture of paper, leather, cement and the exploitation of forests.

The population of Carinthia in 1900 was 367,344, which corresponds to 91 inhabitants per sq. m. According to nationality, 71.54% were Germans, and 28.39% Slovenes, mostly settled in the districts adjoining the Slovene province of Carniola. Over 94% of the population were Roman Catholics. The local diet, of which the bishop of Gurk is a member _ex officio_, is composed of 37 members, and Carinthia sends 10 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided into seven districts, and an autonomous municipality, Klagenfurt (pop. 24,314), the capital. Other principal places are: Villach (9690), Wolfsberg (4852), St Veit (4667), an old town, the former capital of Carinthia up to 1518, Pravali (4047), Travis (3640), a favourite summer-resort and tourist place, Bleiberg (3435), Volkermarkt (2606) and Spittal (2564).

Carinthia is so called from the Carni, a Celtic people, and in the time of Augustus it formed part of Noricum. After the fall of the Roman empire, it was the nucleus of the kingdom of Carentania, which was founded by Samo, a Frankish adventurer, but soon fell to pieces after his death. Under Charlemagne it constituted a margravate, which in 843 passed into the hands of Louis the German, whose grandson Arnulf was the first to bear the title of duke of Carinthia. The duchy was held by various families during the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, and at length in 1335 was bestowed by Louis the Bavarian on the dukes of Austria. It was divided into Upper or Western Carinthia and Lower or Eastern; of these the former fell to France in 1809, but was reconquered in 1813. It was created a separate crownland in 1849.

See Aelschker. _Geschichte Karntens_ (Klagenfurt, 1885).

CARINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, A.D. 283-284, was the elder son of the emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor of the western portion of the empire. He fought with success against the German tribes, but soon left the defence of the Upper Rhine to his legates and returned to Rome, where he abandoned himself to all kinds of debauchery and excess. He also celebrated the _ludi Romani_ on a scale of unexampled magnificence. After the death of Carus, the army in the East demanded to be led back to Europe, and Numerianus, the younger son of Carus, was forced to comply. During a halt at Chalcedon, Numerianus was murdered, and Diocletian, commander of the body-guards, was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. Carinus at once left Rome and set out for the East to meet Diocletian. On his way through Pannonia he put down the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, and encountered the army of Diocletian in Moesia. Carinus was successful in several engagements, and at the battle on the Margus (Morava), according to one account, the valour of his troops had gained the day, when he was assassinated by a tribune whose wife he had seduced. In another account, the battle is represented as having resulted in a complete victory for Diocletian. Carinus has the reputation of having been one of the worst of the emperors.

Vopiscus, _Carinus_ (mainly the recital of his crimes); Aurelius
Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 38, Epit. 38; Eutropius ix. 18-20; Zonaras
xii. 30; Orosius vii. 25; Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 24
ff. (Henze).

CARIPE, a small town of Venezuela in the state of Bermudez, about 53 m. E.S.E. of Cumana. It is the chief station of the Capuchin missions to the Chayma Indians, founded toward the close of the 17th century, and stands 2635 ft. above sea-level, in a fertile valley of the Sierra Bergantin, long celebrated for its cool, invigorating climate. The locality is also celebrated for the extensive system of caves in the limestone rocks found in its vicinity, which were described by Humboldt in his _Personal Narrative_. The principal cave, known as the Cueva del Guacharo, extends inward a distance of 2800 ft. with a height of 70-80 ft. These caves are frequented by a species of night-hawk, called _guacharo_, which nests in the recesses of the rocks. The young are killed in great numbers for their oil. Caripe itself has a population of only 580, but the valley and neighbouring stations have about ten times that number. Caripe should not be confounded with Rio Caribe, a town and port on the Caribbean coast a short distance east of Carupano, which has a population of about 6000.

CARISBROOKE, a town in the Isle of Wight, England, 1 m. S. of Newport. Pop. (1901) 3993. The valley of the Lugley brook separates the village from the steep conical hill crowned by the castle, the existence of which has given Carisbrooke its chief fame. There are remains of a Roman villa in the valley, but no reliable mention of Carisbrooke occurs in Saxon times, though it has commonly been identified with the Saxon _Wihtgaraburh_ captured by Cerdic in 530. Carisbrooke is not mentioned by name in the Domesday Survey, but Bowcombe, its principal manor, was a dependency of the royal manor of Amesbury, and was obtained from the king by William Fitz Osbern in exchange for three Wiltshire manors. The castle is mentioned in the Survey under Alvington, and was probably raised by William Fitz Osbern, who was made first lord of the Isle of Wight. From this date lordship of the Isle of Wight was always associated with ownership of the castle, which thus became the seat of government of the island. Henry I. bestowed it on Richard de Redvers, in whose family it continued until Isabella de Fortibus sold it to Edward I., after which the government was entrusted to wardens as representatives of the crown. The keep was added to the castle in the reign of Henry I., and in the reign of Elizabeth, when the Spanish Armada was expected, it was surrounded by an elaborate pentagonal fortification. The castle was garrisoned by Baldwin de Redvers for the empress Maud in 1136, but was captured by Stephen. In the reign of Richard II. it was unsuccessfully attacked by the French; Charles I. was imprisoned here for fourteen months before his execution. Afterwards his two youngest children were confined in the castle, and the Princess Elizabeth died there. In 1904 the chapel of St Nicholas in the castle was reopened and reconsecrated, having been rebuilt as a national memorial of Charles I. The remains of the castle are extensive and imposing, and the keeper's house and other parts are inhabited, but the king's apartments are in ruins. Within the walls is a well 200 ft. deep; and another in the centre of the keep is reputed to have been still deeper. The church of St Mary, Carisbrooke, has a beautiful Perpendicular tower, and contains transitional Norman portions. Only the site can be traced of the Cistercian priory to which it belonged. This was founded shortly after the Conquest and originated from the endowment which the monks of Lyre near Evreux held in Bowcombe, including the church, mill, houses, land and tithes of the manor. Richard II. bestowed it on the abbey of Mountgrace in Yorkshire. It was restored by Henry IV., but was dissolved by act of parliament in the reign of Henry V., who bestowed it on his newly-founded charter-house at Sheen. Carisbrooke formerly had a considerable market, several mills, and valuable fisheries, but it never acquired municipal or representative rights, and was important only as the site of the castle.

See _Victoria County History--Hampshire_; William Westall, _History of
Carisbrooke Castle_ (1850).

CARISSIMI, GIACOMO (c. 1604-1674), one of the most celebrated masters of the Italian, or, more accurately, the Roman school of music, was born about 1604 in Marino (near Rome). Of his life almost nothing is known. At the age of twenty he became chapel-master at Assisi, and in 1628 he obtained the same position at the church of St Apollinaris belonging to the Collegium Germanicum in Rome, which he held till his death on the 12th of January 1674, at Rome. He seems never to have left Italy. The two great achievements generally ascribed to him are the further development of the recitative, lately introduced by Monteverde, and of infinite importance in the history of dramatic music; and the invention of the chamber-cantata, by which Carissimi superseded the madrigals formerly in use. His position in the history of church music and vocal chamber music is somewhat similar to that of Cavalli in the history of opera. It is impossible to say who was really the inventor of the chamber-cantata; but Carissimi and Luigi Rossi were the composers who first made this form the vehicle for the most intellectual style of chamber-music, a function which it continued to perform until the death of Alessandro Scarlatti, Astorga and Marcello. Of his oratorios _Jephthah_ has been published by Novello & Co., and is well known; this work and others are important as definitely establishing the form of oratorio unaccompanied by dramatic action, which has maintained its hold to the present day. He also may claim the merit of having given greater variety and interest to the instrumental accompaniments of vocal compositions. Dr Burney and Sir John Hawkins published specimens of his compositions in their works on the history of music; and Dr Aldrich collected an almost complete set of his compositions, at present in the library of Christ Church, Oxford. The British Museum also possesses numerous valuable works by this great Italian master. Most of his oratorios are in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris.

CARLETON, WILLIAM (1794-1869), Irish novelist, was born at Prillisk, Clogher, Co. Tyrone, on the 4th of March 1794. His father was a tenant farmer, who supported a family of fourteen children on as many acres, and young Carleton passed his early life among scenes precisely similar to those he afterwards delineated with so much power and truthfulness. His father was remarkable for his extraordinary memory, and had a thorough acquaintance with Irish folklore; the mother was noted throughout the district for the sweetness of her voice. The beautiful character of Honor, the miser's wife, in _Fardorougha_, is said to have been drawn from her.

The education received by Carleton was of a very humble description. As his father removed from one small farm to another, he attended at various places the hedge-schools, which used to be a notable feature of Irish life. The admirable little picture of one of these schools is given in the sketch called "The Hedge School" included in _Traits and Stories of Irish Peasantry_. Most of his learning was gained from a curate named Keenan, who taught a classical school at Donagh (Co. Monaghan), which Carleton attended from 1814 to 1816. Before this Carleton had resolved to prosecute his education as a poor scholar at Munster, with a view to entering the church; but in obedience to a warning dream, the story of which is told in the _Poor Scholar_, he returned home, where he received the unbounded veneration of the neighbouring peasantry for his supposed wonderful learning. An amusing account of this phase of his existence is given in the little sketch, "Denis O'Shaughnessy." About the age of nineteen he undertook one of the religious pilgrimages then common in Ireland. His experiences as a pilgrim, narrated in "The Lough Derg Pilgrim," made him resign for ever the thought of entering the church, and he eventually became a Protestant. His vacillating ideas as to a mode of life were determined in a definite direction by the reading of _Gil Blas_. He resolved to cast himself boldly upon the world, and try what fortune had in store for him. He went to Killanny, Co Louth, and for six months acted as tutor in the family of a farmer named Piers Murphy, and after some other experiments he set out for Dublin, and arrived in the metropolis with 2s 9d. in his pocket. He first sought occupation as a bird-stuffer, but a proposal to use potatoes and meal as stuffing failed to recommend him. He then determined to become a soldier, but the colonel of the regiment in which he desired to enlist persuaded him--Carleton had applied in Latin--to give up the idea. He obtained some teaching and a clerkship in a Sunday School office, began to contribute to the journals, and his paper "The Pilgrimage to Lough Derg," which was published in the _Christian Examiner_, excited great attention. In 1830 appeared the first series of _Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry_ (2 vols.), which at once placed the author in the first rank of Irish novelists. A second series (3 vols.), containing, among other stories, "Tubber Derg, or the Red Well," appeared in 1833, and _Tales of Ireland_ in 1834. From that time till within a few years of his death Carleton's literary activity was incessant. "Fardorougha the Miser, or the Convicts of Lisnamona" appeared in 1837-1838 in the _Dublin University Magazine_. Among his other famous novels are: _Valentine McClutchy, the Irish Agent, or Chronicles of the Castle Cumber Property_ (3 vols., 1845); _The Black Prophet, a Tale of the Famine_, in the _Dublin University Magazine_ (1846), printed separately in the next year; _The Emigrants of Ahadarra_ (1847); _Willy Reilly and his dear Colleen Bawn_ (in _The Independent_, London, 1850); and _The Tithe Proctor_ (1849), the violence of which did his reputation harm among his own countrymen. Some of his later stories, _The Squanders of Castle Squander_ (1852) for instance, are defaced by the mass of political matter with which they are overloaded. In spite of his very considerable literary production Carleton remained poor, but his necessities were relieved in 1848 by a pension of L200 a year granted by Lord John Russell in response to a memorial on Carleton's behalf signed by numbers of distinguished persons in Ireland. He died at Sandford, Co. Dublin, on the 30th of January 1869.

Carleton's best work is contained in the _Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry_. He wrote from intimate acquaintance with the scenes he described; and he drew with a sure hand a series of pictures of peasant life, unsurpassed for their appreciation of the passionate tenderness of Irish home life, of the buoyant humour and the domestic virtues which would, under better circumstances, bring prosperity and happiness. He alienated the sympathies of many Irishmen, however, by his unsparing criticism and occasional exaggeration of the darker side of Irish character. He was in his own words the "historian of their habits and manners, their feelings, their prejudices, their superstitions and their crimes." (Preface to _Tales of Ireland_.)

During the last months of his life Carleton began an autobiography
which he brought down to the beginning of his literary career. This
forms the first part of _The Life of William Carleton_ ... (2 vols.,
1896), by D.J. O'Donoghue, which contains full information about lis
life, and a list of his scattered writings. A selection from his
stories (1889), in the "Camelot Series," has an introduction by Mr
W.B. Yeats. He must not be confused with Will Carleton (b. 1845), the
American author of _Farm Ballads_ (1873).

CARLETON PLACE, a town and port of entry of Lanark county, Ontario, Canada, 28 m. S.W. of Ottawa, on the Mississippi river, and at the junction of the main line and Brockville branch of the Canadian Pacific railway. It has abundant water-power privileges, and extensive railway-repair shops and woollen mills. Pop. (1901) 4059.

CARLILE, RICHARD (1790-1843), English freethinker, was born on the 8th of December 1790, at Ashburton, Devonshire, the son of a shoemaker. Educated in the village school, he was apprenticed to a tinman against whose harsh treatment he frequently rebelled. Having finished his apprenticeship, he obtained occupation in London as a journeyman tinman. Influenced by reading Paine's _Rights of Man_, he became an uncompromising radical, and in 1817 started pushing the sale of the _Black Dwarf_, a new weekly paper, edited by Jonathan Wooler, all over London, and in his zeal to secure the dissemination of its doctrines frequently walked 30 m. a day. In the same year he also printed and sold 25,000 copies of Southey's _Wat Tyler_, reprinted the suppressed _Parodies_ of Hone, and wrote himself, in imitation of them, the _Political Litany_. This work cost him eighteen weeks imprisonment. In 1818 he published Paine's works, for which and for other publications of a like character he was fined L1500, and sentenced to three years' imprisonment in Dorchester gaol. Here he published the first twelve volumes of his periodical the _Republican_. The publication was continued by his wife, who was accordingly sentenced to two years' imprisonment in 1821. A public subscription, headed by the duke of Wellington, was now raised to prosecute Carlile's assistants. At the same time Carlile's furniture and stock-in-trade in London were seized, three years were added to his imprisonment in lieu of payment of his fine, his sister was fined L500 and imprisoned for a year for publishing an address by him, and nine of his shopmen received terms of imprisonment varying from six months to three years. In 1825 the government decided to discontinue the prosecutions. After his release in that year Carlile edited the _Gorgon_, a weekly paper, and conducted free discussions in the London Rotunda. For refusing to give sureties for good behaviour after a prosecution arising out of a refusal to pay church rates, he was again imprisoned for three years, and a similar resistance cost him ten weeks' more imprisonment in 1834-1835. He died on the 10th of February 1843, after having spent in all nine years and four months in prison.

CARLINGFORD, CHICHESTER SAMUEL FORTESCUE, BARON (1823-1898), British statesman, son of Chichester Fortescue (d. 1826), M.P. for Louth in the Irish parliament, was born in January 1823. He came of an old family settled in Ireland since the days of Sir Faithful Fortescue (1581-1666), whose uncle, Lord Chichester, was lord deputy. The history of the family was written by his elder brother Thomas (1815-1887), who in 1852 was created Baron Clermont. The future Lord Carlingford, then Mr Chichester Fortescue, went to Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first in classics (1844) and won the chancellor's English essay (1846); and in 1847 he was elected to parliament for Louth as a Liberal. He became a junior lord of the treasury in 1854, and subsequently held minor offices in the Liberal administrations till in 1865 he was made chief secretary for Ireland under Lord Russell, a post which he again occupied under Gladstone in 1868-1870; he then became president of the Board of Trade (1871-1874), and later lord privy seal (1881-1885) and president of the council (1883-1885). He was raised to the peerage in 1874. He parted from Gladstone on the question of Irish Home Rule, but in earlier years he was his active supporter on Irish questions. His influence in society was due largely to his wife, Frances (1821-1879), previously the wife of the 7th Earl Waldegrave, whom he married in 1863. In 1887 his brother, Lord Clermont, died, and Carlingford inherited his peerage; but on his own death without issue on the 30th of January 1898 both titles became extinct.