Chapter VI: Front Matter (6)

In regard to catalysis in heterogeneous systems, especially the hastening of gas-reactions by platinum, it is very probable that it is closely connected with the solution or absorption of the gases on the part of the metal. From the experiments of G. Bredig it seems that colloidal solutions of a metal act like the metal itself. The action of a colloidal-platinum solution on the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is still sensible even at a dilution of 1/70,000,000 grm.-mol. per litre; indeed the activity of this colloidal-platinum solution calls to mind in many ways that of organic ferments, hence Bredig has called it an "inorganic ferment." This analogy is especially striking in the change of their activity with time and temperature, and in the possibility, by means of bodies like sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrocyanic acid, &c., which act as strong poisons upon the latter, of "poisoning" the former also, i.e. of rendering it inactive. In the case of the catalytic action of water-vapour upon many processes of combustion already mentioned, a part of the effect is probably due to the circumstance, disclosed by numerous experiments, that the union of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds, between certain temperature limits at least, after the equation H2 + O2 = H2O2, that is, with the preliminary formation of hydrogen peroxide, which then breaks down into water and oxygen, and further, above all, to the fact that this substance results from oxygen and water at high temperatures with great velocity, though indeed only in small quantities.

The view now suggests itself, that, for example, in the combustion of carbon monoxide at moderately high temperatures, the reaction

(I.) 2CO + O2 = 2CO2

advances with imperceptible speed, but that on the contrary the two stages

(II.) 2H2O + O2 = 2H2O2,

(III.) 2CO + 2H2O2 = 2CO2 + 2H2O,

which together result in (I.), proceed rapidly even at moderate temperatures.

_Temperature and Reaction-Velocity._--There are few natural constants which undergo so marked a change with temperature as those of the velocities of chemical changes. As a rule a rise of temperature of 10 deg. causes a twofold or threefold rise of reaction-velocity.

If the reaction-coefficient k, in the sense of the equation derived above, viz. k = t^{-1} log [a/(a-x)], be determined for the inversion of cane-sugar by an acid of given concentration, the following values are obtained:--

Temperature = 25 deg. 40 deg. 45 deg. 50 deg. 55 deg.
k = 9.7 73 139 268 491;

here a rise of temperature of only 30 deg. suffices to raise the speed of inversion fifty times.

We possess no adequate explanation of this remarkable temperature influence; but some account of it is given by the molecular theory, according to which the energy of that motion of substances in homogeneous gaseous or liquid systems which constitutes heat increases with the temperature, and hence also the frequency of collision of the reacting substances. When we reflect that the velocity of motion of the molecules of gases, and in all probability those of liquids also, are proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, and therefore rise by only 1/6% per degree at room-temperature, and that we must assume the number of collisions proportional to the velocity of the molecules, we cannot regard the actually observed increase of reaction-velocity, which often amounts to 10 or 12% per degree, as exclusively due to the quickening of the molecular motion by heat. It is more probable that the increase of the kinetic energy of the atomic motions within the molecule itself is of significance here, as the rise of the specific heat of gases with temperature seems to show. The change of the reaction-coefficient k with temperature may be represented by the empirical equation log k = -AT^{-1} + B + CT, where A, B, C are positive constants. For low temperatures the influence of the last term is as a rule negligible, whilst for high temperatures the first term on the right side plays a vanishingly small part.

_Definition of Chemical Affinity._--We have still to discuss the question of what is to be regarded as the measure of chemical affinity. Since we are not in a position to measure directly the intensity of chemical forces, the idea suggests itself to determine the strength of chemical affinity from the amount of the work which the corresponding reaction is able to do. To a certain extent the evolution of heat accompanying the reaction is a measure of this work, and attempts have been made to measure chemical affinities thermo-chemically, though it may be easily shown that this definition was not well chosen. For when, as is clearly most convenient, affinity is so defined that it determines under all circumstances the direction of chemical change, the above definition fails in so far as chemical processes often take place with absorption of heat, that is, contrary to affinities so defined. But even in those cases in which the course of the reaction at first proceeds in the sense of the evolution of heat, it is often observed that the reaction advances not to completion but to a certain equilibrium, or, in other words, stops before the evolution of heat is complete.

A definition free from this objection is supplied by the second law of thermodynamics, in accordance with which all processes must take place in so far as they are able to do external work. When therefore we identify chemical affinity with the maximum work which can be gained from the process in question, we reach such a definition that the direction of the process is under all conditions determined by the affinity. Further, this definition has proved serviceable in so far as the maximum work in many cases may be experimentally measured, and moreover it stands in a simple relation to the equilibrium constant K. Thermodynamics teaches that the maximum work A may be expressed as A = RT log K, when R denotes the gas-constant, T the absolute temperature. In this it is further assumed that both the molecular species produced as well as those that disappear are present in unit concentration. The simplest experimental method of directly determining chemical affinity consists in the measurement of electromotive force. The latter at once gives us the work which can be gained when the corresponding galvanic element supplies the electricity, and, since the chemical exchange of one gram-equivalent from Faraday's law requires 96,540 coulombs, we obtain from the product of this number and the electromotive force the work per gram-equivalent in watt-seconds, and this quantity when multiplied by O.23872 is obtained in terms of the usual unit, the gram-calorie. Experience teaches that, especially when we have to deal with strong affinities, the affinity so determined is for the most part almost the same as the heat-evolution, whilst in the case in which only solid or liquid substances in the pure state take part in the reaction at low temperatures, heat-evolution and affinity appear to possess a practically identical value.

Hence it seems possible to calculate equilibria for low temperatures from heats of reaction, by the aid of the two equations

A = Q, A = RT log K;

and since the change of A with temperature, as required by the principles of thermodynamics, follows from the specific heats of the reacting substances, it seems further possible to calculate chemical equilibria from heats of reaction and specific heats. The circumstance that chemical affinity and heat-evolution so nearly coincide at low temperatures may be derived from the hypothesis that chemical processes are the result of forces of attraction between the atoms of the different elements. If we may disregard the kinetic energy of the atoms, and this is legitimate for low temperatures, it follows that both heat-evolution and chemical affinity are merely equal to the decrease of the potential energy of the above-mentioned forces, and it is at once clear that the evolution of heat during a reaction between only pure solid or pure liquid substances possesses special importance.

More complicated is the case in which gases or dissolved substances take part. This is simplified if we first consider the mixing of two mutually chemically indifferent gases. Thermodynamics teaches that external work may be gained by the mere mixing of two such gases (see DIFFUSION), and these amounts of work, which assume very considerable proportions at high temperatures, naturally affect the value of the maximum work and so also of the affinity, in that they always come into play when gases or solutions react. While therefore we regard as chemical affinity in the strictest sense the decrease of potential energy of the forces acting between the atoms, it is clear that the quantities here involved exhibit the simplest relations under the experimental conditions just given, for when only substances in a pure state take part in a reaction, all mixing of different kinds of molecules is excluded; moreover, the circumstance that the respective substances are considered at very low temperatures reduces the quantities of energy absorbed as kinetic energy by their molecules to the smallest possible amount.

_Chemical Resistance._--When we know the chemical affinity of a reaction, we are in a position to decide in which direction the process must advance, but, unless we know the reaction-velocity also, we can in many cases say nothing as to whether or not the reaction in question will progress with a practically inappreciable velocity so that apparent chemical indifference is the result. This question may be stated in the light of the law of mass-action briefly as follows:--From a knowledge of the chemical affinity we can calculate the equilibrium, i.e. the numerical value of the constant K = k/k'; but to be completely informed of the process we must know not only the ratio of the two velocity-constants k and k', but also the separate absolute values of the same.

In many respects the following view is more comprehensive, though naturally in harmony with the one just expressed. Since the chemical equilibrium is periodically attained, it follows that, as in the case of the motion of a body or of the diffusion of a dissolved substance, it must be opposed by very great friction. In all these cases the velocity of the process at every instant is directly proportional to the driving-force and inversely proportional to the frictional resistance. We hence arrive at the result that an equation of the form

_reaction-velocity = chemical force/chemical resistance_

must also hold for chemical change; here we have an analogy with Ohm's law. The "chemical force" at every instant may be calculated from the maximum work (affinity); as yet little is known about "chemical resistance," but it is not improbable that it may be directly measured or theoretically deduced. The problem of the calculation of chemical reaction-velocity in absolute measure would then be solved; so far we possess indeed only a few general facts concerning the magnitude of chemical resistance. It is immeasurably small at ordinary temperatures for ion-reactions, and, on the other hand, fairly large for nearly all reactions in which carbon-bonds must be loosened (so-called "inertia of the carbon-bond") and possesses very high values for most gas-reactions also. With rising temperature it always strongly diminishes; on the other hand, at very low temperatures its values are always enormous, and at the absolute zero of temperature may be infinitely great. Therefore at that temperature all reactions cease, since the denominator in the above expression assumes enormous values.

It is a very remarkable phenomenon that the chemical resistance is often small in the case of precisely those reactions in which the affinity is also small; to this circumstance is to be traced the fact that in many chemical changes the most stable condition is not at once reached, but is preceded by the formation of more or less unstable intermediate products. Thus the unstable ozone is very often first formed on the evolution of oxygen, whilst in the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen water is often not at once formed, but first the unstable hydrogen peroxide as an intermediate product.

Let us now consider the chemical process in the light of the equation

_reaction-velocity = chemical force/chemical resistance._

Thermodynamics shows that at very low temperatures, i.e. in the immediate vicinity of the absolute zero, there is no equilibrium, but every chemical process advances to completion in the one or the other direction. The chemical forces therefore act in the one direction towards complete consumption of the reacting substance. But since the chemical resistance is now immensely great, they can produce practically no appreciable result.

At higher temperatures the reaction always proceeds, at least in homogeneous systems, to a certain equilibrium, and as the chemical resistance now has finite values this equilibrium will always finally be reached after a longer or shorter time. Finally, at very high temperatures the chemical resistance is in every case very small, and the equilibrium is almost instantaneously reached; at the same time, the affinity of the reaction, as in the case of the mutual affinity between oxygen and hydrogen, may very strongly diminish, and we have then chemical indifference again, not because, as at low temperatures, the denominator of the previous expression becomes very great, but because the numerator now assumes vanishingly small values. (W. N.)

CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. [Greek: chymeia]; for derivation see ALCHEMY), the natural science which has for its province the study of the composition of substances. In common with physics it includes the determination of properties or characters which serve to distinguish one substance from another, but while the physicist is concerned with properties possessed by all substances and with processes in which the molecules remain intact, the chemist is restricted to those processes in which the molecules undergo some change. For example, the physicist determines the density, elasticity, hardness, electrical and thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, &c.; the chemist, on the other hand, investigates changes in composition, such as may be effected by an electric current, by heat, or when two or more substances are mixed. A further differentiation of the provinces of chemistry and physics is shown by the classifications of matter. To the physicist matter is presented in three leading forms--solids, liquids and gases; and although further subdivisions have been rendered necessary with the growth of knowledge the same principle is retained, namely, a classification based on properties having no relation to composition. The fundamental chemical classification of matter, on the other hand, recognizes two groups of substances, namely, _elements_, which are substances not admitting of analysis into other substances, and _compounds_, which do admit of analysis into simpler substances and also of synthesis from simpler substances. Chemistry and physics, however, meet on common ground in a well-defined branch of science, named physical chemistry, which is primarily concerned with the correlation of physical properties and chemical composition, and, more generally, with the elucidation of natural phenomena on the molecular theory.

It may be convenient here to state how the whole subject of chemistry
is treated in this edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. The
present article includes the following sections:--

I. _History._--This section is confined to tracing the general trend
of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern
theory. The history of the alchemical period is treated in more detail
in the article ALCHEMY, and of the iatrochemical in the article
MEDICINE. The evolution of the notion of elements is treated under
ELEMENT; the molecular hypothesis of matter under MOLECULE; and the
genesis of, and deductions from, the atomic theory of Dalton receive
detailed analysis in the article ATOM.

II. _Principles._--This section treats of such subjects as
nomenclature, formulae, chemical equations, chemical change and
similar subjects. It is intended to provide an introduction,
necessarily brief, to the terminology and machinery of the chemist.

III. _Inorganic Chemistry._--Here is treated the history of
descriptive inorganic chemistry; reference should be made to the
articles on the separate elements for an account of their preparation,
properties, &c.

IV. _Organic Chemistry._--This section includes a brief history of the
subject, and proceeds to treat of the principles underlying the
structure and interrelations of organic compounds.

V. _Analytical Chemistry._--This section treats of the qualitative
detection and separation of the metals, and the commoner methods
employed in quantitative analysis. The analysis of organic compounds
is also noticed.

VI. _Physical Chemistry._--This section is restricted to an account of
the relations existing between physical properties and chemical
composition. Other branches of this subject are treated in the
articles CHEMICAL ACTION; ENERGETICS; SOLUTION; ALLOYS;
THERMOCHEMISTRY.