Chapter XII: Front Matter (12)

According to the computation most generally followed, the year 312 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st of September in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.

The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their
correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows:--

Syrian. Macedonian. English.
Elul. Gorpiaeus. September.
Tishrin I. Hyperberetaeus. October.
Tishrin II. Dius. November.
Canun I. Apellaeus. December.
Canun II. Audynaeus. January.
Sabat. Peritius. February.
Adar. Dystrus. March.
Nisan. Xanthicus. April.
Ayar. Artemisius. May.
Haziran. Daesius. June.
Tamus. Panemus. July.
Ab. Loüs. August.

_Era of Alexander._--Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, in the year 325 B.C. The form of the year is the same as in the preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidae.

_Era of Tyre._--The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyperberetaeus, in the year 126 B.C. In order, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is B.C., subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

_Caesarean Era of Antioch._--This era was established to commemorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th of August in the year 48 B.C., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpiaeus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding the commencement of the Christian era; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his _Ecclesiastical History_.

_Julian Era._--The Julian era begins with the 1st of January, forty-five years B.C. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

_Era of Spain, or of the Caesars._--The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year B.C., gave rise to this era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long used in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated according to this era. After the 9th century it became usual to join with it in public acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that of the Incarnation. As the era of Spain began with the 1st of January, and the months and days of the year are those of the Julian calendar, any date is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

_Era of Actium, and Era of Augustus._--This era was established to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3rd of September, in the year 31 B.C., and in the 15th of the Julian era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as beginning on the 1st of January of the 16th of the Julian era, which is the 30th B.C. The Egyptians, who used this era till the time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of August; and the Eastern Greeks from the 2nd of September. By the latter it was also called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till the 9th century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this era.

Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which began four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and to confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.

_Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs._--It has been already stated that the Alexandrians, at the accession of the emperor Diocletian, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their reckoning. At the same time they established a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It begins with the 29th of August (the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of _Era of Martyrs_, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year. The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period begin on the 29th of our August, and the fourth begins on the 30th of that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to the 29th of August. Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 30th of August and the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days. The Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which they again begin with 1. This is the Dionysian or Great Paschal Period, and is formed by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.

The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months,
with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old
style:--

Mascaram 29th August. Magabit 25th February.
Tikmith 28th September. Miazia 27th March.
Hadar 28th October. Gimbot 26th April.
Tacsam 27th November. Sene 26th May.
Tir 27th December. Hamle 25th June.
Yacatit 26th January. Nahasse 25th July.

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August.
In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later.
The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with
the above in every respect excepting the names.

_Indiction._--The cycle of Indiction was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption of the Christian era. Three Indictions may be distinguished; but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The _Constantinopolitan Indiction_, like the Greek year, commenced with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The _Imperial_ or _Constantinian Indiction_ is so called because its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the _Caesarean Indiction_. It begins on the 24th of September. It is not infrequently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.

3. The _Roman_ or _Pontifical Indiction_ began on the 25th of December or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to begin on the one or other of these days. It is often employed in papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII., and traces of its use are found in early French authors.

_Era of the Armenians._--The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from the Greek Church by condemning the acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday, the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the 11th of August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 551 years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of August, both inclusive, of the year 552--that is to say (since 552 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their
correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:--

1. Navazardi begins 11th August.
2. Hori 10th September.
3. Sahmi 10th October.
4. Dre Thari 9th November.
5. Kagoths 9th December.
6. Aracz 8th January.
7. Maleg 7th February.
8. Arcki 9th March.
9. Angi 8th April.
10. Mariri 8th May.
11. Marcacz 7th June.
12. Herodiez 7th July.

To complete the year five complementary days are added in common
years, and six in leap years.

_The Mahommedan Era, or Era of the Hegira._--The era in use among the Turks, Arabs and other Mahommedan nations is that of the _Hegira_ or _Hejra_, the flight of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, 622 A.D. Its commencement, however, does not, as is sometimes stated, coincide with the very day of the flight, but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The prophet, after leaving Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the Koreishites, hid himself with his friend Abubekr in a cave near Mecca, and there lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting out on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third month, Rabia I.--corresponding to the 22nd of September of the year 622 A.D. The era begins from the first day of the month of Muharram preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian year which coincides with Friday, July 16, 622 A.D. It is necessary to remember that by astronomers and by some historians the era is assigned to the preceding day, July 15. It is stated by D'Herbelot that the era of the Hegira was instituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian era of the martyrs.

_Era of Yazdegerd, or Persian or Jelalaean Era._--This era begins with the elevation of Yazdegerd III. to the throne of Persia, on the 16th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1079 the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by Jel[=a]l ud-D[=i]n Malik Shah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years,--one day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end of the fifth year. This era was at one period universally adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by a different name. According to Alfergani, the names of the Persian months are as follows:--

Afrudin-meh. Merded-meh. Adar-meh.
Ardisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-meh.
Cardi-meh. Mahar-meh. Behen-meh.
Tir-meh. Aben-meh. Affirer-meh.

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named _Musteraca_.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague year, which was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one day every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in consequence be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year 632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.

_Chinese Chronology._--From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000 years B.C., the Chinese had two different years,--a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but occasionally a thirteenth was added in order to preserve its correspondence with the solar year. Even at that early period the solar or astronomical year consisted of 365¼ days, like our Julian year; and it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100 _ke_, each _ke_ into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Schall, president of the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day begins at midnight and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty, 206 B.C., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also they have employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It is not, however, precisely known how they distributed their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them, great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun with regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions, each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these periods, which is denominated a _tsë[)e]_, is subdivided into two equal portions called _chung-ki_ and _tsie-ki_, the _chung-ki_ denoting the first half of the _tsë[)e]_, and the _tsie-ki_ the latter half. Though the _tsë[)e]_, are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet what is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the _chung-ki_ or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the _tsë[)e]_ is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive twice at a _chung-ki_ during the same lunation; and as there are only twelve _tsë[)e]_, the year can contain only twelve months having different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and is called by the same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other
nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which
they reckon their days, moons and years. The days are distributed in
the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are
distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has
a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates,
to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year,
this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of
Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never
interrupted by any intercalation that may be necessary for adjusting
the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also
distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the
intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated,
namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new
sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle
is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1873
being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year,
reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1868, 1863, &c., or
1877, 1882, &c., also begins a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In
regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a
distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as
this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other
chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from
following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of
characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined
together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of
the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called _celestial_
signs, are--

1. Ke[)a]; 2. Y[)i]h; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;
6. Ke; 7. K[)a]ng; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwei;

and in the series of 12, denominated _terrestrial_ signs,

1. Tsze; 2. Chow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze;
7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; 11. Se[)u]h; 12. Hae.

The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary
cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above
series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series,
and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first
series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then the second of
the first series with the twelfth of the second, after this the third
of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the
sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with
the last of the second. Thus Ke[)a]-tsze is the name of the first
year, Y[)i]h-Chow that of the second, Ke[)a]-se[)u]h that of the
eleventh, Y[)i]h-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tsze that of the
thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dialect by order of
the emperor K'ang-hi, who died in 1721, the characters of the cycle
begin to appear at the year 2357 B.C. From this it has been inferred
that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but
it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely,
that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given
to that year 2357 B.C. are Ke[)a]-shin, which denote the 41st of the
cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 B.C.,
or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by
the authors of _L'Art de vérifier les dates_. The mathematical
tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the first year of
the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is to say, from the
year 2277 B.C.

Since the year 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have adopted the practice
of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An
emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years of his
reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In
consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of
Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c, of
Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor or his successor to
ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The
periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. According to
this method of dating the years a new era commences with every reign;
and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we
have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the
years of our era.

For _Hindu Chronology_, see the article under that heading.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the early Greek writings already named,
there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their entirety)
of universal history compiled (about 8 B.C.) by Diodorus Siculus, and
arranged in the form of annals; the _Pentabiblos_ of Julius Africanus
(about 220-230 A.D.); the treatise of Censorinus entitled _De die
natali_, written 238 A.D.; the _Chronicon_, in two books, of Eusebius
Pamphili, bishop of Caesarea (about 325 A.D.), distinguished as the
first book of a purely chronological character which has come down to
us; and three important works forming parts of the _Corpus Scriptorum
Historiae Byzantinae_, namely, the _Chronographia_ of Georgius
Syncellus (800 A.D.), the _Chronographia_ of Johannes Malalas (9th
century), and the _Chronicon Paschale_.

Among works on Chronology, the following, which are arranged in the
order of their publication, have an historical interest, as leading up
to the epoch of modern research:--

1583. _De Emendatione Temporum_, by Joseph Scaliger, in which were
laid the foundations of chronological science.

1603. _Opus Chronologicum_, by Sethus Calvisius.

1627. _De Doctrina Temporum_, by Petavius (Denis Petau), with its
continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled
_Rationarium Temporum_, in 1633-1634.

1650. _Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti_, by Archbishop Ussher,
whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized
version of the Bible.

1651. _Regia Epitome Historiae Sacrae et Profanae_, by Philippe Labbe,
of which a French version was also published.

1669. _Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo_, by Bishop Beveridge.

1672. _Chronicus Canon Aegyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Graecus_, by Sir John
Marsham.

1687. _L'Antiquité des temps rétablie et défendue_, by Paul Pezron,
with its _Defense_, 1691.

1701. _De Veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis_, by Henry Dodwell.

1728. _The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended_, by Sir Isaac
Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on new bases,
independent of the Greek chronologers.

1738. _Chronologie de l'histoire sainte_, by Alphonse des Vignolles.

1744. _Tablettes chronologiques de l'histoire universelle_, by N.
Lenglet-Dufresnoy.

1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of _L'Art de vérifier les
dates_, which in its third edition (1818-1831) appeared in 38 vols.
8vo, a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various
members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.

1752. _Chronological Antiquities_, by John Jackson.

1754. _Chronology and History of the World_, by John Blair; new
edition, much enlarged (1857).

1784. _A System of Chronology_, by Playfair.

1799. _Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums_, by A.H.L.
Heeren.

1803. _Handbuch der alten Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie_, by
G.G. Bredow, with his _Historische Tabellen_.

1809-1814. _New Analysis of Chronology_, by William Hales.

1819. _Annales Veterum Regnorum_, by C.G. Zumpt.

1821. _Tableaux historiques, chronologiques, et géographiques_, by
Buret de Longchamps.

1824-1834. _Fasti Hellenici_, and 1845-1850, _Fasti Romani_, by H.
Fynes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published,
1851-1853.

1825-1826. _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_,
by Christian Ludwig Ideler; and his _Lehrbuch der Chronologie_,
(1831).

1833. _The Chronology of History_, by Sir Harris Nicolas.

1852. _Fasti Temporis Catholici_, by Edward Greswell; and by the same
author (1854), _Origines Kalendariae Italicae_; and 1862, _Origines
Kalendariae Hellenicae_.

More modern works are the _Encyclopaedia of Chronology_, by B.B.
Woodward and W.L.R. Cates (1872); and J.C. Macdonald's _Chronologies
and Calendars_ (1897). But see the separate historical articles in
this work. (W. L. R. C.)

CHRUDIM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E.S.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,017, mostly Czech. It has an important horse market, besides manufactures of sugar, spirits, beer, soda-water and agricultural machinery. There are also steam corn-mills and saw-mills. Chrudim is mentioned as the castle of a _gaugraf_ as early as 993. The new town was founded by Ottokar II., who settled many Germans in it and gave it many privileges. After 1421 Chrudim was held by the Hussites, and though Ferdinand I. confiscated most of the town property, it prospered greatly till the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. In 1625 the greater part of its Hussite inhabitants left the town, which suffered much later on from the Swedes. Chrudim was the birthplace of Joseph Ressel (1793-1857), honoured in Austria as the inventor of the screw propeller.

CHRYSANTHEMUM[1] (_Chrysanthemum sinense_; nat. ord. Compositae), one of the most popular of autumn flowers. It is a native of China, whence it was introduced to Europe. The first chrysanthemum in England was grown at Kew in 1790, whither it had been sent by Mr Cels, a French gardener. It was not, however, till 1825 that the first chrysanthemum exhibition took place in England. The small-flowered pompons, and the grotesque-flowered Japanese sorts, are of comparatively recent date, the former having originated from the Chusan daisy, a variety introduced by Mr Fortune in 1846, and the latter having also been introduced by the same traveller about 1862. The Japanese kinds are unquestionably the most popular for decorative purposes as well as for exhibition. They afford a wide choice in colour, form, habit and times of flowering. The incurved Chinese kinds are severely neat-looking flowers in many shades of colour. The anemone-flowered kinds have long outer or ray petals, the interior or disk petals being short and tubular. These are to be had in many pleasing colours. The pompon kinds are small flowered, the petals being short. The plants are mostly dwarf in habit. In the single varieties the outer or ray florets alone are large and attractively coloured.

_Plants for the Border._--As a border plant out of doors the
chrysanthemum is of the easiest culture. It is an exceptionally good
town plant. By a judicious selection of varieties, flowers may be
produced in abundance and in considerable variety from August to the
end of November, and in favourable seasons well on towards Christmas.
Since 1890 when the English market was flooded with French raised
varieties of exceptional merit, the border chrysanthemum has taken
first place among hardy autumn flowering plants. Most of the varieties
then introduced have been superseded by many excellent kinds raised in
Britain.

_Propagation._--The old English method of dividing the plants in March
or early April may be followed where better means of propagation are
not practicable. Many of the best border varieties are shy in
producing new growths (suckers) from the rootstock, and are in
consequence not amenable to this method. It is better to raise the
plants from cuttings. This may be begun in January for the early
flowering sorts, the late kinds being propagated during February and
March. They will root quite well in a cold frame, if protected during
frosty weather by litter or other similar material. If the frame can
be heated at will so as to maintain a fairly even temperature of from
4O° to 50° Fah., roots will be made more quickly and with more
certainty. A still better method is to improvise a frame near the
glass in a greenhouse, where the temperature is not raised above 50°
by artificial heat. This has the advantage of being accessible in all
weathers. The bottom of the frame is covered with sifted coal ashes or
coco-nut fibre, on which the shallow boxes or pots used in propagating
are placed. These are well drained with broken crocks, the bottoms of
the boxes being drilled to allow water to pass out quickly. The soil
should consist of about equal parts of fibrous loam and leaf-mould,
half a part of coarse silver-sand, and about a quart of vegetable ash
from the garden refuse heap to each bushel of the compost. The whole
should be passed through a quarter inch sieve and thoroughly mixed.
The coarse leaf-mould, &c., from the sieve should be spread thinly
over the drainage, and the boxes or pots filled almost to the rims
with the compost, and covered, if possible, with a thin layer of
silver-sand. It should be pressed firmly, watered with a fine rose,
and allowed to drain for an hour. The cuttings should then be dibbled
into the boxes in rows, just clear, the soil being gently pressed
around each. Short stout shoots which arise directly from the
rootstock make the best cuttings. In their absence cuttings from the
stems are used. The ideal length for a cutting is about 2½ in. Cut the
stem squarely with a sharp knife just below a joint, and remove the
lower leaves. Insert as soon as possible and water with a fine rose to
settle the soil around them. The soil is not allowed to become dry.
The cuttings should be looked over daily, decayed leaves removed, and
surplus moisture, condensed on the glass, wiped away. Ventilate
gradually as rooting takes place, and, when well rooted, transfer
singly into pots about 3 in. in diameter, using as compost a mixture
of two parts loam, one part leaf-mould, half a part coarse
silver-sand, and a gallon of vegetable ash to every bushel of the
compost. Return to the frames and keep close for a few days to allow
the little plants to recover from the check occasioned by the potting.
Ventilation should be gradually increased until the plants are able to
bear full exposure during favourable weather, without showing signs of
distress by flagging. They should be carefully protected at all times
from cold cutting winds. In April, should the weather be favourable,
the plants may be transferred to the borders, especially should the
positions happen to be sheltered. If this is not practicable, another
shift will be necessary, this time into pots about 5 in. in diameter.
The soil should be similar to that advised for the previous potting,
enriched with half a part of horse manure that has been thoroughly
sweetened by exposure. Plant out during May. All borders intended for
chrysanthemums should be well dug and manured. The strong growing
kinds should be planted about 3 ft. apart, the smaller kinds being
allowed a little less room.

In the summer, water in dry weather, syringe in the evenings whenever
practicable, and keep the borders free from weeds by surface hoeings;
stake and tie the plants as required, and pinch out the tips of the
shoots until they have become sufficiently bushy by frequent
branching. Pinching should not be practised later than the end of
June.

_Pot Plants for Decoration._--A list of a few of the thousands of
varieties suitable for this purpose would be out of place here; new
varieties are being constantly introduced, for these the reader is
referred to trade catalogues.

The most important considerations for the beginner are (a) the choice
of colours; (b) the types of flowers; (c) the height and habits of the
varieties. Generally speaking, very tall varieties and those of weak
growth and delicate constitutions should be avoided. The majority of
the varieties listed for exhibition purposes are also suitable for
decoration, especially the Japanese kinds. Propagation and early
culture are substantially as for border plants.

As soon as the 5-in. pots are filled with roots, no time should be
lost in giving them the final shift. Eight-in. pots are large enough
for the general stock, but very strong growers may be given a larger
size. The soil, prepared a fortnight in advance, should consist of
four parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, one part horse manure
prepared as advised above, half a part coarse silver-sand, half a part
of vegetable ash, and a quart of bone-meal or a sprinkling of basic
slag to every bushel of the mixture. Mix thoroughly and turn over at
intervals of three or four days. Pot firmly, working the soil well
around the roots with a lath. The main stake for the support of the
plant should now be given; other and smaller stakes may later be
necessary when the plants are grown in a bushy form, but their number
should not be overdone. The stakes should be as few as possible
consistent with the safety of the shoots, which should be looped up
loosely and neatly. The plants should be placed in their summer
quarters directly after potting. Stand them in rows in a sunny
situation, the pots clear of one another, sufficient room being
allowed between the rows for the cultivator to move freely among them.
The main stakes are tied to rough trellis made by straining wire in
two rows about 2 ft. apart between upright poles driven into the
ground. Coarse coal ashes or coke breeze are the best materials to
stand the pots on, there being little risk of worms working through
into the pots. The plants, which are required to produce as many
flowers as possible, should have their tips pinched out at frequent
intervals, from the end of March or beginning of April to the last
week in June, for the main season kinds; and about the middle of July
for the later kinds.

Towards the end of July the plants will need feeding at the roots with
weak liquid manure, varied occasionally by a very slight dusting of
soluble chemical manure such as guano. The soil should be moderately
moist when manure is given. In order that the flowers may be of good
form, all lateral flower buds should be removed as soon as they are
large enough to handle, leaving only the bud terminating each shoot.
Towards the end of September--earlier should the weather prove wet and
cold--remove the plants to well-ventilated greenhouses where they are
intended to flower. Feeding should be continued until the flowers are
nearly half open, when it may be gradually reduced. The large
mop-headed blooms seen at exhibitions in November are grown in the way
described, but only one or two shoots are allowed to develop on a
plant, each shoot eventually having only one bloom.

The chrysanthemum is subject to the attack of black aphis and
green-fly. These pests may be destroyed, out of doors, by syringing
with quassia and soft soap solutions, by dusting the affected parts
with tobacco-powder, and indoors also by fumigating. Mildew generally
appears after the plants are housed. It may be destroyed by dusting
the leaves attacked with sublimed sulphur. Rust is a fungoid disease
of recent years. It is best checked by syringing the plants with liver
of sulphur (1 oz. to 3 gallons of water) occasionally, a few weeks
before taking the plants into the greenhouse. Earwigs and slugs must
be trapped and destroyed.

_Flowers for Exhibition._--Flowers of exhibition standard must be as
broad and as deep as the various varieties are capable of producing;
they must be irreproachable in colour. They must also exhibit the form
peculiar to the variety when at its best, very few kinds being
precisely alike in this respect. New varieties are introduced in large
numbers annually, some of which supplant the older kinds. The
cultivator must therefore study the peculiarities of several new kinds
each year if he would be a successful exhibitor.

For lists of varieties, &c. see the catalogues of chrysanthemum
growers, the gardening Press, and the excellent cultural pamphlets
which are published from time to time.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Gr. [Greek: chrusanthemon] ([Greek: chrusos], gold, and
[Greek: anthemon], flower) was the herbalists' name for _C.
segetum_, the "corn marigold," with its yellow bloom, and was
transferred by Linnaeus to the genus, being commonly restricted now
to the species _C. sinense_.

CHRYSANTHIUS, a Greek philosopher of the 4th century A.D., of the school of Iamblichus. He was one of the favourite pupils of Aedesius, and devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of Neoplatonism (q.v.). The emperor Julian (q.v.) went to him by the advice of Aedesius, and subsequently invited him to come to court, and assist in the projected resuscitation of Hellenism. But Chrysanthius declined on the strength of unfavourable omens, as he said, but probably because he realized that the scheme was unlikely to bear fruit. For the same reason he abstained from drastic religious reforms in his capacity as high-priest of Lydia. As a result of his moderation, he remained high-priest till his death, venerated alike by Christians and pagans. His wife Melite, who was associated with him in the priestly office, was a kinswoman of Eunapius the biographer.

CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: elephas], ivory), the architectural term given to statues which were built up on a wooden core, with ivory representing the flesh and gold the drapery. The two most celebrated examples are those by Pheidias of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon and of Zeus in the temple at Olympia.

CHRYSENE C18H12, a hydrocarbon occurring in the high boiling fraction of the coal tar distillate. It is produced in small quantity in the distillation of amber, on passing the vapour of phenyl-naphthyl-methane through a red-hot tube, on heating indene, or by passing the mixed vapours of coumarone and naphthalene through a red-hot tube. It crystallizes in plates or octahedra (from benzene), which exhibit a violet fluorescence, and melt at 250°C. Chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution oxidizes it to chrysoquinone C18H10O2, which when distilled with lead oxide gives chrysoketone C17H10O. When chrysene is fused with alkalis, chrysenic acid, C17H12O3, is produced, which on heating gives [beta]-phenyl-naphthalene. On heating chrysene with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus to 260°C, the hydro-derivatives C18H28 and C18H30 are produced. It gives characteristic addition products with picric acid and dinitroanthraquinone. Impure chrysene is of a yellow colour; hence its name ([Greek: chryseos], golden yellow).

CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the third great leader of the Stoics. A native of Soli in Cilicia (Diog. Laert. vii. 179), he was robbed of his property and came to Athens, where he studied possibly under Zeno, certainly under Cleanthes. It is said also that he became a pupil of Arcesilaus and Lacydes, heads of the Middle Academy. This impartiality in his early studies is the key of his philosophic work, the dominant characteristic of which is comprehensiveness rather than originality. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and crystallized them into a definite system; he further defended them against the attacks of the Academy. His polemic skill earned for him the title of the "Column of the Portico." Diogenes Laertius says, "If the gods use dialectic, they can use none other than that of Chrysippus"; [Greek: ei mê gar ên Chrysippos, ouk an ên Stoa] ("Without Chrysippus, there had been no Porch"). He excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge, ethics and physics. His relations with Cleanthes, contemporaneously criticized by Antipater, are considered under STOICS. He is said to have composed seven hundred and fifty treatises, fragments alone of which survive. Their style, we are told, was unpolished and arid in the extreme, while the argument was lucid and impartial.

See G.H. Hagedorn, _Moralia Chrysippea_ (1685), _Ethica Chrysippi_
(1715); J.F. Richter, _De Chrysippo Stoico fastuoso_ (1738); F.
Baguet, _De Chrysippi vita doctrina et reliquiis_ (1822); C. Petersen,
_Philosophiae Chrysippeae fundamenta_ (1827); A. Gercke, "Chrysippea"
in _Jahrbücher für Philologie_, suppl. vol. xiv. (1885); R. Nicolai,
_De logicis Chrysippi libris_ (1859); Christos Aronis, [Greek:
Chrysippos grammatikos] (1885); R. Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros
philosophischen Schriften_, ii. (1882); L. Stein, _Die Psychologie der
Stoa_ (1886); A.B. Krische, _Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der alten
Philosophie_ (1840); J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. 149.

CHRYSOBERYL, a yellow or green gem-stone, remarkable for its hardness, being exceeded in this respect only by the diamond and corundum. The name suggests that it was formerly regarded as a golden variety of beryl; and it is notable that though differing widely from beryl it yet bears some relationship to it inasmuch as it contains the element beryllium. In chrysoberyl, however, the beryllium exists as an aluminate, having the formula BeAl2O4, or BeO·Al2O3. The analysis of a specimen of Brazilian chrysoberyl gave alumina 78.10, beryllia 17.94, and ferric oxide 4.88%. The typical yellow colour of the stone inclines in many cases to pale green, occasionally passing into shades of dark green and brown. The iron usually present in the mineral seems responsible for the green colour. Chrysoberyl is often mistaken by its colour for chrysolite (q.v.), and has indeed been termed Oriental chrysolite. In its crystalline forms it bears some relationship to chrysolite, both crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but it is a much harder and a denser mineral. As the two stones are apt to be confounded, it may be convenient to contrast their chief characters:--

Chrysoberyl. Chrysolite.
Hardness 8.5 6.5 to 7
Specific Gravity 3.65 to 3.75 3.34 to 3.37
Chemical Composition BeAl2O4. Mg2SiO4.

Chrysoberyl is not infrequently cloudy, opalescent and chatoyant, and is then known as "cymophane" (Gr. [Greek: kyma], a "cloud"). The cloudiness is referable to the presence of multitudes of microscopic cavities. Some of the cymophane, when cut with a convex surface, forms the most valuable kind of cat's-eye (see CAT'S-EYE). A remarkable dichroic variety of chrysoberyl is known as alexandrite (q.v.).

Most chrysoberyl comes from Brazil, chiefly from the district of Minas Novas in the state of Minas Geraes, where it occurs as small water-worn pebbles. The cymophane is mostly from the gem-gravels of Ceylon. Chrysoberyl is known as a constituent of certain kinds of granite, pegmatite and gneiss. In the United States it occurs at Haddam, Conn.; Greenfield Centre, near Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and in Manhattan island. It is known also in the province of Quebec, Canada, and has been found near Gwelo in Rhodesia. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOCOLLA, a hydrous copper silicate occurring as a decomposition product of copper ores. It is never found as crystals, but always as encrusting and botryoidal masses with a microcrystalline structure. It is green or bluish-green in colour, and often has the appearance of opal or enamel, being translucent and having a conchoidal fracture with vitreous lustre; sometimes it is earthy in texture. Not being a definite crystallized substance, it varies widely in chemical composition, the copper oxide (CuO), for example, varying in different analyses from 17 to 67%; the formula is usually given as CuSiO3 + 2H2O. The hardness (2-4) and specific gravity (2.0-2.8) are also variable. It has recently been suggested that the material may really be a mixture of more than one hydrous copper silicate, since differences in the microcrystalline structure of the different concentric layers of which the masses are built up may be detected. Various impurities (silica, &c.) are also commonly present, and several varieties have been distinguished by special names: thus dillenburgite, from Dillenburg in Nassau, contains copper carbonate; demidoffite and cyanochalcite contain copper phosphate; and pilarite contains alumina (perhaps as allophane). The mineral occurs in the upper parts of veins of copper ores, and has resulted from their alteration by the action of waters containing silica in solution. Pseudomorphs of chrysocolla after various copper minerals (e.g. cuprite) are not uncommon. It is found in most copper mines.

The name chrysocolla (from [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: kolla], glue) was applied by Theophrastus and other ancient writers to materials used in soldering gold, one of which, from the island of Cyprus, may have been identical with the mineral now known by this name. Borax, which is used for this purpose, has also been called chrysocolla.

A mineral known as pitchy copper-ore (Ger. _Kupferpecherz_), and of some importance as an ore of copper, is usually classed as a variety of chrysocolla containing much admixed limonite. It is dark brown to black in colour, with a dull to glassy or resinous lustre, and resembles pitch in appearance. In thin sections it is translucent and optically isotropic, and recent examinations seem to prove that it is a homogeneous mineral and not a mechanical mixture of chrysocolla and limonite. (L. J. S.)

CHRYSOLITE, a transparent variety of olivine, used as a gem-stone and often called peridot. The name chrysolite, meaning "golden stone" ([Greek: chrysos] and [Greek: lithos]), has been applied to various yellowish gems, notably to topaz, to some kinds of beryl and to chrysoberyl. The true chrysolite of the modern mineralogist is a magnesium silicate, referable to the species olivine. It is appropriate to call the lighter coloured stones inclining to yellow chrysolite, and the darker green stones peridot. Certain kinds of topaz, from the Schneckenstein in Saxony, are known as Saxon chrysolite; while moldavite, a substance much like a green obsidian, is sometimes called water chrysolite or pseudo-chrysolite.

See CHRYSOBERYL; OLIVINE; PERIDOT.

CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL [or EMMANUEL] (c. 1355-1415), one of the pioneers in spreading Greek literature in the West, was born at Constantinople of a distinguished family, which had removed with Constantine the Great to Byzantium. He was a pupil of Gemistus (q.v.). In 1393 he was sent to Italy by the emperor Manuel Palaeologus to implore the aid of the Christian princes against the Turks. He returned to Constantinople, but at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence he became about 1395 professor of the Greek language in that city, where he taught three years. He became famous as a translator of Homer and Plato. Having visited Milan and Pavia, and resided for several years at Venice, he went to Rome upon the invitation of Bruni Leonardo, who had been his pupil, and was then secretary to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to Paris on an important mission from the emperor Manuel Palaeologus. In 1413 he went to Germany on an embassy to the emperor Sigismund, the object of which was to fix a place for the assembling of a general council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at Constance; and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having been chosen to represent the Greek Church, when he died suddenly on the 15th of April 1415. Only two of his works have been printed, his _Erotemata_ (published at Venice in 1484), which was the first Greek grammar in use in the West, and _Epistolae III. de comparatione veteris et novae Romae_.

JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, a relative of the above (variously described as his nephew, brother or son), who, like him, had studied and taught at Constantinople, and had then gone to Italy, shared Manuel's reputation as one of those who spread the influence of Greek letters in the West. His daughter married Filelfo (q.v.).

CHRYSOPRASE (Gr. [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: prason], leek), a name applied by modern mineralogists to an apple-green variety of chalcedony or hornstone, used as an ornamental stone. The colour is due to the presence of nickel, probably in the form of a hydrous silicate. By exposure to a moderate heat, or to strong light, the chrysoprase becomes paler, or even colourless, but it may regain its colour by absorption of moisture. Chrysoprase is a mineral of rather limited distribution. Most of it comes from the neighbourhood of Frankenstein in Silesia, where it occurs in association with altered serpentine. It is found to a limited extent at Revdinsk, near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals; and it occurs also in India. It is known, too, at several localities in North America, notably at Nickel Mount, Douglas county, Oregon, where it occurs in nickeliferous serpentine.

The chrysoprase of the moderns is certainly not the _chrysoprasius_ of Pliny, or the [Greek: chrysoprasos] of Greek writers. The ancient stone was not improbably our chrysoberyl, and it is doubtful whether the modern chrysoprase was known until a comparatively late period. The chrysoprase of Kosemütz, near Frankenstein in Silesia, was discovered in 1740, and used by Frederick the Great in the decoration of the palace of Sans Souci at Potsdam. But at a much earlier date the Silesian chrysoprase was used for mural decoration at the Wenzel chapel at Prague. Chrysoprase was a favourite stone in England at the beginning of the 19th century, being set round with small brilliants and used for brooches and rings. At the present time it is said to be regarded by some as a "lucky stone." Much commercial chrysoprase is chalcedony artificially stained by impregnation with a green salt of nickel. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOSTOM. St John Chrysostom ([Greek: Chrysostomos], golden-mouthed), the most famous of the Greek Fathers, was born of a noble family at Antioch, the capital of Syria, about A.D. 345 or 347. At the school of Libanius the sophist he gave early indications of his mental powers, and would have been the successor of his heathen master, had he not been stolen away, to use the expression of his teacher, to a life of piety (like Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret) by the influence of his pious mother Anthusa. After his baptism (about 370) by Meletius, the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his forensic prospects, and buried himself in an adjacent desert, where for nearly ten years he spent a life of ascetic self-denial and theological study, to which he was introduced by Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus, a famous scholar of the Antiochene type. Illness, however, compelled him to return to the world; and the authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. He was ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards presbyter (386) at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was appointed archbishop of Constantinople by Eutropius, the favourite minister of the emperor Arcadius. He had, ten years before this, only escaped promotion to the episcopate by a very questionable stratagem--which, however, he defends in his instructive and eloquent treatise _De Sacerdotio_. As a presbyter, he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more especially by his homilies on _The Statues_, a course of sermons delivered when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of severe measures being taken against them by the emperor Theodosius, whose statues had been demolished in a riot.