Chapter I: MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43 B.C.), Roman orator and politician, was (2)

The speeches _pro Sex. Roscio_ and _pro Murena_ are only known from an
ancient and illegible MS. discovered by Poggio at Cluny, No. 496 in
the old catalogue, and now lost. The most faithful transcript was made
in France (Paris, Lat. 14,749) before the MS. passed into Poggio's
hand by a writer who carefully reproduced the corruptions, sometimes
in facsimile.[26] The speeches _pro Roscio Comoedo_, _pro Rabirio
perduellionis reo_ and _pro Rabirio Postumo_ are only known from
Italian copies of the transcript (now lost) made by Poggio from lost
MSS. The _de Officiis_, _Tusculan Disputations_ and _Cato Maior_ are
found in a number of 9th-century MSS. A collection, consisting of _de
Natura deorum_, _de Divinatione_, _Timaeus_, _de Fato_, _Paradoxa_,
_Lucullus_ (= _Acad. Prior_.) and _de Legibus_, is found in several
MSS. of the same date. Only one MS. of the _Laelius_ is as old as the
10th century.

The _Academica Posteriora_ are said by editors to be found only in
15th-century MSS. A MS. in the Paris library (Lat. 6331) is, however,
assigned by Chatelain to the 12th century.

For the letters _ad Familiares_ our chief source of information is
Laur. xlix. 9 (9th century), which contains all the sixteen books.
There are independent MSS. written in France and Germany in the 11th
and 12th centuries, containing i.-viii. and ix.-xvi. respectively.
There is no extant MS. of the letters to Atticus older than the 14th
century, apart from a few leaves from a 12th-century MS. discovered at
or near Würzburg in the last century. Very great importance has been
attached to a Florentine MS. (Laur. xlix. 18) M., which until recently
was supposed to have been copied by Petrarch himself from the lost
_Veronensis_. It is now known not to be in the hand of Petrarch, but
it was still supposed to be the archetype of all Italian MSS., and
possibly of all MSS., including the lost C and Z. It has, however,
been shown by Lehmann that there is an independent group of Italian
MSS., termed by him [Sigma], containing Books i.-vii. in a mutilated
form, and probably connected with the MS. of Capra. These often agree
with CZ against M, and the readings of CZ[Sigma] are generally
superior.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It is impossible to mention more than a few works as
the literature is so vast. (1) _Historical._--J.L. Strachan-Davidson,
_Life of Cicero_ (Heroes of the Nations); G. Boissier, _Cicéron et ses
amis_; Suringar, _Cicero de vita sua_ (Leiden, 1854); W. Warde Fowler,
_Social Life at Rome_ (1908); introductions to Tyrrell and Purser's
edition of the letters. (2) _Palaeographical._--Facsimiles of the
best-known MSS. are given by E. Chatelain in _Paléographie des
classiques latins_, parts 2, 3 and 7. Information regarding various
MSS. will be found in Halm, _Zur Handschriftenkunde der ciceronischen
Schriften_ (Munich, 1850); Deschamps, _Essai bibliographique sur
Cicéron_ (Paris, 1863) (an unscientific work); Lehmann, _De Ciceronis
ad Atticum epistulis recensendis_ (Berlin, 1892); _Anecdota
Oxoniensia_, classical series, parts vii., ix., x. (3) _Literary._--M.
Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_, i, 194-274 (München,
1890). (4) _Linguistic._--Merguet, _Lexicon to Oratorical and
Philosophical Works_; Le Breton, _Études sur la langue et la grammaire
de Cicéron_ (Paris, 1901); Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (Leipzig,
1898); Th. Zielinski, _Das Clauselgesetz in Ciceros Reden_ (Leipzig,
1904). Much information on points of Ciceronian idiom and language
will be found in J.S. Reid's _Academica_ (London, 1885) and Landgraf's
_Pro Sext. Roscio_ (Erlangen, 1884). (5) _Legal._--A.H.J. Greenidge,
_The Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_ (Oxford, 1901). (6)
_Philosophical._--An excellent account of Cicero as a philosopher is
given in the preface to Reid's edition of the _Academica_. (7)
_Editions_ (critical) of the complete texts.--Baiter-Halm (1845-1861);
C.F.W. Müller (1880-1896); Oxford Classical Texts. (A. C. C.)

2. QUINTUS TULLIUS CICERO, brother of the orator and brother-in-law of T. Pomponius Atticus, was born about 102 B.C. He was aedile in 67, praetor in 62, and for the three following years propraetor in Asia, where, though he seems to have abstained from personal aggrandizement, his profligacy and ill-temper gained him an evil notoriety. After his return to Rome, he heartily supported the attempt to secure his brother's recall from exile, and was nearly murdered by gladiators in the pay of P. Clodius Pulcher. He distinguished himself as one of Julius Caesar's legates in the Gallic campaigns, served in Britain, and afterwards under his brother in Cilicia. On the outbreak of the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, Quintus, like Marcus, supported Pompey, but after Pharsalus he deserted and made peace with Caesar, largely owing to the intercession of Marcus. Both the brothers fell victims to the proscription which followed Caesar's death, Quintus being put to death in 43, some time before Marcus. His marriage with Pomponia was very unhappy, and he was much under the influence of his slave Statius. Though trained on the same lines as Marcus he never spoke in public, and even said, "One orator in a family is enough, nay even in a city." Though essentially a soldier, he took considerable interest in literature, wrote epic poems, tragedies and annals, and translated plays of Sophocles. There are extant four letters written by him (one to his brother Marcus, and three to his freedman Tiro) and a short paper, _De Petitione Consulatus_ (on canvassing for the consulship), addressed to his brother in 64. Some consider this the work of a rhetorician of later date. A few hexameters by him on the twelve signs of the Zodiac are quoted by Ausonius.

Cicero in several of his _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); _pro
Sestio_, 31; Caesar, _Bell. Gal._; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ iv. 20; Dio
Cassius, xl. 7, xlvii. 10; text of the _De Petit, Cons._ in A.
Eussner, _Commentariolum Petitionis_ (1872), see also R.Y. Tyrrell in
_Hermathena_, v. (1877), and A. Beltrami, _De Commentariolo Petitionis
Q. Ciceroni vindicando_ (1892); G. Boissier, _Cicero and His Friends_
(Eng. trans., 1897), especially pp. 235-241.

3. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, only son of the orator and his wife Terentia, was born in 65 B.C. At the age of seventeen he served with Pompey in Greece, and commanded a squadron of cavalry at the battle of Pharsalus. In 45 he was sent to Athens to study rhetoric and philosophy, but abandoned himself to a life of dissipation. It was during his stay at Athens that his father dedicated the _de Officiis_ to him. After the murder of Caesar (44) he attracted the notice of Brutus, by whom he was offered the post of military tribune, in which capacity he rendered good service to the republican cause. After the battle of Philippi (42), he took refuge with Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, where the remnants of the republican forces were collected. He took advantage of the amnesty granted by the treaty of Misenum (39) to return to Rome, where he took no part in public affairs, but resumed his former dissipated habits. In spite of this, he received signal marks of distinction from Octavian, who not only nominated him augur, but accepted him as his colleague in the consulship (30). He had the satisfaction of carrying out the decree which ordered that all the statues of Antony should be demolished, and thus "the divine justice reserved the completion of Antony's punishment for the house of Cicero" (Plutarch). He was subsequently appointed proconsul of Asia or Syria, but nothing further is known of his life. In spite of his debauchery, there is no doubt that he was a man of considerable education and no mean soldier, while Brutus, in a letter to his father (_Epp. ad Brutum_, ii. 3), even goes so far as to say that the son would be capable of attaining the highest honours without borrowing from the father's reputation.

See Plutarch, _Cicero, Brutus_; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ ii. 20. 51, iv.
20; Dio Cassius xlv. 15, xlvi. 18, li. 19; Cicero's _Letters_ (ed.
Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier, _Cicero and His Friends_ (Eng.
trans., 1897), pp. 104-107.

4. QUINTUS TULLIUS CICERO (_c_. 67-43 B.C.), son of Quintus Tullius Cicero (brother of the orator). He accompanied his uncle Marcus to Cilicia, and, in the hope of obtaining a reward, repaid his kindness by informing Caesar of his intention of leaving Italy. After the battle of Pharsalus he joined his father in abusing his uncle as responsible for the condition of affairs, hoping thereby to obtain pardon from Caesar. After the death of Caesar he attached himself to Mark Antony, but, owing to some fancied slight, he deserted to Brutus and Cassius. He was included in the proscription lists, and was put to death with his father in 43. In his last moments he refused under torture to disclose his father's hiding-place. His father, who in his concealment was a witness of what was taking place, thereupon gave himself up, stipulating that he and his son should be executed at the same time.

See Cicero, _ad Att._ x. 4. 6, 7. 3; xiv. 20. 5; Dio Cassius xlvii. 10.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Brutus_, § 316 "(Molon) dedit operam ... ut nimis redundantis nos
et supra fluentis iuvenili quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia
reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluentis coërceret."

[2] According to Plutarch she urged her husband to take vigorous
action against Catiline, who had compromised her half-sister Fabia,
a vestal virgin; also to give evidence against Clodius, being
jealous of his sister Clodia.

[3] Caesar, at one time, offered him a place on the coalition, which
on his refusal became a triumvirate (_Att._ ii. 3. 3; _Prov. Cons._
41), and afterwards a post on his commission for the division of the
Campanian land, or a _legatio libera_.

[4] _Att._ vii. 8. 5 "est enim [Greek: amorphon antipoliteuomenou
chreôpheiletên] esse."

[5] She was married in 63 B.C. to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom
Cicero found a model son-in-law. He appears to have died before 56,
since in that year Tullia was betrothed to Furius Crassipes
(quaestor in Bithynia in 51). It is not known if this marriage
actually took place.

[6] That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen
from _Brutus_, § 255: "hanc gloriam ... tuae quidem supplicationi
non, sed triumphis multorum antepono."

[7] _Fam._ xi. 20 "laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum."

[8] With these it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an
anonymous author, a contemporary of Sulla, in modern times generally
identified with a person named Cornificius, quoted by Quintilian
(iii. 1. 21). This is a manual of rhetoric derived from Greek
sources with illustrations of figures drawn from Roman orators.
Cicero's juvenile work _de Inventione_ appears to be drawn partly
from this and partly from a treatise by Hermagoras. This is a slight
production and does not require detailed notice. Other minor works
written in later life, such as the _Partitiones Oratoriae_, a
catechism of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to
his son Marcus; the _Topica_, and an introduction to a translation
of the speeches delivered by Demosthenes and Aeschines for and
against Ctesiphon, styled _de optimo genere oratorum_, also need
only be mentioned.

[9] _Orator_, § 214 "patris dictum sapiens temeritas fili
c[=o]mpr[)o]b[=a]v[)i]t--hoc dichoreo tantus clamor contionis
excitatus est ut admirabile esset. Quaero, nonne id numerus
efficerit? Verborum ordinem immuta, fac sic: 'Comprobavit fili
temeritas' jam nihil erit."

[10] This theory is partly anticipated by Terentianus Maurus (c.
A.D. 290), who says of the cretic (v. 1440 sqq.):--

"Plurimum orantes decebit quando paene in ultimo
Obtinet sedem beatam, terminet si clausulam
Dactylus spondeus imam, nec trochaeum respuo;
Plenius tractatur istud arte prosa rhetorum."

[11] _Orator_, § 212 "cursum contentiones magis requirunt,
expositiones rerum tarditatem."

[12] Markland and F.A. Wolf first rejected them.

[13] In the speeches generally _L_+_V_=86%. In the _de Domo_ the
proportion is 88 and in the _pro Marcello_ 87%.

[14] Quintil. iv. 1. 68. It is possible that the writer may have
used a quotation preserved from a real speech by Quintilian.

[15] Tacitus, _Dial._ 22 "omnis clausulas uno et eodem modo
determinet."

[16] Ed. P. Piper, p. 861.

[17] _Philologus_ (1886), Suppl. Bd. v.

[18] Jaffé, _Bibl. Rer. German._, i. 326.

[19] Delisle, _Cabinet des MSS._, ii 459.

[20] "Statilius Maximus rursus emendavi ad Tironem et Laeccanianum
et dom. et alios veteres III." He was a grammarian who lived at the
end of the 2nd century.

[21] _Epist._ 69 "Tullianas epistulas quas misisti cum nostris
conferri faciam ut ex utrisque, si possit fieri, veritas
exsculpatur."

[22] Nolhac, _Pétrarque et l'humanisme_, pp. 216-223.

[23] Lehmann, _De Ciceronis ad Atticum epp. recensendis_, p. 128.

[24] _Philologus_, 1901, p. 216.

[25] _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Classical Series, part ix. (W. Petersen).

[26] _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Classical Series, part x. (A.C. Clark).

CICERONE, a guide, one who conducts visitors to museums, galleries, &c, and explains matters of archaeological, antiquarian, historic or artistic interest. The word is presumably taken from Marcus Tullius Cicero, as a type of learning and eloquence. The _New English Dictionary_ finds examples of the use earlier in English than Italian, the earliest quotation being from Addison's _Dialogues on Medals_ (published posthumously 1726). It appears that the word was first applied to "learned antiquarians who show and explain to foreigners the antiquities and curiosities of the country" (quotation of 1762 in the _New English Dictionary_).

CICHLID (_Cichlidae_), a family of Acanthopterygian fishes, related to the perches and wrasses, and confined to the fresh and brackish waters of Central and South America, Africa, Syria, and India and Ceylon. It has recently assumed special importance through the large number of genera and species, many of them showing extraordinary modifications of the dentition, which have been discovered in tropical Africa, especially in the great lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. About 180 species are known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar), 150 from America, and 3 from India and Ceylon. They were formerly known under the inappropriate name of _Chromides_.

These fish are further remarkable for their nursing habits. It was formerly believed that the male takes charge of the eggs, and later the young, by sheltering them in the mouth and pharynx. This may still be true of some of the American species, but a long series of recent observations have shown that this most efficacious parental care devolves invariably on the female in the African and Syrian species. We are now acquainted with a large number of species in which this extraordinary habit has been observed, the number having lately been greatly increased by the collections made in Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria.

L. Lortet had described a fish from Lake Tiberias in which he believed he had observed the male take up the eggs after their deposition and retain them in his mouth and pharynx long after eclosion, in fact until the young are able to shift for themselves, and this fish he named _Chromis paterfamilias_. A. Günther had also ascribed the same sex to a fish from Natal, _Chromis philander_, observed by N. Abraham to have similar habits. G.A. Boulenger has since had an opportunity to examine the latter specimen and found it to be a female, as in all other nursing individuals from various parts of Africa, previously observed by himself; whilst J. Pellegrin has acertained the female sex of a specimen with eggs in the mouth presented to the Paris museum by Lortet as his _Chromis paterfamilias_ (= _Tilapia simonis_). Further observations by Pellegrin on _Tilapia galilaea_ and _Pelmatochromis lateralis_, by E. Schoeller on _Paralilapia multicolor_, have led to the same result.

It therefore remains unproven whether in any of the African _Cichlidae_ the buccal "incubation," as it has been called by Pellegrin, devolves on the male; the instances previously adduced being unsupported by the only trustworthy evidence--an examination of the genital glands.

The relative size and number of the eggs thus taken charge of vary very much according to the species. Thus they may be moderately large and numerous (100 to 200) in _Tilapia nilotica_ and _galilaea_, larger and only about 30 in number in _Paratilapia multicolor_, while in _Tropheus moorii_, a fish measuring only 110 mm., the eggs filling the mouth and pharynx measure 4 mm. in diameter and are only four in number, they being proportionally the largest Teleostome eggs known. In _Paratilapia pfefferi_, a fish measuring 75 mm., the eggs found in the pharynx were only about a dozen in number, and they measure 2-1/2 mm. in diameter. In _Tilapia dardennii_, which grows to a length of 240 mm., a score of eggs fills the mouth and pharynx, and each measures 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, an enormous size for so small a fish.

Pellegrin has made the interesting observation on _Tilapia galilaea_ that while the eggs are developing in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity the ovarian eggs are rapidly growing towards maturity, so that a fresh deposition of ova may almost immediately follow the release of the young fishes from maternal care. (G. A. B.)

CICISBEO (Ital.; of uncertain origin; perhaps an inversion of _bel cece_, "beautiful chick (pea)," or from Fr. _chiche beau_, with same meaning), the term in Italy from the 17th century onwards for a dangler about women. The cicisbeo was the professed gallant of a married woman, who attended her at all public entertainments, it being considered unfashionable for the husband to be escort.

CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, COUNT (1767-1834), Italian archaeologist and writer on art, was born at Ferrara on the 17th of November 1767. Mathematical and physical science diverted him a while; but his bent was decided, and not even the notice of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a savant of him. A residence of some years at Rome, devoted to painting and the study of the antiquities and galleries of the Eternal City, was followed by a visit to Naples and Sicily, and by the publication, at Palermo, of his first work, a poem of no merit. The island explored, he betook himself to Florence, Milan, Bologna and Venice, acquiring a complete archaeological knowledge of these and other cities. In 1795 he took up his abode at Modena, and was for twelve years engaged in politics, becoming a member of the legislative body, a councillor of state, and minister plenipotentiary of the Cisalpine Republic at Turin. Napoleon decorated him with the Iron Crown; and in 1808 he was made president of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, a post in which he did good work for a number of years. In 1808 appeared his treatise _Del bello ragionamenti_, dedicated in glowing terms to Napoleon. This was followed (1813-1818) by his _magnum opus_, the _Storia delta scultura dal suo risorgimento in Italia al secolo di Napoleone_, in the composition of which he had been encouraged and advised by Giordano and Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845). The book was designed to complete the works of Winckelmann and D'Agincourt, and is illustrated with 180 plates in outline. In 1814, on the fall of Napoleon, Cicognara was patronized by Francis I. of Austria, and published (1815-1820), under the auspices of that sovereign, his _Fabbriche più cospicue di Venezia_, two superb folios, containing some 150 plates. Charged by the Venetians with the presentation of their gifts to the empress Caroline at Vienna, Cicognara added to the offering an illustrated catalogue of the objects it comprised; this book, _Omaggio delle Provincie Venete alla maestà di Carolina Augusta_, has since become of great value to the bibliophilist. Reduced to poverty by these splendid editorial speculations, Cicognara contrived to alienate the imperial favour by his political opinions. He left Venice for Rome; his library was offered for sale; and in 1821 he published at Pisa a _catalogue raisonné_, rich in bibliographical lore, of this fine collection, the result of thirty years of loving labour, which in 1824 was purchased _en bloc_ by Pope Leo XII., and added to the Vatican library. The other works of Cicognara are--the _Memorie storiche de' litterati ed artisti Ferraresi_ (1811); the _Vite de' più insigni pittori e sculiori Ferraresi_, MS.; the _Memorie spettanti alla storia della calcografia_ (1831); and a large number of dissertations on painting, sculpture, engraving and other kindred subjects. (See Papoli, in No. II of the _Exile_, a print written and published by Italian refugees.) Cicognara's work in the academy at Venice, of which he became president in 1808, had important results in the increase in number of the professors, the improvement in the courses of study, the institution of prizes, and the foundation of a gallery for the reception of Venetian pictures. He died on the 5th of March 1834.

See Zanetti, _Cenni biografici di Leopoldo Cicognara_ (Venice, 1834);
Malmani, _Memorie del conte Leopoldo Cicognara_ (Venice, 1888).

CID, THE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent figure in her literature. The name, however, is so obscured by myth and fable as scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant are the deeds ascribed to him, and so marvellous the attributes with which he has been clothed by the fond idolatry of his countrymen, that by some he has been classed with the Amadises and the Orlandos whose exploits he emulated. The Jesuit Masdeu stoutly denies that he had any real existence, and this heresy has not wanted followers even in Spain. The truth of the matter, however, has been expressed by Cervantes, through the mouth of the Canon in _Don Quixote _: "There is no doubt there was such a man as the Cid, but much doubt whether he achieved what is attributed to him." The researches of Professor Dozy, of Leiden, have amply confirmed this opinion. There is a Cid of history and a Cid of romance, differing very materially in character, but each filling a large space in the annals of his country, and exerting a singular influence in the development of the national genius.

The Cid of history, though falling short of the poetical ideal which the patriotism of his countrymen has so long cherished, is still the foremost man of the heroical period of Spain--the greatest warrior produced out of the long struggle between Christian and Moslem, and the perfect type of the Castilian of the 12th century. Rodrigo Diaz, called de Bivar, from the place of his birth, better known by the title given him by the Arabs as the _Cid_ (_El Seid_, the lord), and _El Campeador_, the champion _par excellence_, was of a noble family, one of whose members in a former generation had been elected judge of Castile. The date of his birth cannot be fixed with any certainty, but it was probably between 1030 and 1040. As Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar he is first mentioned in a charter of Ferdinand I. of the year 1064. The legends which speak of the Cid as accompanying this monarch in his expeditions to France and Italy must be rejected as purely apocryphal. Ferdinand, a great and wise prince, under whom the tide of Moslem conquest was first effectually stemmed, on his deathbed, in 1065, divided his territories among his five children. Castile was left to his eldest son Sancho, Leon to Alphonso, Galicia to Garcia, Zamora and Toro to his two daughters Urraca and Elvira. The extinction of the western caliphate and the dispersion of the once noble heritage of the Ommayads into numerous petty independent states, had taken place some thirty years previously, so that Castilian and Moslem were once again upon equal terms, the country being almost equally divided between them. On both sides was civil war, urged as fiercely as that against the common enemy, in which the parties sought allies indiscriminately among Christians and Mahommedans.

No condition of affairs could be more favourable to the genius of the Cid. He rose to great distinction in the war between Sancho of Castile and Sancho of Navarre, in which he won his name of _Campeador_, by slaying the enemy's champion in single combat. In the quarrel between Sancho and his brother Alphonso, Rodrigo Diaz espoused the cause of the former, and it was he who suggested the perfidious stratagem by which Sancho eventually obtained the victory and possession of Leon. Sancho having been slain in 1072, while engaged in the siege of Zamora, Alphonso returned from exile and occupied the vacant throne. One of the most striking of the passages in the Cid's legendary history is that wherein he is represented as forcing the new king to swear that he had no part in his brother's death; but there was cause enough without this for Alphonso's animosity against the man who had helped to despoil him of his patrimony. For a time the Cid, already renowned throughout Spain for his prowess in war, was even advanced by the king's favour and entrusted with high commissions of state. In 1074 the Cid was wedded to Ximena, daughter of the count of Oviedo, and granddaughter, by the mother's side, of Alphonso V. The original deed of the marriage-contract is extant. Some time afterwards the Cid was sent on an embassy to collect tribute from Motamid, the king of Seville, whom he found engaged in a war with Abdallah, the king of Granada. On Abdallah's side were many Castilian knights, among them Count Garcia Ordoñez, a prince of the blood, whom the Cid endeavoured vainly to persuade of the disloyalty of opposing their master's ally. In the battle which ensued under the walls of Seville, Abdallah and his auxiliaries were routed with great slaughter, the Cid returning to Burgos with many prisoners and a rich booty. There fresh proofs of his prowess only served to kindle against him the rancour of his enemies and the jealousy of the king. Garcia Ordoñez accused him to Alphonso of keeping back part of the tribute received from Seville, and the king took advantage of the Cid's absence on a raid against the Moors to banish him from Castile.

Henceforth Rodrigo Diaz began to live that life of a soldier of fortune which has made him famous, sometimes fighting under the Christian banner, sometimes under Moorish, but always for his own hand. At the head of a band of 300 free lances he offered his services first to the count of Barcelona; then, failing him, to Moktadir, the Arab king of Saragossa, of the race of the Beni Houd. Under Moktadir, and his successors Moutamin and Mostain, the Cid remained for nearly eight years, fighting their battles against Mahommedan and Christian, when not engaged upon his own, and being admitted almost to a share of their royal authority. He made more than one attempt to be reconciled with Alphonso, but, his overtures being rejected, he turned his arms against the enemies of the Beni Houd, extending their dominions at the expense of the Christian states of Aragon and Barcelona, and harrying even the border lands of Castile. Among the enterprises of the Cid the most famous was that against Valencia, then the richest and most flourishing city of the peninsula, and an object of cupidity to both Christian and Moslem. The Cid appeared before the place at the head of an army of 7000 men, for the greater part Mahommedans. In vain did the Valencians implore succour from the emir of Cordova, and from their co-religionists in other parts of the peninsula. In defiance of an army which marched to the relief of the beleaguered city under Yusef the Almoravide, the Cid took Valencia after a siege of nine months, on the 15th of June 1094--the richest prize which up to that time had been recovered from the Moors. The conditions of the surrender were all violated--the cadi Ibn Djahhaff burnt alive, a vast number of the citizens who had escaped death by famine slaughtered, and the possessions divided among the Campeador's companions. In other respects the Cid appears to have used his victory mildly, ruling his kingdom, which now embraced nearly the whole of Valencia and Murcia, for four years with vigour and justice. At length the Almoravides, whom he had several times beaten, marched against him in great force, inflicting a crushing defeat at Cuenca upon the Cid's army, under his favourite lieutenant, Alvar Fanez. The blow was a fatal one to the aged and war-worn Campeador, who died of anger and grief in July 1099. His widow maintained Valencia for three years longer against the Moors, but was at last compelled to evacuate the city, taking with her the body of the Cid to be buried in the monastery of San Pedro at Cardeña, in the neighbourhood of Burgos. Here, in the centre of a small chapel, surrounded by his chief companions-in-arms, by Alvar Fanez Minaya, Pero Bermudez, Martin Antolinez and Pelaez the Asturian, were placed the remains of the mighty warrior, the truest of Spanish heroes, the embodiment of all the national virtues and most of the national vices. The bones have since been removed to the town hall of Burgos. Philip II. tried to get him canonized, but Rome objected, and not without reason.

Whatever were his qualities as a fighter, the Cid was but indifferent material out of which to make a saint,--a man who battled against Christian and against Moslem with equal zeal, who burnt churches and mosques with equal zest, who ravaged, plundered and slew as much for a livelihood as for any patriotic or religious purpose, and was in truth almost as much of a Mussulman as a Christian in his habits and his character. His true place in history is that of the greatest of the _guerrilleros_--the perfect type of that sort of warrior in which, from the days of Viriathus to those of Juan Diaz, El Empecinado, the soil of Spain has been most productive.

The Cid of romance, the Cid of a thousand battles, legends and dramas, the Cid as apotheosized in literature, the Cid invoked by good Spaniards in every national crisis, whose name is a perpetual and ever-present inspiration to Spanish patriotism, is a very different character from the historical Rodrigo Diaz--the freebooter, the rebel, the consorter with the infidels and the enemies of Spain. He is the Perfect One, the Born in a Happy Hour, "My Cid," the invincible, the magnanimous, the all-powerful. He is the type of knightly virtue, the mirror of patriotic duty, the flower of all Christian grace. He is Roland and Bayard in one. In the popular literature of Spain he holds a place such as has no parallel in other countries. From an almost contemporary period he has been the subject of song; and he who was chanted by wandering minstrels in the 12th century has survived to be hymned in revolutionary odes of the 19th. In a barbarous Latin poem, written in celebration of the conquest of Almeria by Alphonso VII. in the year 1147, we have the bard testifying to the supereminence of the Cid among his country's heroes:--

"Ipse Rodericus _Mio_ Cid semper vocatus,
De quo cantatur quod ab hostibus haud superatus,
Qui domuit Mauros, comites domuit quoque nostros."

Within a hundred years of his death the Cid had become the centre of a whole system of myths. The _Poema del Cid_, written in the latter half of the 12th century, has scarcely any trace of a historical character. Already the Cid had reached his apotheosis, and Castilian loyalty could not consent to degrade him when banished by his sovereign:--

"Dios, que buen vassalo si oviese buen señor!"

cry the weeping citizens of Burgos, as they speed the exile on his way.

The Poem of the Cid is but a fragment of 3744 lines; written in a barbarous style, in rugged assonant rhymes, and a rude Alexandrine measure, but it glows with the pure fire of poetry, and is full of a noble simplicity and a true epical grandeur, invaluable as a living picture of the age. The ballads relating to the Cid, of which nearly two hundred are extant, are greatly inferior in merit, though some of them are not unworthy to be ranked with the best in this kind. Duran believes the greater part of them to have been written in the 16th century. A few betray, not more by the antiquity of their language than by their natural and simple tone, traces of an earlier age and a freer national life. They all take great liberties with history, thus belying the opinion of Sancho Panza that "the ballads are too old to tell lies." Such of them as are not genuine relics of the 12th century are either poetical versions of the leading episodes in the hero's life as contained in the _Chronicle_, that _Chronicle_ itself having been doubtless composed out of still earlier legends as sung by the wandering _juglares_, or pure inventions of a later time, owing their inspiration to the romances of chivalry. In these last the ballad-mongers, not to let their native hero be outdone by the Amadises, the Esplandians, and the Felixmartes, engage him in the most extravagant adventures--making war upon the king of France and upon the emperor, receiving embassies from the soldan of Persia, bearding the pope at Rome, and performing other feats not mentioned even in the Poem or the Chronicle. The last and the worst of the Cid ballads are those which betray by their frigid conceits and feeble mimicry of the antique the false taste and essentially unheroic spirit of the age of Philip II. As for the innumerable other poems, dramas and tales which have been founded on the legend of the Cid, from the days of Guillen de Castro and Diamante to those of Quintana and Trueba, they serve merely to prove the abiding popularity of the national hero in his native land.

The chief sources from which the story of the Cid is to be gathered
are, first, the Latin chronicle discovered by Risco in the convent of
San Isidro at Leon, proved by internal evidence to have been written
before 1258; the _Cronica General_, composed by Alphonso X. in the
second half of the 13th century, partly (so far as relates to the Cid)
from the above, partly from contemporary Arabic histories, and partly
from tradition; the _Cronica del Cid_, first published in 1512, by
Juan de Velorado, abbot of the monastery of San Pedro at Cardeña,
which is a compilation from the last, interlarded with new fictions
due to the piety of the compiler; lastly, various Arabic manuscripts,
some of contemporary date, which are examined and their claims weighed
in the second volume of Professor Dozy's _Recherches sur l'histoire
politique et littéraire de l'Espagne pendant le moyen âge_ (Leiden,
1849). Huber, Müller, and Ferdinand Wolf are among the leading
authorities in the history and literature of the Cid. M. Damas Hinard
has published the poem, with a literal French translation and notes,
and John Hookham Frere has rendered it into English with extraordinary
spirit and fidelity. The largest collection of the Cid ballads is that
of Durant, in the _Romancero general_, in two volumes, forming part of
Rivadeneyra's _Biblioteca de autores españoles_. (H. E. W.)

CIDER, or CYDER (from the Fr. _cidre_, derived from the Lat. _sicera_ or _cisera_, Gr. [Greek: sikera], Heb. _sh[=e]k[=a]r_, strong drink), an alcoholic beverage made from apples.

Cider and perry (the corresponding beverage made from pears) are liquors containing from as little as 2% of alcohol to 7 or 8%, seldom more, and rarely as much, produced by the vinous fermentation of the expressed juice of apples and pears; but cider and perry of prime quality can only be obtained from vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the purpose and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from pears too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other form. The making of perry is in England confined, in the main, to the counties of Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester. These three counties, together with Somerset and Devon, constitute, too, the principal cider-making district of the country; but the industry, which was once more widely spread, still survives an Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though, in both these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is imported from the west country and some from the continent. Speaking generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its lightness and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and that of Devonshire for its lusciousness.

Cider used to be made in the south of Ireland, but the industry had almost become extinct until revived by the Department of Agriculture, which in 1904 erected a cider-making plant at Drogheda, Co. Louth, gave assistance to private firms at Dungarvan, Co. Waterford, and Fermoy, Co. Cork, and provided a travelling mill and press to work in the South Riding of Co. Tipperary. The results have been highly satisfactory, a large quantity of good cider having been produced.

Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable varieties of cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee composed of members of the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers' Association and of the Fruit and Chrysanthemum Society was appointed in 1899 to make a selection of vintage apples and pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts adjoining. The following is the list drawn up by the committee:--

_Apples_.--Old Foxwhelp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red, Dymock Red, Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton, Skyrme's Kernel, Spreading Redstreak, Carrion apple, Cherry Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal Wilding, Handsome Norman, Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman, Broad-leaved Norman, Argile Grise, Bramtôt, De Boutville, Fréquin Audièvre, Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced from Normandy about 1880, and now established in the orchards of Herefordshire.

_Pears_.--Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft or Malvern Hill, Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear.

No equally authoritative selection has been made for the Somerset and Devon districts, but the following varieties of cider apples are held in good repute in those parts:--Kingston Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns, Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine, Duck's Bill, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle Stopper, Golden Ball, Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset and Cadbury (believed to be identical with the Royal Wilding of Herefordshire). As a rule the best cider apples are of small size. "Petites pommes, gros cidre," say the French.

Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is impossible to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the amount of the annual production of them. In 1896 Mr Sampson, the then secretary of the National Association of English Cider-makers, in his evidence before the royal commission on agriculture, put it at 55½ million gallons. Since that date the increased demand for these native wines has given such an impetus to the industry that this figure might with safety be doubled. In France official statistics are available, and these show not only that that country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in the world, but that the output is yearly increasing. A great proportion, however, of what passes as cider in France is _boisson_, i.e. cider to which water has been added in the process of making or at a subsequent stage; while much of the perry is disposed of to the makers of champagne. Although some cider is made in sixty-five departments, by far the largest amount comes from the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In Germany cider-making is a considerable and growing industry. Manufactories on a small scale exist in north Germany, as at Guben and Grünberg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfort-on-Main, Sachsenhausen and the neighbourhood, where there are five large and twenty-five small factories employing upwards of 1000 hands. Large quantities of cider fruit are imported from foreign countries, as, speaking generally, the native-grown fruit used in Germany for cider-making consists of inferior and undersized table apples not worth marketing. The bottled cider for export is treated much like champagne, and is usually fortified and flavoured until, in the words of an acknowledged French authority, M. Truelle, it becomes a hybrid between cider and white wine rather than pure cider.

The practice which formerly prevailed in England of making cider on the farm from the produce of the home orchards has within the last few years been to a large extent given up, and, as in Germany and many parts of France, farmers now sell their fruit to owners of factories where the making of cider and perry is carried on as a business of itself. In these hand or horse power is superseded by steam and sometimes by electricity, as in the factory of E. Seigel in Grünberg, and the old-fashioned appliances of the farm by modern mills and presses capable of turning out large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice, too, which used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the factories accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as Lumley's filter. The actual process of cider and perry making is simple, and resembles that of making grape wine. The fruit is ground or crushed in machines of various construction, the latest and most powerful being of American origin. The resulting pomace is pressed for the extraction of the juice, which is then run into vats, where it undergoes fermentation, which, converting the saccharine ingredients into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, turns it into cider. Cider made from a judicious mixture of several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from one variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite degrees of richness, astringency and flavour in several varieties than in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which the most noted sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash and the Oldfield, produce the best perry when unmixed with other varieties. Some fining of an albuminous nature is generally requisite in order to clear the juice and facilitate its passage through the filter, but the less used the better. The simplest and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended gradually with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many nostrums are sold for the clearing of cider, but none is necessary and most are harmful.

Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using preservatives for the purpose of checking fermentation. The principal preservatives employed are salicylic and boracic acids and formalin. The two former are ineffective except in quantities likely to prove hurtful to health, while formalin, in itself a powerful and deleterious drug, though it stops fermentation, renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other foreign ingredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar derivatives--the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist, after whom it is named--are used by many makers, chiefly for the purpose of rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider palatable and saleable. Provided that cider and perry be properly filtered, and attention paid to perfect cleanliness of vessels and appliances, there is no need of preservatives or sweeteners, and their use ought to be forbidden by law in England, as it is in most continental states in the case of liquors to be consumed within their borders, though not, it is significant to note, in the case of liquors intended for exportation.

The wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and unadulterated have been recognized by medical men, who recommend them as pleasant and efficacious remedies in affections of a gouty or rheumatic nature, maladies which, strange to say, these very liquors were once supposed to foster, if not actually to originate. Under a similar false impression the notion is general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea, colic and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders of this kind are conspicuous by their absence in those parts of the country where rough cider and perry constitute the staple drinks of the working-classes. This is especially the case in Herefordshire, which is said also to be the only county in England whence no instance of the occurrence of Asiatic cholera has ever been reported.

The importance which the cider industry has of late attained in England has been marked by the establishment of the National Fruit and Cider Institute at Long Ashton near Bristol. This institute, founded in 1903 at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, is supported by grants from the board, the Bath and West of England Society, the councils of the cider-producing counties of Hereford, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth, Devon and Somerset, and by subscription of members. The objects of the institute are the promotion of research into the causes of the changes which occur in cider and perry during fermentation, with the view of imparting to these liquors a degree of exactitude hitherto unattainable; the adoption from time to time of improved machinery and methods in cider-making; the detection of adulteration; the giving of instruction in the principles and practice of cider-making; the publication of reports detailing the results of the researches undertaken at the institute; the testing and selection of the sorts of fruit best suited for vintage purposes; the propagation of useful varieties likely from neglect to go out of cultivation; and the conducting of experiments in regard to the best systems of planting and protecting young fruit trees.

Fruit-growers who look to cider-making "as a means of utilizing windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and dessert varieties not worth sending to market" should be warned that it is as important to the cider industry that good cider only should be on sale as it is to the fruit-growing industry that good fruit only should be sent to market. The juice of the apple is naturally affected by the condition of the fruit itself, and if this be unripe, unsound or worm-eaten the cider made from it will be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe and sound fruit. If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither will the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public. Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for home consumption, and may therefore be so utilized. But when, as happens from time to time in fruit-growing districts, there is a glut, and even the best table fruit is not saleable at a profit, then, indeed, cider-making is a means of storing in a liquid form what would otherwise be left to rot on the ground; whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed therewith, a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider trade, and would bring a fair return to the maker. (C. W. R. C.)

CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO ÁLVAREZ DE (1764-1809), Spanish poet and publicist, was born at Madrid on the 14th of December 1764. He studied with distinction at Salamanca, where he met the poet Melendez Valdés. His poems, published in 1778, immediately attracted attention. He was successively editor of the _Gaceta_ and _Mercurio_, and was condemned to death for having published an article against Napoleon; on the petition of his friends, he was respited and deported to France; he died at Orthez early in the following year. His verses are modelled on those of Melendez Valdés; though not deficient in technique or passion, they are often disfigured by spurious sentimentality and by the flimsy philosophy of the age. Cienfuegos was blamed for an unsparing use of both archaisms and gallicisms. His plays, _Pitaco, Zoraida, La Condesa de Castilla_ and _Idomeneo_, four tragedies on the pseudo-classic French model, and _Las Hermanas generosas_, a comedy, are deservedly forgotten.

CIENFUEGOS (originally FERNANDINA DE JAGUA), one of the principal cities of Cuba, in Santa Clara province, near the central portion of the S. coast, 195 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 30,100. Cienfuegos is served by the United railways and by steamers connecting with Santiago, Batabanó, Trinidad and the Isle of Pines. It lies about 6 m. from the sea on a peninsula in the magnificent landlocked bay of Jagua. Vessels drawing 16 ft. have direct access to the wharves. A circular railway about the water-front, wharves and warehouses facilitates the loading and unloading of vessels. The city streets are broad and regularly laid out. There is a handsome cathedral; and the Tomas Terry theatre (given to the city by the heirs of one of the millionaire sugar planters of the jurisdiction), the governor's house (1841-1844), the military and government hospitals, market place and railway station are worthy of note. In the Cathedral Square (Plaza de Armas), embracing two city-squares, and shaded--like all the plazas of the island--with laurels and royal palms, are a statue of Isabel the Catholic, and two marble lions given by Queen Isabel II.; elsewhere there are statues of General Clouet and Marshal Serrano, once captain-general. The city is lighted by gas and electricity, has an abundant water-supply, and cable connexion with Europe, the United States, other Antilles and South America. The surrounding country is one of the prettiest and most fertile regions in Cuba, varied with woods, rivers, rocky gulches, beautiful cascades and charming tropic vegetation. Several of the largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in the vicinity, including the Soledad (with a botanical experiment station maintained by Harvard University), the Terry and others--most of them connected with the city by good driveways. Cienfuegos is a centre of the sugar trade on the south coast; tobacco too is exported.

The bay of Jagua was visited by Columbus. The city was founded in 1819, with the aid of the Spanish government, by a Louisianian, General Luis de Clouet; it was destroyed by a hurricane and was rebuilt in 1825. Many naturalized foreign Catholics, including Americans, were among the original settlers. The settlement was first named in honour of Ferdinand VII., and later in honour of Captain-General José Cienfuegos Jovellanos. The harbour was known from the earliest times, and has been declared by Mahan to be the most important of the Caribbean Sea for strategic purposes. In 1740-1745 a fortification called Nuestra Señora de los Angeles was erected at the entrance; it is still standing, on a steep bluff overlooking the sea, and is one of the most picturesque of the old fortifications of the island. On the 11th of May 1898 a force from two vessels of the United States fleet under Admiral Schley, searching for Cervera and blockading the port, cut two of the three cables here (at Point Colorado, at the entrance of the harbour), and for the first time in the Spanish-American War the American troops were under fire.

CIEZA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the right bank of the river Segura, and on the Madrid-Cartagena railway. Pop. (1900) 13,626. Cieza is built in a narrow bend of the Segura valley, which is enclosed on the north by mountains, and on the south broadens into a fertile plain, producing grain, wine, olives, raisins, oranges and esparto grass. In the town itself there are flour and paper mills, sawmills and brandy distilleries. Between 1870 and 1900 local trade and population increased rapidly, owing partly to improved means of communication; and the appearance of Cieza is thoroughly modern.

CIGAR, the common term for tobacco-leaf prepared for smoking by being rolled into a short cylinder tapering to a point at the end which is placed in the mouth, the other end, which is lighted, being usually cut square (see TOBACCO). The Spanish _cigarro_ is of doubtful origin, possibly connected with _cigarra_, a cicada, from its resemblance to the body of that insect, or with _cigarral_, a word of Arabic origin meaning a pleasure garden. The explanation that it comes from a Cuban word for a certain species of tobacco is probably erroneous, since no native word of the kind is known. The diminutive, _cigarette_, denotes a roll of cut tobacco enclosed usually in thin paper, but sometimes also in tobacco-leaf or the husk of Indian corn.

CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-1719), Italian painter, was born of a noble family at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo, and afterwards under Francesco Albani. Though an intimate friend of the latter, and his most famous disciple, Cignani was yet strongly and deeply influenced by the genius of Correggio. His greatest work, moreover, the "Assumption of the Virgin," round the cupola of the church of the Madonna della Fuoca at Forli, which occupied him some twenty years, and is in some respects one of the most remarkable works of art of the 17th century, is obviously inspired from the more renowned fresco of Correggio in the cupola of the cathedral of Parma. Cignani had some of the defects of his masters; his elaborate finish, his audacious artificiality in the use of colour and in composition, mark the disciple of Albani; but he imparted to his work a more intellectual character than either of his models, and is not without other remarkable merits of his own. As a man Cignani was eminently amiable, unassuming and generous. His success, however, made him many enemies; and the envy of some of these is said to have impelled them to deface certain of his works. He accepted none of the honours offered him by the duke of Parma and other princes, but lived and died an artist. On his removal to Forli, where he died, the school he had founded at Bologna was fain in some sort to follow its master. His most famous pictures, in addition to the Assumption already cited, are--the "Entry of Paul III. into Bologna"; the "François I. Touching for King's Evil"; a "Power of Love," painted under a fine ceiling by Agostino Carracci, on the walls of a room in the ducal palace at Parma; an "Adam and Eve" (at the Hague); and two of "Joseph and Potiphar's Wife" (at Dresden and Copenhagen). His son Felice (1660-1724) and nephew Paolo (1709-1764) were also painters.