Chapter XVIII: Part 18

Thus there was a real significance in ceremonial investiture (cf. Num.
xx. 26, 28) and in the transference of clothes (cf. Elisha and
Elijah's mantle, 2 Kings ii. 13). Further the exchange of garments was
not meaningless, and the prohibition in Deut. xxii. 5 points to
religious or superstitious beliefs, on which see J. G. Frazer,
_Adonis, Attis and Osiris_ (2nd ed.), pp. 428-435. On the claim
involved by the act of throwing a garment over another (Ruth iii. 9;
cf. 1 Kings xix. 19), see W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage_[21], 105
sq.; J. Wellhausen, _Archiv f. Religionswiss_. (1907), pp. 40 sqq.;
and on some interesting ideas associated with sandals, see _Ency.
Bib._, s.v. "Shoes." As a sign of grief, or on any occasion when the
individual felt himself brought into closer contact with his deity,
the garments were rent (subsequently a conventional slit at the breast
sufficed) and he donned the _sak_, a loin-cloth or wrapper which
appears to be a survival of older and more primitive dress.[21] Later
tradition (Mish., Kil. ix. 1) does not endorse Ezekiel's prohibition
of woollen garments among the priests in the sanctuary (xliv. 17 sq.).
Why the layman was forbidden a mixture of wool and linen
(_sha'atn[=e]z_, Deut. xxii. 11) is difficult to explain, though
Maimonides perhaps correctly regarded the law as a protest against
heathenism (on the magical use of representatives of the animal and
vegetable kingdom, in conjunction with a metal ring, see I. Goldziher,
_Zeit. f. alttest. Wissens._ xx. 36 sq.).

Ancient oriental costume then cannot be severed from the history and development of thought. On the one side we may see the increase of rich apparel and the profusion of clothes by which people of rank indicated their position. On the other are such figures as the Hebrew prophets, distinguished by their hairy garment and by their denunciation of the luxury of both sexes.[22] Superfluous clothing was both weakening and deteriorating; this formed the point of the advice of Croesus to Cyrus (Herod. i. 155). But "foreign apparel" was only too apt to involve ideas of foreign worship (Zeph. i. 8. sq.), and the recognition that national costume, custom and morality were inseparable underlay the objection to the Greek cap (the [Greek: petasos]) introduced among the Jews under Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Macc. iv. 10-17, with the parallel 1 Macc. i. 11-15). The Israelite distinctive costume and toilet as part of a distinctive national religion was in harmony with oriental thought, and, as a people chosen and possessed by Yahweh, "a kingdom of priests and an holy nation" (Ex. xix. 5 sq.; cf. Is. lxi. 6), certain outward signs assumed a new significance and continued to be cherished by orthodox Jews as tokens of their faith. The tassels attached by blue threads to the four corners of the outer garment were unique only as regards the special meaning attached to them (Num. xv. 37-41; Deut. xxii. 12), and when in the middle ages they marked out the Jew for persecution they were transferred to a small under-garment (the little _t[=a]l[=i]th_), the proper _t[=a]l[=i]th_ being worn over the head in the synagogue. Similarly, sentences bound on the left arm or placed upon the forehead (Deut. xi. 18, cf. the high priest's plate) find analogies in the means taken elsewhere to ensure the protection of or to manifest one's adherence to a deity; the novelty lies in the part these sentences took in the religion (see PHYLACTERY). While the particular prohibition regarding the beard and hair in Lev. xix. 27 (cf. Ezek. xliv. 20) was for the avoidance of heathen customs, the _p[=e]y[=o]th_ or long curls which became typical in the middle ages are reminiscent of the Horns-curl of Egypt and the Mahommedan "heaven lock" and evidently served as positive distinctive marks. Apart from these details later Jewish dress does not belong to this section. In the Greek and Roman period foreign influence shows itself very strongly in the introduction of novelties of costume and of classical terms, and the subject belongs rather to the Greek and Roman dress of the age.[23] Two conflicting tendencies were constantly at work, and reached their climax in the middle ages. There was an anxiety to avoid articles of dress peculiar to other religions, especially when these were associated with religious practices; and there was a willingness to refrain from costume contrary to the customs of an unsympathetic land. On the one hand, there was a conservatism which is exemplified when the Jews in course of immigration took with them the characteristic dress of their former adopted home, or when they remained unmoved by the changes of the Renaissance. On the other hand, the prominent badge enforced by Pope Innocent III. in 1215 was intended to prevent Jews from being mistaken for Christians, and similarly in Mahommedan lands they were compelled to wear some distinctive indication of their sect. Thus the many quaint and interesting features of later Jewish costume have arisen from certain specific causes, any consideration of which concerns later and medieval costume generally. See I. Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_ (1896), chap. xv. sq.; and especially the _Jew. Encyc._, s.v. "Dress" (with numerous illustrations).

AUTHORITIES.--Much useful material will be found in popular
illustrated books (especially C. J. Ball, _Light from the East_,
London, 1899) and in the magnificent volumes on the history of ancient
art by G. Perrot and C. Chipiez. On Egyptian costume see especially J.
G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (ed. by
S. Birch, 1878), and A. Erman _Life in Ancient Egypt_ (1894,
especially pp. 200-233); for Egyptian evidence, see W. M. Muller,
_Asien und Europa nach altagypt. Denkmaler_ (Leipzig, 1893), _Mitteil.
d. vorderasiat. Gesellschaft_ (1904), ii. (and elsewhere). The most
important study on old Babylonian dress is that of E. Meyer, "Sumerier
und Semiten in Babylonien," in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin
University (1906). For Hittite material, see the collection by L.
Messerschmidt, _Mitteil. d. vorderas. Ges._ (1900 and 1902). For
special discussions, see H. Weiss, _Kostumkunde_, i. (Stuttgart,
1881), articles in _Dict. Bible_ (Hastings), _Ency. Biblica_, and
_Jewish Encyc._, and I. Benzinger, Hebr. _Archaologie_ (Tubingen,
1907), pp. 73 sqq. See also the general bibliography at the end.
(S. A. C.)

FIG. 15.--Terra-cotta Statuette.]

ii. _Aegean Costume._--The discoveries made at Mycenae and other centres of "Mycenaean" civilization, and those of more recent date due to the excavations of Dr A. J. Evans and others in Crete, have shown that Hellenic culture was preceded in the Aegean by a civilization differing from it in many respects (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION), and not least in costume. The essential feature both of male and female dress during the "Minoan" and "Mycenaean" periods was the loin-cloth, which is best represented by the votive terra-cotta statuettes from Petsofa in Crete discovered by Professor J. L. Myres and published in the ninth volume of the _Annual of the British School at Athens_ (fig. 15). J. L. Myres shows that the costume consists of three parts--the loin-cloth itself, a white wrapper or kilt worn over it, and a knotted girdle which secured the whole and perhaps played its part in producing and maintaining the wasp waists characteristic of the Aegean race. The loin-cloth was the only costume (except for high boots, probably made of pale leather, since they are represented with white paint) regularly worn by the male sex, though we sometimes find a hood or wrapper, as on a lead statuette found in Laconia (fig. 16), but the Aegean women developed it into a bodice-and-skirt costume, well represented by the frescoes of Cnossus and the statuettes of the snake-goddess and her votaries there discovered. This transformation of the loin-cloth has been illustrated by Mr D. Mackenzie (see below) from Cretan seal-impressions. In place of the belted kilt of the men we find a belted panier or polonaise, considerably elongated in front, worn by Aegean women; and Mackenzie shows that this was repeated several times until it formed the compound skirt with a number of flounces which is represented on many Mycenaean gems. On a fresco discovered at Phaestus (Hagia Triada) (fig. 17) and a sealing from the same place this multiple skirt is clearly shown as divided; but this does not seem to have been the general rule. On other sealings we find a single overskirt with a pleated underskirt. The skirts were held in place by a thick rolled belt, and the upper part of the body remained quite nude in the earliest times; but from the middle Minoan period onward we often find an important addition in the shape of a low-cut bodice, which sometimes has sleeves, either tight-fitting or puffed, and ultimately develops into a laced corsage. A figurine from Petsofa (fig. 18) shows the bodice-and-skirt costume, together with a high pointed head-dress, in one of its most elaborate forms. The bodice has a high peaked collar at the back. Other forms of head-dress are seen on the great signet from Mycenae. The fact that both male and female costume amongst the primitive Aegean peoples is derivable from the simple loin-cloth with additions is rightly used by Mackenzie as a proof that their original home is not to be sought in the colder regions of central Europe, but in a warm climate such as that of North Africa. It is not until the latest Mycenaean period that we find brooches, such as were used in historical Greece, to fasten woollen garments, and their presence in the tombs of the lower city of Mycenae indicates the coming of a northern race.

FIG. 16.--Lead Statuette from Kampos.]

FIG. 17.--Part of a Fresco discovered at Phaestus.]

FIG. 18.--Terra-cotta Statuette from Petsofa.]

See _Annual of the British School at Athens_, ix. 356 sqq. (Myres);
xii. 233 sqq. (Mackenzie); Tsountas and Manatt, _The Mycenaean Age_,
ch. vii.

iii. _Greek Costume._--All articles of Greek costume belong either to the class of [Greek: endymata], more or less close-fitting, sewn garments, or of [Greek: periblemata], loose pieces of stuff draped round the body in various ways and fastened with pins or brooches. For the former class the generic name is [Greek: chiton], a word of Semitic origin, which denotes the Eastern origin of the garment; for the latter we find in Homer and early poetry [Greek: peplos], in later times [Greek: himation]. The [Greek: peplos] (also called [Greek: eanos] and [Greek: pharos] in Homer) was the sole indispensable article of dress in early Greece, and, as it was always retained as such by the women in Dorian states, is often called the "Doric dress" ([Greek: esthes Doris]). It was a square piece of woollen stuff about a foot longer than the height of the wearer, and equal in breadth to twice the span of the arms measured from wrist to wrist. The upper edge was folded over for a distance equal to the space from neck to waist--this folded portion was called [Greek: apoptygma] or [Greek: diplois],--and the whole garment was then doubled and wrapped round the body below the armpits, the left side being closed and the right open. The back and front were then pulled up over the shoulders and fastened together with brooches like safety-pins ([Greek: peronai]). This was the Doric costume, which left the right side of the body exposed and provoked the censure of Euripides (_Andr_. 598). It was usual, however, to hold the front and back of the [Greek: peplos] together by a girdle ([Greek: zone]), passed round the waist below the [Greek: apoptygma]; the superfluous length of the garment was pulled up through the girdle and allowed to fall over in a baggy fold ([Greek: kolpos]) (see GREEK ART, fig. 75). Sometimes the [Greek: apoptygma] was made long enough to fall below the waist, and the girdle passed outside it (cf. the figure of Artemis on the vase shown in GREEK ART, fig. 29); this was the fashion in which the Athena Parthenos of Pheidias was draped. The "Attic" or "Corinthian" [Greek: peplos] was sewn together on the right side from below the arm, and thus became an [Greek: endyma]. The [Greek: peplos] was worn in a variety of colours and often decorated with bands of ornament, both horizontal and vertical; Homer uses the epithets [Greek: krokopeplos] and [Greek: kyanopeplos], which show that yellow and dark blue [Greek: peploi] were worn, and speaks of embroidered [Greek: peploi] ([Greek: poikiloi]). Such embroideries are indicated by painting on the statues from the Acropolis and are often shown on vase paintings.

The chiton, [Greek: chiton], was formed by sewing together at the sides two pieces of linen, or a double piece folded together, leaving spaces at the top for the arms and neck, and fastening the top edges together over the shoulders and upper arm with buttons or brooches; more rarely we find a plain sleeveless chiton. The length of the garment varied considerably. The [Greek: chitoniskos], worn in active exercise, as by the so-called "Atalanta" of the Vatican, or the well-known Amazon statues (Greek Art, fig. 40), reached only to the knee; the [Greek: chiton poderes] covered the feet. This long, trailing garment was especially characteristic of Ionia; in the Homeric poems (Il. xiii. 685) we read of the [Greek: Iaones helkechitones]. If worn without a girdle it went by the name of [Greek: chiton orthostadios]. The long chiton was regularly used by musicians (e.g. Apollo the lyre-player) and charioteers. In ordinary life it was generally pulled up through the girdle and formed a [Greek: kolpos] (GREEK ART, fig. 2).

Herodotus (v. 82-88) tells a story (cf. Aegina), the details of which are to all appearance legendary, in order to account for a change in the fashion of female dress which took place at Athens in the course of the 6th century B.C. Up to that time the "Dorian dress" had been universal, but the Athenians now gave up the use of garments fastened with pins or brooches, and adopted the linen chiton of the Ionians. The statement of Herodotus is illustrated both by Attic vase-paintings and also by the series of archaic female statues from the Acropolis of Athens, which (with the exception of one clothed in the Doric [Greek: peplos]) wear the Ionic chiton, together with an outer garment, sometimes laid over both shoulders like a cloak (GREEK ART, fig. 3), but more usually fastened on the right shoulder only, and passed diagonally across the body so as to leave the left arm free. The garment (which resembles the Doric [Greek: peplos], but seems to have been rectangular rather than square) is folded over at the top, and the central part is drawn up towards the right shoulder to produce an elaborate system of zigzag folds (GREEK ART, fig. 22). The borders of the garment are painted with geometrical patterns in vivid colours; a broad stripe of ornament runs down the centre of the skirt.[24]

This fashion of dress was only temporary. Thucydides (i. 6) tells us that in his own time the linen chiton of Ionia had again been discarded in favour of the Doric dress, and the monuments show that after the Persian wars a reaction against Orientalism showed itself in a return to simpler fashions. The long linen chiton, which had been worn by men as well as women, was now only retained by the male sex on religious and festival occasions; a short chiton was, however, worn at work or in active exercise (GREEK ART, fig. 3) and often fastened on the left shoulder only, when it was called [Greek: chiton heteromaschalos] or [Greek: exomis]. But the garment usually worn by men of mature age was the [Greek: himation], which was (like the [Greek: peplos]) a plain square of woollen stuff. One corner of this was pulled over the left shoulder from the back and tucked in under the left arm; the rest of the garment was brought round the right side of the body and either carried under the right shoulder, across the chest and over the left shoulder, if it was desired that the right arm should be free, or wrapped round the right arm as well as the body, leaving the right hand in a fold like a sling (GREEK ART, fig. 2). The [Greek: himation] was also worn by women over the linen chiton, and draped in a great variety of ways, which may be illustrated by the terra-cotta figurines from Tanagra (4th-3rd cent. B.C.) and the numerous types of female statues, largely represented by copies of Roman date, made to serve as grave-monuments. The upper part of the [Greek: himation] was often drawn over the head as in the example here shown (Plate, fig. 21), a statue formerly in the duke of Sutherland's collection at Trentham and now in the British Museum.

A lighter garment was the [Greek: chlamys], chlamys, a mantle worn by young men, usually over a short chiton girt at the waist, and fastened on the right shoulder (cf. the figure of Hermes in GREEK ART, fig. 2). The [Greek: chlaina] was a heavy woollen cloak worn in cold weather. Peasants wore sheepskins or garments of hide called [Greek: baite] or [Greek: sisura]; slaves, who were required by custom to conceal their limbs as much as possible, wore a sleeved chiton and long hose.

A woman's head was usually covered by drawing up the [Greek: himation] (see above), but sometimes instead of this, a separate piece of cloth was made to perform this service, the end of it falling over the _himation_. This was the [Greek: kalyptra], or veil called [Greek: kredemnon] in Homer. A cap merely intended to cover in the hair and hold it together was called [Greek: kekryphalos]. When the object was only to hold up the hair from the neck, the [Greek: sphendone] was used, which, as its name implies, was in the form of a sling; but in this case it was called more particularly [Greek: opisthosphendone], as a distinction from the _sphendon[=e]_ when worn in front of the head. The head ornaments include the [Greek: diadema], a narrow band bound round the hair a little way back from the brow and temples, and fastened in the knot of the hair behind; the [Greek: ampux], a variety of the diadem; the [Greek: stephane], a crown worn over the forehead, its highest point being in the centre, and narrowing at each side into a thin band which is tied at the back of the head. It is doubtful whether this should be distinguished from the [Greek: stephanos], a crown of the same breadth and design all round, as on the coins of Argos with the head of Hera, who is expressly said by Pausanias to wear a _stephanos_. This word is also employed for crowns of laurel, olive or other plant. High crowns made of wicker-work ([Greek: poloi, kalathoi]) were also worn (see Gerhard, _Antike Bildwerke_, pls. 303-305). When the hair, as was most usual, was gathered back from the temples and fastened in a knot behind, hair-pins were required, and these were mostly of bone or ivory, mounted with gold or plain; so also when the hair was tied in a large knot above the forehead, as in the case of Artemis, or of Apollo as leader of the Muses. The early Athenians wore their hair in the fashion termed [Greek: krobylos], with fastenings called "grasshoppers" ([Greek: tettiges]), in allusion to their claim of having originally sprung from the soil (Thuc. i. 6). The [Greek: tettiges] have been identified by Helbig with small spirals of gold wire, such as are found in early Etruscan tombs lying near the head of the skeleton. Such spirals were used in early Athens to confine the back hair, and this fashion may therefore be identified as the [Greek: krobylos]. In archaic figures the hair is most frequently arranged over the brow and temples in parallel rows of small curls which must have been kept in their places by artificial means. Ear-rings ([Greek: enotia, ellobia, helikteres]) of gold, silver, or bronze plated with gold, and frequently ornamented with pearls, precious stones, or enamel, were worn attached to the lobes of the ear. For necklaces ([Greek: hormoi]), bracelets ([Greek: opheis]), brooches ([Greek: peronai]), and finger-rings ([Greek: daktylioi] or [Greek: sphragides]) the same variety and preciousness of material was employed. For the feet the sandal ([Greek: sandalon, pedilon]) was the usual wear; for hunting and travelling high boots were worn. The hunting-boot ([Greek: endromis]) was laced up the front, and reached to the calves; the [Greek: kothornos] (cothurnus) was a high boot reaching to the middle of the leg, and as worn by tragic actors had high soles. Slippers ([Greek: persikai]) were adopted from the East by women; shoes ([Greek: embades]) were worn by the poorer classes. Gloves ([Greek: cheirides]) were worn by the Persians, but apparently never by the Greeks unless to protect the hands when working (_Odyssey_, xxiv. 230). Hats, which were as a rule worn only by youths, workmen and slaves, were of circular shape, and either of some stiff material, as the Boeotian hat observed in terra-cottas from Tanagra, or of pliant material which could be bent down at the sides like the [Greek: petasos] worn by Hermes and sometimes even by women. The [Greek: kausia], or Macedonian hat, seems to have been similar to this. The [Greek: kyrbasia], or [Greek: kidaris], was a high-pointed hat of Persian origin, as was also the [Greek: tiara], which served the double purpose of an ornament and a covering for the head. Workmen wore a close-fitting felt cap ([Greek: pilos]).

See F. Studniczka, "Beitrage zur Geschichte der altgriechischen
Tracht" (_Abhandlungen des arch.-epigr_. _Seminars in Wien_, vii.
1886); Lady Evans, _Chapters on Greek Dress_ (1893); W. Kalkmann, "Zur
Tracht archaischer Gewandfiguren" (_Jahrb. des k. deutschen arch.
Instituts_, 1896, pp. 19 ff.); S. Cybulski, _Tabulae quibus
antiquitates Graecae et Romanae illustrantur_, Nos. 16-18 (1903), with
text by W. Amelung; Ethel B. Abrahams, _Greek Dress_ (1908).

iv. _Etruscan Costume._--The female dress of the Etruscans did not differ in any important respect from that of the Greeks; it consisted of the _chiton_ and _himation_, which was in earlier times usually worn as a shawl, not after the fashion of the Doric [Greek: peplos]. Two articles of costume, however, were peculiar to the Etruscans--the high conical hat known as the _tutulus_,[25] and the shoes with turned-up points (Latin _calcei repandi_). These have oriental analogies, and lend support to the tradition that the Etruscans came from Asia. Both are represented on a small bronze figure in the British Museum (fig. 19). On a celebrated terra-cotta sarcophagus in the British Museum of much later date (fig. 20), the female figure reclining on the lid wears a Greek chiton of a thin white material, with short sleeves fastened on the outside of the arm, by means of buttons and loops; a _himation_ of dark purple thick stuff is wrapped round her hips and legs; on her feet are sandals, consisting of a sole apparently of leather, and attached to the foot and leg with leather straps; under the straps are thin socks which do not cover the toes; she wears a necklace of heavy pendants; her ears are pierced for ear-rings; her hair is partly gathered together with a ribbon at the roots behind, and partly hangs in long tresses before and behind; a flat diadem is bound round her head a little way back from the brow and temples. Purple, pale green and white, richly embroidered, are favourite colours in the dresses represented on the painted tombs.

FIG. 20.]

The chief article of male dress was called the tebenna. We are told by ancient writers that the _toga praetexta_, with its purple border ([Greek: periporphyros tebenna]), as worn by Roman magistrates and priests, had been derived from the Etruscans (Pliny, N.H. ix. 63, "praetextae apud Etruscos originem invenere"); and the famous statue of the orator in Florence (Plate, fig. 22), an Etruscan work of the 3rd century B.C., represents a man clothed in this garment, which will be described below. Under the tebenna, or toga, which was necessary only for public appearance, the Etruscans wore a short tunic similar to the Greek chiton. For workmen and others of inferior occupation this appears to have been the only dress. Youths, when engaged in horsemanship and other exercises, wore a chlamys round the shoulders, which, however, was semicircular in cut, and was fastened on the breast by buttons and a loop, or tied in a knot, whereas the Greek chlamys was oblong and fastened on the shoulder by a brooch. On public or festal occasions the Etruscan noble wore, besides the tebenna, a _bulla_, or necklace of _bullae_, and a wreath, _corona Etrusca_. The bulla was a circular gold locket containing a charm of some kind against evil.[26] On the later sarcophagi the male figures wear not only a wreath or _corona_ proper, but also a garland of flowers hung round the neck. The male head-dress was the _galerus_, a hat of leather, said to have been worn by the Lucumos in early times, or the _apex_, a pointed hat corresponding to the _tutulus_ worn by females. The fashion of shoes worn by Roman senators was said to have been derived from Etruria. Etruscan shoes were prized both in Greece and in Rome.

Helbig's articles, referred to at the close of the next section,
should be consulted. J. Martha, _L'Art etrusque_, gives reproductions
of the most important monuments. See also the works on Etruscan
civilization named in the art. ETRURIA.

v. _Roman Costume._--We are told that the _toga_, the national garment of the Romans, was originally worn both by men and by women; and though the female dress of the Romans was in historical times essentially the same as that of the Greeks, young girls still wore the _toga_ on festal occasions, as we see from the reliefs of the Ara Pacis Augustae. In early times no undergarment was worn save a loin-cloth (_subligaculum_), which seems to be a survival of early Mediterranean fashions (see above, sect. _Aegean Costume_), and candidates for office in historical times appeared in the _toga_ and _subligaculum_ only. In this period, however, the _tunica_, corresponding to the Greek chiton, was universally worn in ordinary life, and the _toga_ gradually became a full-dress garment which was only worn over the _tunica_ on important social occasions; Juvenal (iii. 171) tells us that in a great part of Italy no one wore the _toga_ except at his burial!

The _toga_ was a piece of woollen cloth in the form of a segment of a circle,[27] the chord of the arc being about three times the height of the wearer, and the height a little less than one-half of this length. One end of this garment was thrown over the left shoulder and allowed to hang down in front; the remainder was drawn round the body and disposed in various ways. In the _cinctus Gabinus_, which was the fashion adopted in early times when fighting was in prospect, the end of the _toga_ was drawn tightly round the waist and formed a kind of girdle; this was retained in certain official functions, such as the opening of the temple of Janus in historical times.[28] In time of peace the _toga_ was wrapped round the right arm, leaving the hand only free, much after the fashion of the Greek _himation_, and thrown over the left shoulder so as to fall down behind (see ROMAN ART, Plate II., fig. 11, male figure to r.); or, if greater freedom were desired, it was passed under the right arm-pit. In religious ceremonies, the magistrate presiding at the sacrifice drew the back of the toga over his head; see in the same illustration the priest with veiled head, _ritu Gabino_, who also wears his _toga_ with the _cinctus Gabinus_. Towards the end of the republic a new fashion was generally adopted. A considerable length of the toga was allowed to hang from the left shoulder; the remainder was passed round the body so as to rise like a baldric (_balteus_) from the right hip to the left shoulder, being folded over in front (the fold was called sinus), then brought round the back of the neck so that the end fell over the right shoulder; the hanging portion on the left side was drawn up through the _sinus_, and bulged out in an _umbo_ (Plate, fig. 24). Later still, this portion, instead of forming a bundle of folds in the centre, was carefully folded over and carried up over the left shoulder, and in course of time these folds were carefully arranged in several thicknesses resembling boards, _tabulae_, hence called _contabulatio_ (Plate, fig. 23). Yet another fashion was that adopted by the flamens, who passed the right-hand portion of the _toga_ over the right shoulder and arm and back over the left shoulder, so that it hung down in a curve over the front of the body; the upper edge was folded over. The flamens are thus represented on the Ara Pacis Augustae.

The plain white toga (_toga pura_) was the ordinary dress of the citizen, but the _toga praetexta_, which had a border of purple, was worn by boys till the age of sixteen, when they assumed the plain _toga virilis_, and also by curule magistrates and some priests. A purple toga with embroidery (_toga picta_) was worn together with a gold-embroidered tunic (_tunica palmata_) by generals while celebrating a triumph and by magistrates presiding at games; it represented the traditional dress of the kings and was adopted by Julius Caesar as a permanent costume. The emperors wore it on occasions of special importance. The _trabea_, which in historical times was worn by the consuls when opening the temple of Janus, by the _equites_ at their yearly inspection and on some other occasions, and by the Salii at their ritual dances, and had (according to tradition) formed the original costume of the augurs and flamens (who afterwards adopted the _toga praetexta_), was apparently a _toga_ smaller in size than the ordinary civil dress, decorated with scarlet stripes (_trabes_). It was fastened with brooches (fibulae) and appears to have been worn by the _equites_, e.g. at the funeral ceremony of Antoninus Pius.

The tunica was precisely like the Greek chiton; that of the senator had two broad stripes of purple (latus clavus) down the centre, that of the knight two narrow stripes (angustus clavus). A woollen undergarment (subucula) was often worn by men; the women's under-tunic was of linen (indusium). When women gave up the use of the toga, they adopted the stola, a long tunic with a border of a darker colour (instita) along the lower edge; the neck also sometimes had a border (patagium). The tunic with long sleeves (tunica manicata) was a later fashion. Over this the ricinium or rica, a shawl covering the head and shoulders, was worn in early times, and retained by certain priestesses as an official costume;[29] but it gave place to the palla, the equivalent of the Greek himation, and the dress of the Roman women henceforward differed in no essential particular from that of the Greek.

A variety of cloaks were worn by men during inclement weather; in general they resembled the Greek chlamys, but often had a hood (_cucullus_) which could be drawn over the head. Such were the _birrus_ (so-called from its red colour), _abolla_ and _lacerna_. The _paenula_, which was the garment most commonly worn, especially by soldiers when engaged on peace duties, was an oblong piece of cloth with a hole in the centre for the neck; a hood was usually attached to the back. It survives in the ritual chasuble of the Western Church. The Greek military chlamys appears in two forms--the _paludamentum_ of the general (e.g. Trajan as represented on the Arch of Constantine, ROMAN ART, Plate III., fig. 16), and the _sagum_ worn by the common soldier (e.g. by some of the horsemen on the base of the Antonine column, ROMAN ART, Plate V., fig. 21). When the toga went out of use as an article of everyday wear, the _pallium_, i.e. the Greek _himation_, was at first worn only by Romans addicted to Greek fashions, but from the time of Tiberius, who wore it in daily life, its use became general. Long robes bearing Greek names (_synthesis, syrma_, &c.) were worn at dinner-parties.

The Romans often wore sandals (_soleae_) or light shoes (_socci_), but in full dress (i.e. with the toga) it was necessary to wear the _calceus_, which had various forms by which classes were distinguished, e.g. the _calceus patricius, mulleus_ (of red leather) and _senatorius_ (of black leather). This was a shoe with slits at the sides and straps knotted in front; its forms may be seen on the relief from the Ara Pacis. The senators' _calceus_ had four such straps (_quattuor corrigiae_), which were wound round the ankle (cf. the _flamen_ on the Ara Pacis), and was also adorned with an ivory crescent (_lunula_). A leathern tongue (_lingula_) is often seen to project from beneath the straps. The soldier's boot (_caliga_, from which the emperor Gaius derived his nickname, Caligula) was in reality a heavy hobnailed sandal with a number of straps wound round the ankle and lower leg. A high hunting boot was called _compagus_. Women at times wore the _calceus_, but are generally represented in art with soft shoes or sandals.

Hats were seldom worn except by those who affected Greek fashions, but the close-fitting leather _pileus_ seems to have been an article of early wear in Italy, since its use survived in the ceremony of manumission, and the head-dress of the pontifices and flamines (cf. the relief of the Ara Pacis already referred to) consisted in such a cap (_galerus_) with an apex, or _spike_, of olive wood inserted in the crown.

For personal ornament finger-rings of great variety in the material and design were worn by men, sometimes to the extent of one or more on each finger, many persons possessing small cabinets of them. But at first the Roman citizen wore only an iron signet ring, and this continued to be used at marriages. The _jus annuli aurei_, or right of wearing a gold ring, originally a military distinction, became a senatorial privilege, which was afterwards extended to the knights and gradually to other classes. Women's ornaments consisted of brooches (_fibulae_), bracelets (_armillae_), armlets (_armillae, bracchialia_), ear-rings (_inaures_), necklaces (_monilia_), wreaths (_coronae_) and hair-pins (_crinales_). The tore (_torques_), or cord of gold worn round the neck, was introduced from Gaul. A profusion of precious stones, and absence of skill or refinement in workmanship, distinguish Roman from Greek or Etruscan jewelry; but in the character of the designs there is no real difference.

See Marquardt-Mau, _Privatleben der Romer_, pp. 550 seq. (gives a full
collection of literary references); Cybulski, _op. cit_., pls. xix.,
xx., with Amelung's text; articles by W. Helbig, especially
_Sitzungsberichte der bayrischen Akademie_ (1880), pp. 487 seq. (on
headgear); _Hermes_ xxxix. 161 seq. (on _toga_ and _trabea_), and
_Memoires de l'Academie des inscriptions_, xxxvii. (1905) (on the
costume of the Salii); articles by L. Heuzey in Daremberg and Saglio's
_Dictionnaire des antiquites_, also in _Revue de l'art_, i. 98 seq.,
204 seq., ii. 193 seq., 295 seq. (on the _toga_). See also the general
bibliography at the end. (H. S. J.)

II. COSTUME IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN EUROPE

i. _Pre-Roman and Roman Britain._--Men who had found better clothing than the skins of beasts were in Britain when Caesar landed. Little as we know of England before the English, we have at least the knowledge that Britons, other than the poorer and wilder sort of the north and the fens, wore cloaks and hats, sleeved coats whose skirts were cut above the knee and loose trousers after the fashion of the Gauls. They were not an armoured race, for they would commonly fight naked to the waist, dreadful with tattooing and woad staining, but Pliny describes their close-woven felts as all but sword-proof. Dyers as well as weavers, their cloaks, squares of cloth like a Highland plaid, were of black or blue, rough on the one side, while coats and trousers were bright coloured, striped and checkered, red being the favourite hue. For ornament the British chiefs wore golden torques about their necks and golden arm-rings with brooches and pins of metal or ivory, beads of brass, of jet and amber from their own coasts, and of glass bought of the Southern merchants. Their women had gowns to the ankle, with shorter tunics above them. The Druid bards had their vestments of blue, while the star-gazers and leeches went in green.

Agricola's Romanizing work must have made great changes in dress as in policy. The British chief with the Latin tongue in his mouth, living in a Roman villa and taking his bath as did the Romans, wore the white woollen toga and the linen tunic, his wife having the stole, the pall and the veil.

Before the Conquest.

ii. _Old English Dress._--The skill of their artists gives us many accurate pictures of the dress of the English before the Norman Conquest, the simple dress of a nation whose men fight, hunt and plough. The man's chief garment is a sleeved tunic hanging to the knee, generally open at the side from hip to hem and in front from the throat to the breast. Sleeves cut loosely above the elbow are close at the forearm. The legs are in hose like a Highlander's or in long breeches bandaged or cross-gartered below the knee. A short mantle to the calf is brooched at the shoulder or breast (fig. 25). There are long gowns and toga-like cloaks, but these as a rule seem garments for the old man of rank. In the open air the cloak is often pulled over the head, for hats and caps are rare, the Phrygian bonnet being the commonest form. Girdles of folded cloth gather the loose tunic at the waist. Most paintings show the ankle shoe as black, cut with a pointed tab before and behind, the soles being sometimes of wood like the sole of the Lancashire clog of our own days. A nobleman will have his shoes embroidered with silks or coloured yarns, and the like decoration for the hem and collar of his tunic. Poor men wear little but the tunic, often going barelegged, although the hinds in the well-known pictures of the twelve months have shoes, and the shepherd as he watches his flock covers himself with a cloak. In every graveyard of the old English we find the brooches, armlets, rings and pins of a people loving jewelry. Women wore a long gown covering the feet, the loose sleeves sometimes hanging over the hands to the knee. Over this there is often a shorter tunic with short sleeves. Their mantles were short or long, the hood or head rail wrapped round the chin (fig. 26). In broidery and ornament the women's dress matched that of the men. The Danes, warriors of the sea, soon took the English habit, becoming notable for their many changes of gay clothing.

PLATE

FIG. 21.--GRAVE-STATUE.]

FIG. 22.--THE ORATOR (R. ARCH. MUS., FLORENCE). ]

FIG. 23.--BUST OF PHILIP THE ARABIAN (VATICAN).]

FIG. 24.--TITUS (VATICAN).]

The Normans.

The Norman Conquest is marked by no great change in English clothing, the conquerors inclining towards the island fashions, as we may see by the fact that they gave up their curious habit of shaving the back of the head. But with the reign of the second William came the taste for the luxury of clothing and that taste for flowing hair and shoes with sharp points which is lamented by William of Malmesbury. In this reign we have the story of the Red King refusing to put on boots that cost but three shillings--the price of an ox--and wearing the same gladly when his chamberlain told him that they were a new pair worth a mark. Even more than the fashion of long cloaks and trailing gowns whose sleeves hang far below the hands, the fantastic boot and shoe toes bring the curses of the clergy and the moralizings of chroniclers. Fulk Rechin of Anjou is said by Orderic to have invented such gear to hide the monstrous bunions upon his toes, but a worthless Robert, a hanger-on of the court of William II., distinguishes himself and gains the surname of Cornard by stuffing his shoe tips with tow and twisting them like the horns of the ram.

12th and 13th centuries.

There are many illuminations which give us in plenty the details of all costumes of the 12th century. Thus the devil in a well-known MS. wears the gown of a lady of rank, the bodice tightly laced, the hanging sleeve knotted to keep it out of the mud. A MS. at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, shows in a picture of the vision of Henry I. that the men who reap and dig are simply clad in loose skirted tunics with close sleeves, that they have hats with brims, and cloaks caught by a brooch at the shoulder. Hats and caps are common in all classes and take many shapes--the Phrygian cap, the flat bonnet, the brimmed hat and the skull-cap.

With the coming of the house of Anjou English dress clears itself of the more fantastic features of an earlier generation. Henry II. brought in the short Angevin mantle and from it had his name of Curtmantle, but it was not a mastering fashion and the long cloak holds its own. Rich stuffs, cloth of gold or silk woven with gold, webs of damask wrought with stripes or rays and figured with patterns are brought in from the ports. Rare furs are eagerly sought. But the simplicity of line is remarkable. The drawings made for Matthew Paris's lives of the two Offas show people of all ranks clad without a trace of the tailor's fantasy. Kings and lords, churchmen and men of substance go in long gowns to the feet, the great folk having an orphrey or band of embroidery at the somewhat low-cut neck (fig. 27). Some of the sleeves have wide ends cut off at the mid-forearm, showing the tight sleeve of a shirt or smock below. Fashion, however, tends to lengthen sleeves to a tight wrist, the upper halves being cut wide and loose with the large armholes characteristic of most ancient tailoring. Over this gown is worn an ample cloak fastened at the neck with a brooch or clasp, and sometimes fitted with a hood. The dress of the common folk and of men of rank when actively employed is a tunic which is but the gown shortened to the knee, a short cloak to the knee being worn with it (fig. 28). Belts and girdles are narrow and plain, the thongs without enrichment, showing no beginnings of the rich buckles and heavy bosses of a later fashion. Shoes and low-cut boots are slightly pointed, and hats, caps, hoods and coifs of many types cover the head. The women are like to the men in their long gown, but the head is wrapped in a coverchef hanging over the shoulder and bound with a fillet round the brow. Gloves are common in this age; "scraps of the cloth or the skin," says a poet, "do not want for a use: of them gloves are made."

14th century.

At the court of Edward II., son of a king who went simply clad, Piers Gaveston and his like began to set the fashions for a century which to the curious antiquary is a garden of delights. For the history of the 14th-century clothing illuminations are supplemented by a number of effigies upon which the carver has wrought out the last details, by monumental brasses, and by contemporary literature and records (fig. 29). Garments take many shapes; sleeves, skirts and head-dresses run through many fashions; while personal ornaments are rich and beautiful to a degree never yet surpassed. With the beginning of the century there is seen a tendency to shorten the long gown, which had been the best wear of a man of good estate, to a more convenient length, although the knees are still well covered. Loose sleeves falling below the elbow leave to view the sleeve of an under-garment, buttoned tightly to the arm. In winter time a man's gown will have long sleeves that cover the hands when the arms are at length. The full cloak, although still found, is somewhat rare among a people that has, perhaps, learned to wear more clothes and warmer upon the body. Hoods are worn in many fashions, to be cast back upon the shoulders like a monk's cowl, the part at the back of the head being drawn out into a "liripipe" long enough at times, when the hood is drawn up, to be knotted round the brow turban-fashion (fig. 30). Long hose are drawn up the legs to join the short breech, and the toes of the ankle-shoes are pointed so long that holy men see visions of little devils using them as chariots. The women love trailing gowns. They have under-skirts and loose over-garments, sometimes sleeveless. Their hair at least would not shock those earlier prelates who cursed the long plaits, for it is caught up in a caul or braided at the sides of the head. In the second half of the century men of rank borrow from Germany the fashion of the _cote-hardie_. In its plainest form this short tunic, covering the fork of the leg, is cut closely to the body and arms (fig. 31). Sometimes the sleeve ends at the elbow and then another streamer is added to the one which falls from the hood, a strip of stuff continuing the elbow-sleeve as low as the coat edge. This strip and the hem of the skirt are often "slittered" with fanciful jags, a fashion which soon draws down the satirist's anger. Parti-coloured garments were an added offence; a gentleman would have his coat parted down the middle in red and white, with hose of white and red to match. Men and women of rank wear a twisted garland of rich stuff, crown-wise on the head, set with pearls and precious stones, a fashion which is followed on the great helm of the knights, being the "wreath" or "torce" of heraldry. The dames of such as wear the _cote-hardie_ imitate its tightness in the sleeves and bodices of their long gown. A curious fashion which now begins is the sleeveless upper gown whose sides are cut away in curved sweeps from the shoulder to below the waist, the edges of the opening being deeply furred. The strange head-dress with a steeple-horn draped with lawn kerchiefs makes its appearance to shock the moralists. Although it was probably a rare sight in this century, the horn could easily fulfil its mission of drawing notice to all its wearers.

Of the _cote-hardie_ it might at least be said that it was the symbol of a knightly age in arms, the garment of a man who must have hand and limbs free, and, save for its sleeves, it faithfully copied the coat-armour of the armed knight. The softer days of Richard II. are remarkable for a dress which has also its significance, men of high rank taking to themselves gowns of such fulness that the satirists may be justified who declare that men so clad may be hardly known from women. The close collar of these gowns rises high as the neckcloth of a French _incroyable_, the upper edge turned slightly over and jagged. The full skirts sweep on the ground, which is touched by the last jags of the vast sleeves, whose openings, wide as a woman's skirts, are dagged like the edges of vine or oak leaves. "And but if the slevis," says the satirist, "slide on the erthe, thei wolle be wroth as the wynde." Sometimes this gown is slit at the sides that the gallant may the better show his coloured hose and tips of shoes that pike out two feet from heel to toe. When not wearing the gown such a lord would have a high-necked coat, shorter even than the _cote-hardie_, but looser in the skirt, the sleeves ending full and loose with dagged edges turned over at the cuff. Hats are more commonly worn in this century, and in its latter half take many shapes, a notable one being that of a shortened sugar-loaf or thimble with a brim turned up, either all round, or, more frequently, behind or before. The long shoes, as their name of _crackowes_ or _poleynes_ implies, were a fashion which, by repute, came from Poland, a land ruled by the grandfather of Richard's first queen. When medieval fashions were past, they were remembered as a type of the old time, and a certain French _conteur_ begins a tale of old days, not with _jadis_, but with "In the time when they wore poleynes." Even parish priests, whose preaching should "dryve out the daggis and alle the Duche cotis," went, in this age of fine apparel, gaily clad in gowns of scarlet and green, "shape of the newe," in "cutted clothes" with "long pikes on her shone." More than this, they made scandal by ruffling with weapons--"bucklers brode and sweardes long, bandrike with baselardes kene." The skill of goldsmiths and craftsmen decorates all the appurtenances of the dress of this 14th century. Buttons, which appear in the first Edward's time as a scandalous ornament on men of low degree, have now become common, and, cunningly wrought, are used as much for _queintise_ as for service. A close row of them will run from wrist to elbow of tight sleeve. A row of buttons goes from the neck of a woman's gown, and the _cote-hardie_ may be fastened down the front with a dozen and a half of rich buttons. A purse or gipciere hung by a ring to the girdle gives more room for ornament in the silver or brass bar on which the bag depends. Above all the girdle, which--in harness or in silk--rich men wear broad and bossed with jewels across the thigh below the waist, makes work for the jeweller's craftsman. Such a girdle is for great folk alone; but lesser men, wearing a strap about their waists, will yet have a handsome buckle and a fanciful pendant of metal guarding the loose end of the strap.

However fantastic the fashions of this or any other ages, folk of the middling sort will avoid the extremes. From the Knight to the Reve, no man of Chaucer's company calls to us by the fantasy of his clothing. The Knight himself rides in his fustian _gipoun_, the grime of his habergeon upon it, although his son's short gown, the gayest garment at the Tabard, had long and wide sleeves and is embroidered with flowers like any mead. A coat and hood of green mark the Yeoman, who has a silver Christopher brooch for ornament. The Merchant is in motley stuff, his beaver hat from Flanders and his clasped boots taking Chaucer's eye, as do the _anlas_ and silken _gipser_ which hang at the rich Franklin's belt. As for the London burgesses, their knife-chapes, girdles and pouches are in clean silver. The Shipman wears his knife in a lanyard about his neck, as his fellows do to this day, and his coat is of coarse falding to the knee. The Wife of Bath has the wimple below her broad hat and rides in a foot mantle about her hips. Poorer men's dress is on the Reve and the Ploughman, the one in a long _surcote_ of sky-blue and the other in the _tabard_ which we may recognize as that smock-frock which goes down the ages with little change.

15th century.

In the 15th century the middle ages run out. Fashions in this period become, if not more fantastic, more various. Its earlier years see men of rank still inclined to the rich modes of the last age: Harry of Monmouth, drawn about 1410 by an artist who shows him as Occleve's patron, wears a blue gown which might have passed muster at the court of Richard II. for its trailing skirts and its long sleeves, their slittered edges turned back (fig. 32). A strange fancy at this time was the hanging of silver bells on the dress. One William Staunton, in 1409, seeing in a vision at St Patrick's Purgatory the fate of earth's proud ones, is exact to note that in the place of torment the jags in men's clothes turn to adders, that women's trailing skirts are burnt over their heads, and that those men whose garments are overset with silver gingles and bells have burning nails of fire driven through each gingle. As for the chaplets of gold, of pearls and precious stones, they turn into nails of iron on which the fiends hammer.