Chapter II: Forensic Speeches (1)

A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES.

GENUINE.

Or. 22. In ([Greek: kata]) Androtionem 355 B.C.
Or. 20. Contra ([Greek: pros]) Leptinem 354 "
Or. 24. In Timocratem 352 "
Or. 23. In Aristocratem 352 "
Or. 21. In Midiam 349 "
Or. 19. On the Embassy 343 "
Or. 18. On the Crown 330 "

SPURIOUS.

(a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem 339 B.C.
(a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).

B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES.

GENUINE.

Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. 364 B.C.
(m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. 362 "
Or. 41. Contra Spudiam ? "
(m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem ?
Or. 54. In Cononem 356 "
Or. 36. Pro Phormione 352 "
(m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine 350 "
Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum 346-5 "
(m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ?

SPURIOUS.

(_The first eight of the following are given by Schäfer to
Apollodorus._)

(m) Or. 52. Contra Callippum. 369-8 B.C.
(a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum after 368 "
(a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum 362 "
(m) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem 357 "
(a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum 356 "
(m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II. 351 "
(a) Or. 59. In Neaeram 349[343-0, Blass] "
(m) Or. 51. On the Trierarchic Crown (by 360-359 "
Cephisodotus?)
(m) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum ?
(m) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum. after 343 "
(m) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem ?
(a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum 341 "
(a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ?
(m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ?
(m) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ?
(m) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano
(a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote 347 "
(m) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem 346-5 "
(m) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium ?
(a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum not before 322-1 "

Or. 60 ([Greek: epitaphios]) and Or. 61 (Greek: erôtikos) are works
of rhetoricians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used
by the composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of
Aeschines. The 56 [Greek: prooimia], exordia or sketches for
political speeches, are by various hands and of various dates.[5]
They are valuable as being compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from
other classical models.

Literary history of Demosthenes.

The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfection. Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as [Greek: ho rhêtôr], _the_ orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes has risen. From his own younger contemporaries, Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexicographers, offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes. His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian, Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension. But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes. Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with those of the other orators, in the catalogues ([Greek: rhêtorikoi pinakes]) of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demosthenes, cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on [Greek: metabolai kai metapoiêseis tôn Dêmosthenous chôriôn], "adaptations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, comparatively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice. Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demosthenes were the most universally popular of the classical prose-writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called [Greek: Attikiana (antigrapha)], came to be distinguished from the vulgates, or [Greek: dêmôdeis ekdoseis].

Manuscripts.

Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes--upwards of 170 in number--one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is _Parisinus_ [Sigma] 2934, of the 10th century. A comparison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius, Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic favours the view that it is derived from an [Greek: Attikianon], whereas the [Greek: dêmôdeis ekdoseis], used by Hermogenes and by the rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important are--_Marcianus_ 416 F, of the 10th (or 11th) century, the basis of the Aldine edition; _Augustanus_ I. (N 85), derived from the last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was perhaps Moschopulus; _Parisinus_ [Upsilon]; _Antverpiensis_ [Omega]--the last two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority on the MSS. is J. T. Vömel, _Notitia codicum Demosth_., and Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857), pp. 175-178.[6]

Scholia.

The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor. Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older criticism. They are better than usual for the [Greek: Peri stephanou, Kata Timokratous]; best for the [Greek: Peri parapresbeias]. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid. Editions:--C. W. Müller, in _Orat. Att._ ii. (1847-1858); _Scholia Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata_ (Oxon., 1851; in W. Dindorf's ed.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editio princeps_ (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J. Reiske
(with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 1770-1775);
revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schäfer (1823-1826); I. Bekker, in
_Oratores Attici_ (1823-1824), the first edition based on codex
[Sigma] (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe
(1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by F. Blass,
1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex [Sigma] (1892-1893);
S. H. Butcher in Oxford _Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca_ (1903
foll.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851), with notes of
previous commentators and Greek scholia; R. Whiston (political
speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For a select list
of the numerous English and foreign editions and translations of
separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, _Guide to the Choice of Classical
Books_ (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of _De corona_
by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904); W. H. Simcox (1873, with
Aeschines _In Ctesiphontem_); and P. E. Matheson (1899); _Leptines_
by J. E. Sandys (1890); _De falsa legatione_ by R. Shilleto (4th ed.,
1874); _Select Private Orations_ by J. E. Sandys and F. A. Paley (3rd
ed., 1898, 1896); _Midias_ by W. W. Goodwin (1906). C. R. Kennedy's
complete translation is a model of scholarly finish, and the
appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are indices
to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schäfer, 1823); S. Preuss
(1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a special lexicon
to the _Aristocratea_ and a commentary by Didymus (ed. H. Diels and
W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D. Schäfer,
_Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly and
exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, _Die attische Beredsamkeit_
(1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, "Demosthenes" in _Ancient Classics for
English Readers_ (1877); S. H. Butcher, _Introduction to the Study of
Demosthenes_ (1881); C. G. Böhnecke, _Demosthenes, Lykurgos,
Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter_ (1864); A. Bouillé, _Histoire de
Démosthène_ (2nd ed., 1868); J. Girard, _Études sur l'éloquence
attique_ (1874); M. Croiset, _Des idées morales dans l'Éloquence
politique de Démosthène_ (1874); A. Hug, _Demosthenes als politischer
Denker_ (1881); L. Brédit, _L'Éloquence politique en Grèce_ (2nd ed.,
1886); A. Bougot, _Rivalité d'Eschine et Démosthène_ (1891). For
fuller bibliographical information consult R. Nicolai, _Griechische
Literaturgeschichte_ (1881); W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_
(1881); G. Hüttner in C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, li. (1889).
(R. C. J.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Jebb's _Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos_, vol. ii. p.
267 f.

[2] It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest;
but the question of the order of the First and Second has been much
discussed. See Grote (_History of Greece_, chap. 88, appendix), who
prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, _Die attische
Beredsamkeit_, iii. p. 319.

[3] The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schäfer in
_Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass
in _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three
(or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.

[4] Or. 11 and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.

[5] According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the
_exordia_ are genuine.

[6] See also H. Usener in _Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen_, p. 188 (1892); J. H. Lipsius, "Zur
Textcritik des Demosthenes" in _Berichte ... der Königl. Sächsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (1893) with special reference to
the papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe,
_Demosthenis scriptorum corpus_ (1893).

DEMOTIC (Gr. [Greek: dêmotikos], of or belonging to the people), a term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary purposes,--for the people. It is opposed to "hieratic" (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos], of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts. (See WRITING, and EGYPT: II., _ANCIENT_, D. _LANGUAGE AND WRITING._)

DEMOTICA, or DIMOTICA, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople. Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek archbishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos, it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times it has regained something of its commercial importance, and exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent to Dédéagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava, Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 1713 to October 1714.

DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1579-1625), Scottish scholar and historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont, sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account, he was the twenty-fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early education in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot among the English students. But, if his truculent character was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous; and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse, which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the university or academy of Nîmes, but not without a murderous attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ultimately won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc, was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to his father's estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At last, however, his temporary connexion with the collège de Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory was won over officers of the king's guard, it again became expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedication of his edition of Rosinus' _Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus absolutissimum_ to King James I. had won him an invitation to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II., grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a certain Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudiated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair. He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities, and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his _Roman Antiquities_ and _Scotia illustrior_ had been placed on the Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster, pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625.

Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious defects of his works are due to his restlessness and impetuosity, and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The best known of his works is the _Historia ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum_ (Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard (Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects, and his edition of Benedetto Accolti's _De bello a Christianis contra barbaros_ (1623) has great merits.

A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp.
306-354) of _Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum_ (Amsterdam, 1637).

DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. _demeurer_, to delay, derived from Lat. _mora_), in the law of merchant shipping, the sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the purpose of loading or unloading (see AFFREIGHTMENT: UNDER _CHARTER-PARTIES_). The word is also used in railway law for the charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin or notes for bullion.

DEMURRER (from Fr. _demeurer_, to delay, Lat. _morari_), in English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still in constant use in the United States. See ANSWER; PLEADING.

DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere village in the beginning of the 19th century, it rapidly increased from 1850 onwards, and, according to the census of 1906, possessed 22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron-smelting works, to which it owes its development. There are also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass. A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions. Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugène; and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument inscribed with the verses of Voltaire:--

"Regardez dans Denain l'audacieux Villars
Disputant le tonnerre à l'aigle des Césars."

DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1643), son of Basil Feilding[1] of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite received various offices and dignities. He was appointed _custos rotulorum_ of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and earl of Denbigh on the 14th of September 1622. He attended Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwickshire. His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much praised by Clarendon.

See E. Lodge, _Portraits_ (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, _Hist. of
Leicestershire_ (1807), iv. pt. 1, 273; Hist. MSS. _Comm Ser._ 4th
Rep. app. 254; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom.; Studies in Peerage and
Family History_, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.

His eldest son, BASIL FEILDING, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. 1608-1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding, unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made commander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I. Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the 28th of November 1675.

His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640-1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through
the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,
and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on
forged documents. See J. H. Round, _Peerage and Family History_
(1901).

DENBIGH (_Dinbych_), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating perhaps from the 13th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a free grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII.'s reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in the timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking, tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, _Baner_, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Bodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked.

The old British tower and castle were called _Castell caled fryn yn Rhôs_, the "castle of the hard hill in Rhôs." _Din_ in _Dinbych_ means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David (_Dafydd_), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (_aet._ Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (_aet._ Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively).

DENBIGHSHIRE (_Dinbych_), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog ("longing") hills, sloping W. to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. _Hospitium_) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (_Dyfrdwy_). Some of the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (_Rhiwabon_) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (_Wâl Offa_) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes and streams.

_Geology._-The geology of the county is full of interest, as it
develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the
Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which
extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo
formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of
shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive
felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within
the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-coed and in
the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe
at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire
mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western
slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a
continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi
Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are
abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band
of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the
Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and
in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends
from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain
fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively
in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from
each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale
of Clwyd the limestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the
eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of
Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which
near Wrexham are 4½ m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of
the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but
now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between
this and the Dee the ground is occupied--as in the Vale of Clwyd--by
the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the
whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with
glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and
Plâs Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone
districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth,
hippopotamus and other extinct mammals.

Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below,
lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays
and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about
Wrexham.

The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y druidion, &c.). The London & North-Western railway (Holyhead line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from London, well built and passing through fine scenery. At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures.

The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a population in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales military centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish.

The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (_Iâl_, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc, _arglwydd_ (lord) of Dinas Brân. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plâs Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of Rhosdigre); Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, "platycnemic (skeleton) men of Denbighshire" (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester) to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri (_Tomen y mur_). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis "Eliseg's pillar" tells of Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against Æthelfrith's invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon "nunnery"; and at both are collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd), stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the _ogof_ (or cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke in 1399.

See J. Williams, _Denbigh_ (1856), and T. F. Tout, _Welsh Shires_.

DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written 'In·t (Ant), but the pronunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'In·t-t-ntr·t, "ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tentôri, whence [Greek: Tentyra, Tentyris]. The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period.

The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded court in front of the present façade, and pylon towers at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one-third of the whole structure; the façade has six columns with heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance is a "Birth House" for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.

The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a considerable literature before their late origin was established by Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu, the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.

See A. Mariette, _Dendérah_ (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); W.
M. F. Petrie, _Denderah_ (1900); _Nagada_ and _Ballas_ (1896).
(F. LL. G.)

DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp _Gammarus pulex_.

For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in _Quarterly Journ. of
Microsc. Science_, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.

DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling "Dane hole" is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon _den_, a hole or valley. There are many underground excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near Rochester on the south side of the river.

The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the halls of the galleries.

Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.

It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, "where they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chrétien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of the 14th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st century.

Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls.

Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so utilized.

There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) storehouses for grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as habitations, although they may have been used occasionally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about 14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further. The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show.

Further reference may be made to _Essex Dene-holes_ by T. V. Holmes
and W. Cole; to _The Archaeological Journal_ (1882); the
_Transactions_ of the Essex Field Club; _Archaeologia Cantiana_, &c.;
_Dene-holes_ by F. W. Reader, in _Old Essex_, ed. A. C. Kelway
(1908).
(A. J. P.)

DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is known of the aetiology of "dengue." The virus is probably similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32° 47' N. and 23° 23' S. Throughout this area "dengue" is constantly epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779-1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps "dengue" is most nearly endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has usually been identified with the Spanish _dengue_, meaning stiff or prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suitable to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the name "dandy-fever" which was given to it by the negroes. According to the _New English Dictionary_ (quoting Dr Christie in _The Glasgow Medical Journal_, September 1881), both "dengue" and "dandy" are corruptions of the Swahili word _dinga_ or _denga_, meaning a sudden attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being _ka-dinga pepo_.

See Sir Patrick Manson, _Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of
Warm Climates_ (1903).

DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West Central Africa, was born in London on the 1st of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (q.v.), who had been sent by the British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the "duplicity" of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara highlands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.

See _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
Africa in the years 1822-1824_ (London, 1826), the greater part of
which is written by Denham; _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap.
xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.

DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham (1559-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the "dreamingest young fellow" gave way to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656 as _The Destruction of Troy_, with an excellent verse essay on the art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against gambling, _The Anatomy of Play_ (printed 1651), designed to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to everyone when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, "broke out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing _The Sophy_, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford.

In 1642 appeared _Cooper's Hill_, a poem describing the Thames scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his _Windsor Forest_, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is the short poem "On the Earl of Strafford's Trial and Death."

From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal "Panegyric upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy-surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath.