Chapter XVII: Act 1895: has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes (5)

The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval vessels is determined by the secretary of the navy; the commandant then issues the necessary orders. The material required is obtained by a system of requisitions, which provide for the purchase from the lowest bidder after open competition. Heads of departments initiate the purchase of materials which are peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial articles, however, are usually carried in a special stock called the "Naval Supply Fund," which may be drawn upon by any head of department. All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and quality, by a board of inspectors consisting of three officers.

_France._--The French coast is divided into five naval
arrondissements, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports
of which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out
yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio,
Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon.
On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta,
the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening and
fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner lake. There
are arsenals also at Saigon and Hai-phong, and an establishment at
Diego Suarez.

The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at Ruelle;
the steel and iron works at Guerigny, where anchors, chains and
armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island in the
lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are many private
shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most important being
the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at La Seyne, on the lesser
roadstead at Toulon where many French and foreign warships of the
largest classes have been built. The same company has a building yard
at Havre. Other establishments are the Ateliers et Chantiers de la
Loire, at Saint Nazaire; the Normand Yard, at Havre; and the Chantiers
de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.

Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into
sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men of
the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards as
naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral, who is naval
prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister of marine,
and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which is his
headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also
governor-designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend
to ships belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval
prefect is assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at
Lorient and Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a
certain number of officers, the special functions of the chief of the
staff having relation principally to the efficiency and _personnel_ of
the fleet, while the "major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral,
is concerned chiefly with the _materiel_. There are also directors of
stores, of naval construction, of the medical service and of the
submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and
torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect
directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its
efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in reserve. In
regard to the constitution and maintenance of the naval forces, the
administration of the arsenals is divided into three principal
departments, the first concerned with naval construction, the second
with ordnance, including gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third
with the so-called submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo
_materiel_.

_Germany._--With the expansion of the German navy considerable
additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These are
Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and Kiel, the
headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment of lesser
importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the Shantung
peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dockyard is the
superintendent (_Oberwerftdirektor_), who is a rear-admiral or senior
captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state. Under
the superintendent's orders are the chief of the Ausrustung
department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of
ordnance, torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and
harbour works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the
constructive and engineering departments are responsible for the
building of ships and machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls
and machinery of existing vessels; while the works department has
charge of all work on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port.
A great advance has been made in increasing the efficiency and
capabilities of the imperial dockyards by introducing a system of
continuous work in the building of new ships and effecting alterations
in others, and German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works
at Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the
Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and Voss at
Hamburg, are important establishments which have built many vessels
for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.

_Italy._--The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples and
Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It covers an
area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there are five dry
docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two 361 ft. long
and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely equipped with
machinery of the best British, German and Italian makes, and it has
built several of the finest Italian ships. The number of hands
employed in the yard averages 4000. There are two building slips, and
for smaller vessels there are two in the neighbouring establishment of
San Bartolommeo (which is the headquarters for submarine mining), and
one at San Vito, where is a Government gun factory. Castellammare di
Stabia is subsidiary to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at
Taranto. There is a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on
the Strait of Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo
factories, nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory
at Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf
factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the important
works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of Ansaldo, Odero,
Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The three establishments
first named have important shipbuilding yards, and have constructed
vessels for the Italian and foreign navies. The Orlando Yard at
Leghorn is Government property, but is leased by the firm, and
possesses five building slips.

_Austria-Hungary._--The naval arsenal is on the well-protected harbour
of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national navy,
and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance of the
fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a number
of warships have been built there. There is a construction yard also
at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo, large
magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establishment
is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the
direction of a chief constructor (_Oberster-Ingenieur_), assisted by
seven constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The
engineering and ordnance branches are similarly organized.

_Spain._--The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but of
diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol, another
at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped in all
necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work. A
recent arrangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being
designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The
ordnance establishment is at Carraca.

_Russia._--In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most
important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser
importance are Reval, Sveaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and
Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St
Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of
vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports
are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the
minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad, on
the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at Nikolayev.
Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become mainly a naval harbour,
the commercial harbour being removed to Theodosia. The Russian
government has also proposed to remodel the harbour works at St
Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor Alexander III. Port at Libau, on
the Baltic, is in a region less liable to be icebound in the winter.
There are no strictly private yards for the building of large vessels
in Russia, except that of the Black Sea Company at Nikolayev. Messrs
Creighton build torpedo-boats at Abo in Finland, and the admiralty has
steel works at Ijora, where some torpedo-boats have been built. Other
ordnance and steel works are at Obukhov and Putilov.

_Japan._--The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established by
the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors and
engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built. The
Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875, and
built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard. The limit
of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been enlarged
so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There is a
first-class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship.
Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact
that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905 all the
important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great Britain,
France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of that year a
first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the "Tsukuba") was launched from
the important yard at Kure. There are other yards at Sassebo and
Maisuru.

DOCTOR (Lat. for "teacher"), the title conferred by the highest university degree. Originally there were only two degrees, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was given to certain masters as a merely honorary appellation. The process by which it became established as a degree superior to that of master cannot be clearly traced. At Bologna it seems to have been conferred in the faculty of law as early as the 12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty of divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In England it was introduced in the 13th century; and both in England and on the continent it was long confined to the faculties of law and divinity. Though the word is so commonly used as synonymous with "physician," it was not until the 14th century that the doctor's degree began to be conferred in medicine. The tendency since has been to extend it to all faculties; thus in Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the old title of _magister_. The doctorate of music was first conferred at Oxford and Cambridge.

_Doctors of the Church_ are certain saints whose doctrinal writings have obtained, by the universal consent of the Church or by papal decree, a special authority. In the case of the great schoolmen a characteristic qualification was added to the title doctor, e.g. "angelicus" (Aquinas), "mellifluus" (Bernard). The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the Great, Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. To these St Alphonso dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.

DOCTORS' COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct profession for the practice of the civil and canon laws. Some members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's, on which at their own expense they erected houses (destroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672) for the residence of the judges and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter was obtained by virtue of which the then members of the society and their successors were incorporated under the name and title of "The College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts." The college consisted of a president (the dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having regularly taken that degree in either of the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed by the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors. The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected from this college. By the Court of Probate Act 1857 the college was empowered to sell its real and personal estate and to surrender its charter, and it was enacted that on such surrender the college should be dissolved and the property thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in common for their own use and benefit. The college was accordingly dissolved, and the various ecclesiastical courts which sat at Doctors' Commons (the Court of Arches, the Prerogative Court, the Faculty Court and the Court of Delegates) are now open to the whole bar.

DOCTRINAIRES, the name given to the leaders of the moderate and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration of Louis XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the case with party designations, was at first given in derision, and by an enemy. In 1816 the _Nain jaune refugie_, a French paper published at Brussels by Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began to speak of M. Royer-Collard as the "doctrinaire" and also as _le pere Royer-Collard de la doctrine chretienne_. The _peres de la doctrine chretienne_, popularly known as the "doctrinaires," were a French religious order founded in 1592 by Cesar de Bus. The choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit to the journalistic insight of the contributors to the _Nain jaune refugie_, for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to preach a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and its rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard's colleagues is the sufficient proof that it was well chosen and had more than a personal application. These colleagues came, it is true, from various quarters. The duc de Richelieu and M. de Serre had been Royalist _emigres_ during the revolutionary and imperial epoch. MM. Royer-Collard himself, Laine, and Maine de Biran had sat in the revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante, Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials. But they were closely united by political principle, and also by a certain similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and Maine de Biran, were theorists and commentators on the principles of government. M. de Barante was an eminent man of letters. All were noted for the doctrinal coherence of their principles and the dialectical rigidity of their arguments. The object of the party as defined by M. (afterwards the duc) Decazes was to "nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France." The means by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application of the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-operation of the king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the extreme party known as the Ultras, who aimed at the complete undoing of the political and social work of the Revolution. The Doctrinaires were ready to allow the king a large discretion in the choice of his ministers and the direction of national policy. They refused to allow that ministers should be removed in obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in fact was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results of the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in which men of property and education formed, if not the whole, at least the very great majority of the voters. Their views were set forth by Guizot in 1816 in his treatise _Du gouvernement representatif et de l'etat actuel de la France._ The chief organs of the party in the press were the _Independent_, renamed the _Constitutionnel_ in 1817, and the _Journal des debats_. The supporters of the Doctrinaires in the country were chiefly ex-officials of the empire,--who believed in the necessity for monarchical government but had a lively memory of Napoleon's tyranny and a no less lively hatred of the _ancien regime_--merchants, manufacturers and members of the liberal professions, particularly the lawyers. The history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political party began in 1816 and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained the co-operation of Louis XVIII., who had been frightened by the violence of the Ultras in the _Chambre introuvable_ of 1815. In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. when he took the Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on the conflict with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow. During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed in the Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on any ground of principle (see FRANCE: _History_).

The word "doctrinaire" has become naturalized in English terminology, as applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a theorist, as distinguished from a practical man of affairs.

See Duvergier de Hauranne, _Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en
France_ (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.

DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence or proof, and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any significance that can be "read"; thus a picture, authenticated photograph, seal or the like would furnish "documentary evidence." More generally the word is used for written or printed papers that provide information or evidence on a subject. The Latin _documentum_, from which the word is derived, meant, in classical times, a lesson, example or proof (_docere_, to teach), and only in medieval Latin came to be applied to an _instrumentum_, or record in writing. The classical Latin use is found in English; thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i. 815) speaks of punishment being a "single and sudden document if instantly inflicted" (see DIPLOMATIC; and EVIDENCE).

DODD, WILLIAM (1729-1777), English divine, was born at Bourne in Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A. in 1750, being fifteenth wrangler. On leaving the university he married a young woman of a more than questionable reputation, whose extravagant habits helped to ruin him. In 1751 he was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon became a popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen lecturer of St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the degree of M.A. at Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D. He was a strenuous supporter of the Magdalen hospital, founded in 1758, and soon afterwards became preacher at the chapel of that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at Brecon, and in the same year he was appointed one of the king's chaplains,--soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope, afterwards earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he had a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George's, Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote an anonymous letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering three thousand guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted to the benefice. This letter having been traced, a complaint was immediately made to the king, and Dodd was dismissed from his office as chaplain. After residing for some time at Geneva and Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still continued to exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits soon involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged a bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for L4200, and actually received the money. He was detected, committed to prison, tried at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to death; and, in spite of numerous applications for mercy, he was executed at Tyburn on the 27th of June 1777. Samuel Johnson was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr Dodd was a voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with but little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies, and his _Beauties of Shakespeare_, published in 1752, was long a well-known work; while his _Thoughts in Prison_, a poem in blank verse, written between his conviction and execution, naturally attracted much attention. He published a large number of sermons and other theological works, including a _Commentary on the Bible_ (1765-1770). A list of his fifty-five writings and an account of the writer is included in the _Thoughts in Prison_.

See also P. Fitzgerald, _A Famous Forgery_ (1865).

DODDER (Frisian _dodd_, a bunch; Dutch _dot_, ravelled thread), the popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants forming the genus _Cuscuta_, formerly regarded as representing a distinct natural order Cuscutaceae, but now generally ranked as a tribe of the natural order Convolvulaceae. The genus contains nearly 100 species and is widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of the earth. The slender thread-like stem is white, yellow, or red in colour, bears no leaves, and attaches itself by suckers to the stem or leaves of some other plant round which it twines and from which it derives its nourishment. It bears clusters of small flowers with a four- or five-toothed calyx, a cup-shaped corolla with four or five stamens inserted on its tube, and sometimes a ring of scales below the stamens; the two-celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a thread-like spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons. On coming in contact with the living stem of some other plant the seedling dodder throws out a sucker, by which it attaches itself and begins to absorb the sap of its foster-parent; it then soon ceases to have any connexion with the ground. As it grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself firmly on the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one stem the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining and branching till it resembles "fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut." The injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by species of dodder is often very great. _C. europaea_, the greater dodder (fig. 1) is found parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and the hop; _C. Epilinum_, on flax; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, ling and thyme. _C. Trifolii_, the Clover Dodder, is perhaps a subspecies of the last mentioned.

1. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.
3. Ovary cut across.
4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.
5. Seed.
6. Embryo.

1-6 enlarged.]

c, stem of host.
d, stem of _Cuscuta_.
h, haustoria.

(After Dodel-Port.)]

DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), English Nonconformist divine, was born in London on the 26th of June 1702. His father, Daniel Doddridge, was a London merchant, and his mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John Bauman, a Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape religious persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could read, his mother taught him the history of the Old and New Testament by the assistance of some blue Dutch chimney-tiles. He afterwards went to a private school in London, and in 1712 to the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. About 1715 he was removed to a private school at St Albans, where he was much influenced by the Presbyterian minister, Samuel Clarke. He declined offers which would have led him into the Anglican ministry or the bar, and in 1719 entered the very liberal academy for dissenters at Kibworth in Leicestershire, taught at that time by the Rev. John Jennings, whom Doddridge succeeded in the ministry at that place in 1723, declining overtures from Coventry, Pershore and London (Haberdashers' Hall). In 1729, at a general meeting of Nonconformist ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy established in that year at Market Harborough. In the same year he received an invitation from the independent congregation at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued his multifarious labours; but the church seems to have decreased, and his many engagements and bulky correspondence interfered seriously with his pulpit work, and with the discipline of his academy, where he had some 200 students to whom he lectured on philosophy and theology in the mathematical or Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never been good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th of September of that year; but the change was unavailing, and he died there on the 26th of October. His popularity as a preacher is said to have been chiefly due to his "high susceptibility, joined with physical advantages and perfect sincerity." His sermons were mostly practical in character, and his great aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and devotional frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element without alienating the uneducated. His principal works are, _The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul_ (1745), which best illustrates his religious genius, and has been widely translated; _The Family Expositor_ (6 vols., 1739-1756), _Life of Colonel Gardiner_ (1747); and a _Course of Lectures on Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity_ (1763). He also published several courses of sermons on particular topics, and is the author of many well-known and justly admired hymns, e.g. "O God of Bethel, by whose hand." In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave him the degree of D.D.

See _Memoirs_, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); _Letters to and from Dr
Doddridge_, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790); and _Correspondence and
Diary_, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys (1829).
The best life is Stanford's _Philip Doddridge_ (1880). Doddridge's
academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in the library
of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.

DODDS, ALFRED AMEDEE (1842- ), French general, was born at St Louis, Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his father's family was of Anglo-French origin. He was educated at Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and in 1864 joined the marine infantry as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted captain for his services during the disturbances in Reunion in 1868-69, in the course of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but escaped, and took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the East. In 1872 he was sent to West Africa, and, except when on active service in Cochin China (1878) and Tong-King (1883), he remained on duty in Senegal for the next twenty years, taking a prominent part in the operations which brought the countries of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the Serreres (1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was colonel commanding the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891 he returned to France to command the eighth marine infantry at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was selected to command the expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied Abomey, the hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign (1894) he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a tour of the French colonies was given the command of the XX. (Colonial) Army Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general of colonial troops and a member of the _Conseil superieur de guerre_.

DODECAHEDRON (Gr. [Greek: dodeka], twelve, and [Greek: hedra], a face or base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The "ordinary dodecahedron" is one of the Platonic solids (see POLYHEDRON). The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in extreme and mean proportion, then the whole line and the greater segment are the lengths of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron inscriptible in the same sphere. The "small stellated dodecahedron," the "great dodecahedron" and the "great stellated dodecahedron" are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the "truncated" and "snub dodecahedra" are Archimedean solids (see POLYHEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dodecahedron is an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in irrational ratios; the "pentagonal dodecahedron" of crystallographers has irregular pentagons for faces, while the geometrical solid, on the other hand, has regular ones. The "rhombic dodecahedron," one of the geometrical semiregular solids, is an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra exist as crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

DODECASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: dodeka], twelve, and [Greek: stylos], column), the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the Peiraeus.

DODERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG (1791-1863), German philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th of December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Doderlein, professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the important influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Doderlein, after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and Schulpforta (Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen and Berlin. He devoted his chief attention to philology under the instruction of such men as F. Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss, F. A. Wolf, August Bockh and P. K. Buttmann. In 1815, soon after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appointment of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern. In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second professor of philology in the university and rector of the gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He died on the 9th of November 1863. Doderlein's most elaborate work as a philologist was marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method and clearness. He is best known by his _Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien_ (1826-1838), and his _Homerisches Glossarium_ (1850-1858). To the same class belong his _Lateinische Wortbildung_ (1838), _Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik_ (1839), and the _Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie_ (1841), besides various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been translated into English. To critical philology Doderlein contributed valuable editions of Tacitus (_Opera_, 1847; _Germania_, with a German translation) and Horace (_Epistolae_, with a German translation, 1856-1858; _Satirae_, 1860). His _Reden und Aufsatze_ (Erlangen, 1843-1847) and _Offentliche Reden_ (1860) consist chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subjects in paedagogy and philology.

DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American soldier and military writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May 1842. He received a military education in Germany and subsequently studied at Heidelberg and London University, returning to the United States in 1861. At the outbreak of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the federal army, and he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the Army of the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated for further active service, he continued to be employed in administrative posts to the end of the war, and for several years thereafter he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866 and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His works include _The Campaign of Chancellorsville_ (1881), _A Bird's Eye View of our Civil War_ (1882, later edition 1897), a complete, accurate and remarkably concise account of the whole war, _Patroclus and Penelope, a Chat in the Saddle_ (1883), _Great Captains_ (1886), a series of lectures, _Riders of Many Lands_ (1893), and a series of large illustrated volumes entitled _A History of the Art of War_, being lives of "Great Captains," including _Alexander_ (2 vols., 1888), _Hannibal_ (2 vols., 1889), _Caesar_ (2 vols., 1892), _Gustavus Adolphus_ (2 vols., 1896) and _Napoleon_ (4 vols., 1904-1907). He died in France, at Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.

DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"] (1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev. Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that village on the 27th of January 1832. The literary life of "Lewis Carroll" became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practically uneventful. After four years' schooling at Rugby, Dodgson matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and from 1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he continued to fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but he never took priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which prevented reading aloud. His earliest publications, beginning with _A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry_ (1860) and _The Formulae of Plane Trigonometry_ (1861), were exclusively mathematical; but late in the year 1865 he published, under the pseudonym of "Lewis Carroll," _Alice's Adventures in Wonderland_, a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with the imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was immediate, and the name of "Lewis Carroll" has ever since been a household word. A dramatic version of the "Alice" books by Mr Savile Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since enjoyed many revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of children, and it was an open secret that the original of "Alice" was a daughter of Dean Liddell. _Alice_ was followed (in the "Lewis Carroll" series) by _Phantasmagoria_, in 1869; _Through the Looking-Glass_, in 1871; _The Hunting of the Snark_ (1876); _Rhyme and Reason_ (1883); _A Tangled Tale_ (1885); and _Sylvie and Bruno_ (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits on Oxford subjects from time to time. _The Dynamics of a Particle_ was written on the occasion of the contest between Gladstone and Mr Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of Cranbrook); and _The New Belfry_ in ridicule of the erection put up at Christ Church for the bells that were removed from the Cathedral tower. While "Lewis Carroll" was delighting children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically published mathematical works--_An Elementary Treatise on Determinants_ (1867); _Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically_ (1874); _Euclid and his Modern Rivals_ (1879), the work on which his reputation as a mathematician largely rests; and _Curiosa Mathematica_ (1888). Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously refused to acquiesce in being publicly identified with "Lewis Carroll." Though the fact of his authorship of the "Alice" books was well known, he invariably stated, when occasion called for such a pronouncement, that "Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor acknowledged any connexion with the books not published under his name." He died at Guildford, on the 14th of January 1898. His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed perpetually by a public subscription.

See S. D. Collingwood, _Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll_ (1898).

DODO (from the Portuguese _Doudo_, a simpleton), a large bird formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct--the _Didus ineptus_ of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese discovered the island which we now know as Mauritius they named it _Ilha do Cerne_, from a notion that it must be the island of that name mentioned by Pliny; but most authors have insisted that it was known to the seamen of that nation as _Ilha do Cisne_--perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by their finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic, they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds. In 1598 the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island and renamed it Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was published, in 1601, if not earlier, and has been often reprinted. Here we have birds spoken of as big as swans or bigger, with large heads, no wings, and a tail consisting of a few curly feathers. The Dutch called them _Walgvogels_ (the word is variously spelled), i.e. nauseous birds, either because no cooking made them palatable, or because this island-paradise afforded an abundance of fare so much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint prints of the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the _Walgvogel_ appears, being the earliest published representation of its unwieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought an example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a draughtsman, and from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after, gave a figure of the bird, which he vaguely called "_Gallinaceus Gallus peregrinus_," but described rather fully. Meanwhile two other Dutch fleets had visited Mauritius. One of them had rather an accomplished artist on board, and his drawings fortunately still exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a journal kept by one of the skippers was subsequently published. This in the main corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds the curious fact that they were now called by some _Dodaarsen_ and by others _Dronten_.[1]

Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning the bird, fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their navigators, however, were not idle, and found work for their naturalists and painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at Pauw's House in Leyden a dodo's foot,[2] which he minutely describes. In a copy of Clusius's work in the high school of Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de Venne superscribed "Vera effigies huius avis _Walghvogel_ (quae & a nautis _Dodaers_ propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem nuncupatur), qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. Anno M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn from life by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paintings by him at Berlin and Vienna--dated 1626 and 1628--as well as the picture by Goiemare, belonging to the duke of Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater plausibility than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is even probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe. In the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a series of pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch artist Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these represents a dodo, and, if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's ascription, it must almost certainly have been painted before 1626, while there is reason to think that the original may have been kept in the _vivarium_ of the emperor Rudolf II., and that the portion of a dodo's head, which was found in the museum at Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other pictures by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the Zoological Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably all painted about the same time--1626-1628. The large picture in the British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an unknown artist, but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also undated; while the still larger one at Oxford (considered to be by the younger Savery) bears a much later date, 1651. Undated also is a picture in Holland said to be by Pieter Holsteyn.

In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of the bird--one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters written on the same day from Mauritius to his brother at home (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1874, pp. 447-449). In one he says: "You shall receue ... a strange fowle: which I had at the Iland Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: which for the rareness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage in the other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the words "if it liue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas Herbert, whose _Travels_ ran through several editions. It is plain that he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627 has been usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest account he gives of the bird is in his edition of 1638: "The Dodo comes first to a description: here, and in _Dygarrois_[3] (and no where else, that ever I could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo (a Portuguize name it is, and has reference to her simpleness,) a Bird which for shape and rareness might be call'd a Phoenix (wer't in Arabia:)" &c. Herbert was weak as an etymologist, but his positive statement, corroborated as it is by Altham, cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to assign a Portuguese derivation for the word.[4] Herbert also gave a figure of the bird.

Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit of evidence. This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626 and 1640, by Thomas Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where, under the year 1634, mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling "who bestowed the Dodar (a blacke Indian bird) vpon ye Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of it. About 1638, Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London streets he saw the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, and going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed the visitors how his captive would swallow "large peble stones ... as bigge as nutmegs."

In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by Francois Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in Mauritius, or "l'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in 1638. According to De Flacourt the narrative is not very trustworthy, and indeed certain statements are obviously inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds bigger than swans, which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his meaning dodos; but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) that he relates are that they had a cry like a gosling ("il a un cry comme l'oison"), and that they laid a single white egg ("gros comme un pain d'un sol") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them "oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us, from an island of that name which was then supposed to lie more to the northward, but is now known to have no existence.

In the catalogue of Tradescant's _Collection of Rarities, preserved at South Lambeth_, published in 1656, we have entered among the "Whole Birds," a "Dodar from the island _Mauritius_; it is not able to flie being so big." This specimen may well have been the skin of the bird seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but anyhow we are able to trace the specimen through Willughby, Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till it passed in or before 1684 to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In 1755 it was ordered to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the original orders of Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and still ornament the museum of that university. In the second edition of a _Catalogue of many Natural Rarities_, &c., "to be seen at the place formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's Church," collected by one Hubert _alias_ Forbes, and published in 1665, mention is made of a "legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird that cannot fly; it is a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is supposed to have subsequently passed into the possession of the Royal Society. At all events such a specimen is included in Grew's list of their treasures which was published in 1681. This was afterwards transferred to the British Museum. It is a left foot, without the integuments, but it differs sufficiently in size from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been part of the same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the _Gottorffische Kunst Kammer_, wherein he describes the head of a _Walghvogel_ which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means of first leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th. Reinhardt, to recognize the true affinities of the bird.

We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers or other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to the year 1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work,[5] and the list was continued by Von Frauenfeld[6] for twenty years later. The last evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a journal kept by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum (_MSS. Addit. 3668._ II. D). This shows its survival till 1681, but the writer's sole remark upon it is that its "fflesh is very hard." The successive occupation of the island by different masters seems to have destroyed every tradition relating to the bird, and doubts began to arise whether such a creature had ever existed. Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in 1828, showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years later William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the available evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was succeeded by Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in the meanwhile little was done towards obtaining any material advance in our knowledge, Prof. Reinhardt's determination of its affinity to the pigeons (_Columbae_) excepted; and it was hardly until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a large number of dodos' remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux Songes) that zoologists generally were prepared to accept that affinity without question. The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen (_Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish naturalist.

In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius, sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward Newton.[7] From these the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England.

The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. The plumage was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish white wings (incapable of flight). The short tail formed a curly tuft.

The dodo is said to have inhabited forests and to have laid one large white egg on a mass of grass. Besides man, hogs and other imported animals seem to have exterminated it. But the dodo is not the only member of its family that has vanished. The little island which has successively borne the name of Mascaregnas, England's Forest, Bourbon and Reunion, and lies to the southward of Mauritius, had also an allied bird, now dead and gone. Of this not a relic has been handled by any naturalist. The latest description of it, by Du Bois in 1674, is very meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended to represent it. It was originally called the "solitaire," but this name was also applied to _Pezophaps solitarius_ of Rodriguez by the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured it about 1691.

The solitaire, Didus solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland to a district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the island of Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat[8] has given a delightful description of its quaint habits. The male stood about 2 ft. 9 in. high; its colour was brownish grey, that of its mate more inclined to brown, with a whitish breast. The wings were rudimentary, the tail very small, almost hidden, and the thigh feathers were thick and curled "like shells." A round mass of bone, "as big as a musket ball," was developed on the wings of the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The mien was fierce and the walk stately, the birds living singly or in pairs. The nest was a heap of palm leaves a foot high, and contained a single large egg which was incubated by both parents. The food consisted of seeds and leaves, and the birds aided digestion by swallowing large stones; these were used by the Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these stones, nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned above, are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-bones of either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a thick, callous skin. Thousands of bones of this curious flightless pigeon were collected through Sir E. Newton's[9] exertions, and by H. H. Sclater on behalf of the Royal Society of London. The results are several almost complete skeletons of both sexes, composed however out of the enormous mass of the dissociated bones. (A. N.; H. F. G.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of the
latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French
authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been
shown by Prof. Schlegel (_Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch._ ii.
pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little
grebe (_Podiceps minor_), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by the
round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized the
dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a corruption
of _Dodaars_, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think him
mistaken.

[2] What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic of
the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known. Broderip
and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in the British
Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.

[3] i.e. Rodriguez; an error.

[4] Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of
"Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators, and if,
as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted with their
language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see at once how
the first Dutch name _Walghvogel_ would give way. The meaning of
_Doudo_ not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is the habit of
sailors, convert it into something they did understand. Then
_Dodaers_ would easily suggest itself.

[5] _The Dodo and its Kindred_, by H. E. Strickland and A. G.
Melville (London, 1848, 4to).

[6] _Neu aufgefundene Abbildung des Dronte_, by Georg Ritter von
Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).

[7] E. Newton and H. Gadow, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiii. (1893) pp.
281-302, pls.

[8] _Voyage et aventures de Francois Leguat_, &c. (2 vols., London,
1708). An English translation, edited with many additional
illustrations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt
Society (2 vols., 1891).

[9] E. Newton and J. W. Clark, _Phil. Trans._ clix. (1869), pp.
327-362; clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.

DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near Tsacharovista. In later times the Greeks of the south looked on the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona they always preserved a certain reverence, and the temple there was the object of frequent missions from them. This temple was dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple was an oracle which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other save that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering the responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of an old oak tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity. We seem here to have a remnant of the very ancient and widely diffused tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken in other manners, being drawn from the moaning of doves in the branches, the murmur of a fountain which rose close by, or the resounding of the wind in the brazen caldrons which formed a circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to the oracle his well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently appealed to its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But the most frequent votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the Acarnanians and Aetolians, together with the Boeotians, who claimed a special connexion with the district.