Chapter VIII: Part 8

F. de La Motte Fouque infused a spirit of poetry into the chivalry drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist unsuited to the stage. Here a feeble outgrowth of the romanticists, the "destiny dramatists" Z. Werner[297]--the most original of the group--A. Mullner,[298] and Baron C. E. v. Houwald,[299] achieved a temporary _furore_; and it was with an attempt in the same direction[300] that the Austrian dramatist F. Grillparzer began his long career. He is assuredly, what he pronounced himself to be, the foremost of the later dramatic poets of Germany, unless that tribute be thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who in his short life produced, besides other works, a romantic drama[301] and a rustic comedy[302] of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of singular originality and power.[303] Grillparzer's long series of plays includes poetic dramas on classical themes[304] and historical subjects from Austrian history,[305] or treated from an Austrian point of view. The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the drama of the _bourgeoisie_ and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized by Count A. von Platen-Hallermund's admirable imitations of Aristophanic comedy.[306] Among the objects of his banter were the popular playwright E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a true poet, who is, however, less generally remembered as a dramatist. F. Hebbel[307] is justly ranked high among the foremost later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom equal him in intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L. Uhland left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are those of C. D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig[308] (1813-1865), a dramatist of great power, and "F. Halm" (Baron von Munch-Bellinghausen) (1806-1871), and, among writers of a more modern school, K. Gutzkow,[309] G. Freytag,[310] and H. Laube.[311] L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius though restricted range, imparted a new significance to the Austrian popular drama,[312] formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund and J. Nestroy.

The German stage of the latter half of the 19th century.

During the long period of transition which may be said to have ended with the establishment of the new German empire, the German stage in some measure anticipated the developments which more spacious times were to witness in the German drama. The traditions of the national theatre contemporary with the great epoch of the national literature were kept alive by a succession of eminent actors--such as the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality, whose most conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for Shakespeare, was achieved in Schiller's earliest play.[313] Among the younger generation of Devrients the most striking personality was that of Emil; his elder brother Karl August, husband of Wilhelmine Schruder-Devrient, the brilliant star of the operatic stage, and their son Friedrich, were also popular actors; yet another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered as the historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number and variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany was long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own drama, and, with the aid of a language well adapted for translation, to give admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other nations also, and to Shakespeare in particular, without going far in the search for theatrical novelty or effect. But a change came over the spirit of German theatrical management with the endeavours of H. Laube, from about the middle of the century onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which avowedly placed the demands of the theatre as such above those of literary merit or even of national sentiment. In a less combative spirit, F. Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his efforts there had come to an untimely end,[314] at Weimar and at Vienna, raised the theatre to a very high level of artistic achievement. The most memorable event in the annals of his managements was the production on the Weimar stage of the series of Shakespeare's _histories_. At a rather later period, of which the height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of actors in the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances both in and outside Germany--not so much by their artistic improvements in scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary perfection of their _ensemble_. But no dramaturgic achievement in the century could compare in grandeur either of conception or of execution with Richard Wagner's Bayreuth performances, where, for the first time in the history of the modern stage, the artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions of the work and its presentment. Though the _Ring of the Nibelungs_ and its successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the importance of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no student of the dramatic art. Potent as has been the influence of foreign dramatic literatures--whether French or Scandinavian--and that of a movement which has been common to them all, and from which the German was perhaps the least likely to exclude itself, the most notable feature in the recent history of the German drama has been its quick response to wholly new demands, which, though the attempt was made with some persistence, could no longer be met without an effort to span the widths and sound the depths of a more spacious and more self-conscious era.[315]

h. _Dutch Drama._

Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting both in its beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form part of those of the German, and because of the special influence of the so-called chambers of the _rederykers_ (rhetoricians), from the early years of the 15th century onwards, which bear some resemblance to the associations of the master-singers in contemporary higher Germany. The earliest of their efforts, which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind; and a manifold variety of allegories, moralities and comic entertainments (_esbatementen_ or comedies, _kluiten_ and _factien_ or farces) enhanced the attractions of those popular pageants in which the Netherlands surpassed all other countries of the North. The Low Countries responded more largely to the impulse of the Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other of the Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share in the cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the author of _Acolastus_ may be claimed as its own by the country of his adoption as well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius (Langhveldt) (c. 1475-1508), who may be regarded as the foremost Latin dramatist of his age, was born and died at Hertogenbosch or in its immediate vicinity. Macropedius, who belonged to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a writer of great realistic power as well as of remarkable literary versatility.[316] The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even during the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular drama was delayed till the advent of quieter times. Dutch dramatic literature begins, under the influence of the classical studies cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after the close of the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Koster (c. 1585-c. 1650). The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand Bredero (1585-1618) and the tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647) belong to the same period; but its foremost dramatic poet was J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of classical models passed to more original forms of dramatic composition, including a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what was to form the theme of _Paradise Lost_.[317] But Vondel had no successor of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy--in which the chorus still appeared--was, especially under the influence of the critic A. Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of the French models, Corneille and Racine; nor was the attempt to create a national comedy successful. Thus no national Dutch drama was permanently called into life.

i. _Scandinavian Drama._

Denmark.

The modern Norwegian drama.

Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandinavian peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark, where the beginnings of the drama in the plays of the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the mixture of religious and farcical elements in contemporary German efforts, the drama in the latter half of the 16th century remained essentially scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects, chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1539-1607) and H. S. Sthen were authors of this type. But often in the course of the 17th century, German and French had become the tongues of Danish literature and of the Danish theatre; in the 18th Denmark could boast a comic dramatist of thorough originality and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of the most noteworthy comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he contributed to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage in its worst period, which he satirized with merciless humour,[318] and set an example, never surpassed, of a series of comedies[319] deriving their types from popular life and ridiculing with healthy directness those vices and follies which are the proper theme of the most widely effective species of the comic drama. Among his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially noted. Under the influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has nowhere proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A. Ohlenschlager began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity, which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary history, turned from foreign[320] to native themes; and other writers followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of Northern heroic legend. But these themes have in their turn given way in the Scandinavian theatre to subjects coming nearer home to the popular consciousness, and treated with a direct appeal to the common experience of human life, and with a searching insight into the actual motives of human action. The most remarkable movement to be noted in the history of the Scandinavian drama, and one of the most widely effective of those which mark the more recent history of the Western drama in general, had its origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and Bjurnsterne Bjurnson, standing as it were side by side, though by no means always judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced the whole course of modern dramatic literature in the direction of a fearlessly candid and close delineation of human nature. The lesser of the pair in inventive genius, and in the power of exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict between soul and circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the conviction of hope which lies at the root of achievement, is Bjurnson.[321] Ibsen's long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession of many changes, but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his genius. His early masterpieces were dramatic only in form.[322] His world-drama of _Emperor and Galilean_ was still unsuited to a stage rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian's type. The beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a dramatist date from the production of his first plays of contemporary life, the admirable satirical comedy _The Pillars of Society_ (1877), the subtle domestic drama _A Doll's House_ (1879), and the powerful but repellent _Ghosts_ (1881),[323] which last, with the effects of its appearance, modern dramatic literature may even to this day be said to have failed altogether to assimilate. Ibsen's later prose comedies--(verse, he writes, has immensely damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in iambics belongs to the species Dodo)--for the most part written during an exile which accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of them, succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in elemental dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening world, but without the amplitude, the grace and the wholeheartedness which are necessary for subduing it. But it may be long before the art which he had chosen as the vehicle of his comments on human life and society altogether ceases to show the impress of his genius.

j. _Drama of the Slav Peoples._

Polish.

As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be here given. Its origins have not yet--at least in works accessible to Western students--been authoritatively traced. The Russian drama in its earliest or religious beginnings is stated to have been introduced from Poland early in the 12th century; and, again, it would seem that, when the influence of the Renaissance touched the east of Europe, the religious drama was cultivated in Poland in the 16th, but did not find its way into Russia till the 17th century. It is probable that the species was, like so many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian lands in the 15th or 16th century from Germany. How far indigenous growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show called _vertep_, which about the middle of the 17th century began to treat secular and popular themes, helped to foster dramatic tendencies and tastes, cannot here be estimated. The regular drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and purposes of Western origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be fairly dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland, Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national theatre at Warsaw. This institution was carried on till the fatal year 1794, and saw the production of a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly translated or adapted, but in part original--as in the case of one or two of those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with the history of the relations between political and literary history, the attempts of W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to establish and carry on a Polish national theatre were crowned with success. Its literary mainstay was a gifted Franco-Pole, Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the period between the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a long-lived species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin (for Fredro was a true disciple of Moliere), and wholly out of contact with the sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation.[324] His complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public--a brace of theatres and a bookseller's handcart--may have been premature; but a national drama was most certainly impossible in a denationalised and dismembered land, in whose historic capital the theatre in which Polish plays continued to be produced seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers.

Russian.

Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference, the Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at St Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-1777), has been regarded as the founder of the modern Russian theatre. As a tragic poet he seems to have imitated Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes from the national history, among others the famous dramatic subject of the False Demetrius. He also translated _Hamlet_. As a comic dramatist he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet it is in comedy that he would seem to have had the most noteworthy successors. Among these it is impossible to pass by the empress Catherine II., whose comedies seem to have been satirical sketches of the follies and foibles of her subjects, and who in one comedy as well as in a tragedy had the courage to imitate Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long continued to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had representatives of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and Griboyedov, the author of _Gore et uma_.

In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples, whose national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not be overlooked. A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague as early as the 18th century; and in the 19th its demands, centring in a sense of nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek (1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera (1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-1856); and later writers continued to make use of the stage for a propaganda of historical as well as political significance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works treat the general theory of the
drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of dramaturgy
and of the art of acting. Works which have reference to the drama of a
particular period or of a particular nation only are mentioned
separately. Works which deal with special authors only have been
intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being mentioned in the
articles in the several authors.

Aristotle's _Poetics_ (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London,
1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson's
_Theatre of the Greeks_); H. Baumgart, _Aristoteles, Lessing, u.
Goethe. Uber das ethische u. asthetische Princip der Tragudie_
(Leipzig, 1877); H. A. Bulthaupt, _Dramaturgie des Schauspiels_ (4
vols., Oldenburg u. Leipzig, 1893-1902); L. Campbell, _Tragic Drama in
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (London, 1904); P. Corneille,
_Discours du poeme dramatique--de la tragedie--des trois unites,
OEuvres_, vol. i. (Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, _The Idea of Tragedy
in Ancient and Modern Drama_ (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, _De la
poesie dramatique_. _Entretiens sur le Fils Naturel, OEuvres
completes_, vii. (Paris, 1875); J. Dryden, _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_
and other critical essays (_Essays of J. Dryden_, ed. W. P. Ker, 2
vols., Oxford, 1900); G. Freytag, _Die Technik des Dramas_ (5th ed.,
Leipzig, 1886); G. W. F. Hegel, _Vorlesungen uber Asthetik_, ed. H. G.
Hotho, bd. 3, chap. iii. c. _Die dramatische Poesie_ (Werke, x. 3;
Berlin, 1838); G. Larroumet, _Etudes d'histoire et de critique
dramatiques_, 2 ser. (Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, _Hamburgische
Dramaturgie_. _Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele_ (Halle, 1877);
_Materialien zu Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack_
(Paderborn, 1876); G. H. Lewes, _On Actors and the Art of Acting_
(London, 1875); Sir T. Martin, _Essays on the Drama_ (London, 1874);
K. Mantzius, _History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times_,
transl. by L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &c.); G. Meredith, _Essay on
Comedy_ (Westminster, 1897); R. Prolss, _Katechismus der Dramaturgie_
(Leipzig, 1877); H. T. Rotscher, _Die Kunst der dramatischen
Darstellung_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); _Jahrbucher fur dramatische
Kunst u. Literatur_ (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de
Saint-Victor, _Les Deux Masques, tragedie--comedie_ (3rd ed., 3 vols.,
Paris, 1881, &c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, _Cours de litterature
dramatique_ (7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel,
_Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_ (Eng. transl., London,
1846); Sir W. Scott, _Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama_
(including his article "Drama" written for the Supplement to the 4th
edition of the _Ency. Brit._, and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and
8th editions); F. T. Vischer, _Asthetik_, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857).

The fullest general history of the drama extant is J. L. Klein's
_Geschichte des Dramas_, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886). See
also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, _A Dictionary
of the Drama_, vol. i. (London, 1904); C. M. E. Bequet, _Encyclopedie
de l'art dramatique_ (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, _Dictionnaire
historique et pittoresque du theatre et des arts qui s'y rattachent_
(Paris, 1885).

The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in:--A. P.
Brozzi, _Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi,
Persani, Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi_ (Milan, 1887); Comte
J. A. de Gobineau, _Les Religions et les philosophies dans l'Asie
centrale_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866).

The following works deal with the Indian drama:--M. Schuyler,
_Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama_ (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian,
ser. iii., New York, 1906); H. H. Wilson, _Select Specimens of the
Theatre of the Hindus_, transl. from the original Sanskrit (with
introduction on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols.
(London, 1871); S. Levi, _Le Theatre indien_ (supplements Wilson)
(Paris, 1891).

For Chinese:--Tscheng-Ki-Tong, _Le Theatre des Chinois_ (Paris, 1886);
see also H. A. Giles, _History of Chinese Literature_ (London, 1901).

For Japanese:--C. Florenz, _Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur_, vol. i. 1
(Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, _Japan, its History, Arts and
Literature_, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901).

For Persian:--A. Chodzko, _Theatre persan. Choix de teazies ou drames,
traduits pour la premiere fois du persan par A. Chodzko_ (Paris,
1878); E. Montet, _Le Theatre en Perse_ (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly,
_The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition;
revised with explanatory notes by A. N. Wollaston_ (2 vols., London,
1879).

Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only a small
selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama, the chief
histories of literature--such as G. Bernhardy's, K. O. Muller's (Eng.
tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W. Donaldson) and G.
Murray's--and general histories--such as Grote's, Thirlwall's,
Curtius's, &c.--should also be consulted; and for the administration
and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh's _Public Economy of Athens_,
Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful information will be found in _A
Companion to Greek Studies_, ed. by L. Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The
standard collective edition of the ancient Greek dramatic poets is the
_Poetae scenici Graeci_, ed. C. W. Dindorf (5th ed., Leipzig, 1869),
and that of the Comic poets A. Meineke's _Historia critica comicorum
Graecorum. Cum fragmentis_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle's
_Poetics_, cited above, will of course be consulted for the theory of
the Greek drama in particular; and much valuable critical matter will
be found in passages of Bentley's _Phalaris_ (1699), which are
reprinted in Donaldson's _Theatre of the Greeks_. The following later
works, some of which treat of the ancient classical drama in general,
may be noted:--E. A. Chaignet, _La Tragedie grecque_ (Paris, 1877); J.
Denys, _Histoire de la comedie grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886); J. W.
Donaldson, _The Theatre of the Greeks_ (7th ed., London, 1860); Du
Meril, _Histoire de la comedie. Periode primitive_ (Paris, 1864);
_Histoire de la comedie ancienne_ (Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, _The
Tragic Drama of the Greeks_ (Oxford, 1896); _The Attic Theatre_
(Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, _Gesch. des Theaters in seinen Beziehungen
zur Kunstentwickelung der dramatischen Dichtkunst_, Bd. i. _Gesch. des
griechischen u. romischen Theaters_ (Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton,
_The Ancient Classical Drama_ (Oxford, 1898); M. Patin, _Etude sur les
tragiques grecs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861); C. M. Rapp, _Gesch. des
griechischen Schauspiels vom Standpunkt der dramatischen Kunst_
(Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, _Etudes sur le drame antique_ (Paris,
1897); F. G. Welcker, "Die griechischen Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf
den epischen Cyklus" (_Rhein. Mus._ Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn,
1839-1841).

In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and critical
writings concerning them, see _Scaenicae Romanorum poesis fragmenta_,
2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed. Leipzig,
1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_, Eng. tr. (2
vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz' _Gesch. der romischen
Litteratur bis Justinian_ (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may be
consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama. For
its later developments consult Dean Merivale's _History of the Romans
under the Empire_, and S. Dill's _Roman Society in the Last Days of
the Western Empire_ (London, 1898). See also L. Friedlander,
_Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_, 6th ed., vol. ii.
(Leipzig, 1889); M. Meyer, _Etude sur le theatre latin_ (Paris, 1847);
O. Ribbeck, _Die rumische Tragudie im Zeitalter der Republik_
(Leipzig, 1875).

The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or secular,
of its origins and of usages connected with it:--H. Anz, _Die
lateinischen Magierspiele_ (Leipzig, 1905); E. K. Chambers, _The
Medieval Stage_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de
Coussemaker, _Drames liturgiques du moyen age_ (Paris, 1861); du
Meril, _Theatri liturgici quae Latina supersunt monumenta_ (Caen and
Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, _Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas_ (Eng.
tr.), (London, 1880); Hilarius, _Versus et ludi_, ed.
Champollion-Figeac (Paris, 1838); R. Froning, _Das Drama des
Mittelalters_ (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &c.); Edwin Norris, _Ancient
Cornish Drama_ (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859); W. Hone, _Ancient
Mysteries Described_ (London, 1823); A. von Keller, _Fastnachtsspiele
aus dem 15. Jahrhundert_ (Stuttgart, 1858); C. Magnin, _Les Origines
du theatre moderne_, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838); F. J. Mone,
_Schauspiele des Mittelalters_ (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners,
_Die Tropen-, Prosen-, u. Prafations-Gesange_ (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de
Rothschild, _Le Mistere du Viel Testament_, ed. J. de Rothschild (6
vols., Paris, 1878-1891); M. Sepet, _Le Drame chretien au moyen age_
(Paris, 1878); _Origines catholiques du theatre moderne_. _Les drames
liturgiques_ (Paris, 1901); T. Wright, _Early Mysteries and other
Latin Poems of the 12th and 13th Centuries_ (London, 1838); C. A. G.
von Zezschwitz, _Das mittelalterliche Drama_ (Leipzig, 1881).

For French medieval drama in particular:--L. Cledat, _Le Theatre en
France au moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); E. Fournier, _Le Theatre francais
avant la Renaissance_ (Paris, 1872); _Miracles de Notre Dame par
personnages_, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris, 1876-1893);
L. J. N. Monmerque and F. Michel, _Theatre francais au moyen age_
(Paris, 1839); L. Petit de Julleville, _Histoire du theatre en France
au moyen age_ (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886); E. L. N. Viollet-le-Duc,
_Ancien Theatre francais_ (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857).

For the medieval Italian in particular:--A. d'Ancona, _Sacre
rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV. e XVI._ (Florence, 1872).

For medieval English in particular:--Ahn, _English Mysteries and
Miracle Plays_ (Treves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, _The Miracle Play in
England_ (London, 1897); F. W. Fairholt, _Lord Mayors' Pageants_, 2
vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, _English
Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes_ (3rd ed., Oxford 1898);
_Chester Plays_ ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London,
1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893);
_Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae_, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps)
(Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); _Coventry Plays_. _Dissertation on
the pageants or mysteries at Coventry_, by T. Sharp (Coventry, 1825);
_Digby Plays_, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896);
_Towneley Mysteries_, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.)
(London, 1897); _York Plays_, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885).

For the German in particular:--F. J. Mone, _Altteutsche Schauspiele_
(Quedlinburg, 1841); H. Reidt, _Das geistliche Schauspiel des
Mittelalters in Deutschland_ (Frankfort, 1868); E. Wilken, _Gesch. der
geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland_ (Guttingen, 1872).

The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is treated
in P. Bahlmann's _Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und ihre ersten
dramatischen Versuche_, 1314-1478 (Munster, 1896); A. Chassang's _Des
essais dramatiques imites de l'antiquite au XIV^e et XV^e siecle_
(Paris, 1852); and in V. de Amitis' _L'Imitazione latina nella
commedia del XVI. secolo_ (Pisa, 1871).

Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in W.
Cloetta, _Beitrage zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der
Renaissance_ (2 vols., Halle, 1890-1892); W. Creizenach, _Geschichte
des neueren Dramas_, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prulss,
_Geschichte des neueren Dramas_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See
also L.-V. Gofflot, _Le Theatre au college, du moyen age a nos jours_,
Preface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907).

The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is
treated by A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_ (2nd ed., 2
vols., Turin, 1891); J. Dornis, _Le Theatre italien contemporain_
(Paris, 1904); H. Lyonnet, _Le Theatre en Italie_ (Paris, 1900); L.
Riccoboni, _Histoire du theatre italien_ (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731);
J. C. Walker, _Historical Memoir on Italian Tragedy_ (London, 1799).
See also A. Gaspary, _History of Early Italian Literature_, transl. by
H. Oelsner (London, 1901).

Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in R. Nicolai,
_Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1876).

Modern Spanish drama:--M. A. Fee, _Etudes sur l'ancien theatre
espagnol_ (Paris 1873); A. Gassier, _Le Theatre espagnol_ (Paris,
1898); G. H. Lewes, _The Spanish Drama_ (London, 1846); H. Lyonnet,
_Le Theatre en Espagne_ (Paris, 1897); A. Schaffer, _Gesch. des
spanischen Nationaldramas_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de
Viel-Castel, _Essai sur le theatre espagnol_ (2 vols., Paris, 1882).
See also G. Ticknor, _History of Spanish Literature_ (3 vols., London,
1863).

Modern Portuguese:--H. Lyonnet, _Le Theatre au Portugal_ (Paris,
1898); see also K. von Reinhardstoettner's _Portugiesische
Literaturgeschichte_ (Sammlung Guschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which
contains a useful bibliography.

Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy):--F. Brunetiere, _Les
Epoques du theatre francais_, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892); E. Chasles,
_La Comedie en France au XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1862); E. Faguet, _La
Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, _The
Modern French Drama_ (London, 1898); V. Fournel, _Le Theatre au XVII^e
siecle_ (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, _Le Theatre francais au XVI^e et
au XVII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, s.d.); F. Hawkins, _Annals of the
French Stage_ (London, 1884); H. Lucas, _Hist. philosophique et
litteraire du theatre francais depuis son origine_ (3 vols., Paris);
Parfait, _Hist. du theatre francais_ (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L.
Petit de Julleville, _Le theatre en France depuis ses origines jusqu'a
nos jours_ (Paris, 1899); E. Rigal, _Le theatre francais avant la
periode classique_ (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, _Etudes sur le theatre
francais du XV^e et du XVI^e siecle_ (Dijon, 1901).

The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the 17th
century is traced in L. Moland, _Moliere et la comedie italienne_ (2nd
ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Demogeot's, H. von Laun's and
Saintsbury's histories of French Literature.

Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama the
following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with the entire
range of the English drama, or with more than one of its periods:--D.
E. Baker, _Biographia dramatica_ (continued to 1811 by J. Reed and S.
Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier, _History of English
Dramatic Poetry_, new ed. (3 vols., London, 1879); C. Dibdin, _A
complete History of the English Stage_ (5 vols., London, 1800); J. J.
Jusserand, _Le Theatre en Angleterre_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1881); G.
Langbaine, _Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets_
(London, 1699); _The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of the
English dramatick poets_ (London, 1719); C. M. Rapp, _Studien uber das
englische Theater_, 2 parts (Tubingen, 1862); "G. S. B.", _Study of
the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature_ (London, 1884); _The
Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the 18th century_
(London, 1802); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature to
the Death of Queen Anne_ (2nd ed., 3 vols., London, 1899); see also
the histories of English Literature or Poetry, by Warton, Taine, ten
Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &c.

The following works contain the most complete lists of English
plays:--W. W. Greg, _A List of English Plays written before 1643 and
published before 1700_ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900); J. O.
Halliwell (-Phillipps), _Dictionary of Old English Plays_ (London,
1860); W. C. Hazlitt, _A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old
English Plays_ (London, 1892); R. W. Lowe, _Bibliographical Account of
English Dramatic Literature_ (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for
the whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with
it. The unique work of Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage from
1660-1830_ (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological
series of plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays,
and critical remarks on plays and actors. "A Compleat List" of English
dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T. Whincop's
_Scanderbeg_ in that year.

The following are the principal collections of English plays--_Ancient
British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810); _Modern
British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811); W. Bang,
_Materialien zur Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_ (Louvain, 1902,
&c.); A. H. Bullen, _Collection of Old English Plays_ (4 vols.,
London, 1882); R. Dodsley, _A Select Collection of Old Plays_, 4th ed.
by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876); _Dramatists of the
Restoration_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879); _Early English
Dramatists_, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &c.); C. M. Gayley,
_Representative English Comedies_ (vol. i., New York, 1903); T.
Hawkins, _Origin of the English Drama_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1773); Mrs
Inchbald, _British Theatre_, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824), _Modern
Theatre_ (10 vols., London, 1811), _Collection of Farces and
Afterpieces_ (7 vols., London, 1815); Malone Society publications
(London, 1907, &c.); J. M. Manly, _Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean
Drama_ (3 vols., London, 1897); _Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists_,
ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887. &c.); _Old English Drama_ (2 vols.,
London, 1825); _Pearson's Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays_
(London, 1871, &c.).

The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in
especial:--W. Creizenach, _Die Schauspiele der englischen Komudianten_
(Berlin, 1895); J. W. Cunliffe, _The Influence of Seneca on
Elizabethan Tragedy_ (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, _A Chronicle History
of the London Stage, 1559-1642_ (London, 1890), _A Biographical
Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642_ (London, 1891); W. C.
Hazlitt, _The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and Stuart
Princes, 1543-1664_ (London, 1869); W. Hazlitt, _Dramatic Literature
of the Age of Elizabeth_ (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.) (London,
1902); A. F. von Schack, _Die englischen Dramatiker vor, neben, und
nach Shakespeare_ (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds, _Shakspere's
Predecessors in the English Drama_ (London, 1884).

As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see G. B.
Churchill and W. Keller, "Die latein. Universitats-Dramen Englands in
der Zeit d. Kunigin Elizabeth" in _Jahrbuch der deutschen
Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_. For a short bibliography of the Oxford
academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L. Lee's
edition of _Narcissus_ (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays will
also be found in _Notes and Queries_, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list
of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is
indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield.

For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, _Die englischen
Maskenspiele_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1902); H. A. Evans, _English
Masques_ (London, 1897); W. W. Greg, _A List of Masques, Pageants,
&c._ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902).

As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, _Early London Theatres_
(London, 1894).

Some information as to puppet-plays, &c., will be found in Henry
Morley's _Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair_ (London, 1859).

Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart drama
should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Puttenham and W.
Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and notes on the
Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays of Coleridge,
Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the _Specimens_), Hazlitt,
&c., and the remarkable series of articles in the _Retrospective
Review_ (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions of the Old and
New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &c.; 1874, &c.), which also contain
reprints of early works of great importance for the history of the
Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe's _Diary_, &c., the
_Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_ (1865, &c.), as well
as the German journals _Anglia_, _Englische Studien_, &c., and the
_Modern Language Review_ (Cambridge).

The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660) is
treated in L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New York, 1903); C.
Cibber, _Apology for the Life of C. Cibber_, written by himself, new
ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited
Churchill's _Rosciad_ and _Apology_ (London, 1891); J. Doran, _Their
Majesties' Servants: annals of the English Stage_ (3 vols., London,
1888); A. Filon, _Le Theatre anglais: hier, aujourd'hui, demain_
(Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, _A View of the English Stage_ (_Works_, ed.
A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903); W. Nicholson, _The Struggle
for a Free Stage in London_ (Westminster, 1907).

The following treat of the modern German drama in particular
periods:--R. Prulss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); R. E. Prutz, _Vorlesungen uber die
Geschichte des deutschen Theaters_ (Berlin, 1847); R. Froning, _Das
Drama der Reformationszeit_ (Stuttgart, 1900); C. Heine, _Das
Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched_ (Halle, 1889); J.
Minor, _Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfort,
1883); M. Martersteig, _Das deutsche Theater im XIX^ten Jahrh._
(Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, _Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung_ (5th ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary
histories of K. Goedeke (_Grundriss_), A. Koberstein, &c. A special
aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann,
_Die lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling's Stylpho bis zur Mitte des
XVI^ten Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550_ (Munster, 1893), and the same
author's _Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovinz_
(Leipzig, 1896).

The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard Devrient,
_Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1848-1861);
see also R. Prulss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Fluggen, _Biographisches
Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater_ (Munich, 1892).

A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von Hellwald's
_Geschichte des hollandischen Theaters_ (Rotterdam, 1874). See also
the authorities under J. van den Vondel.

Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the
autobiographies of Holberg, Ohlenschlager and Andersen; see also vol.
i. of G. Brandes's _Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature_
(Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see the
same writer's _Ibsen-Bjornson Studies_ (Eng. tr., London, 1899); also
E. Tissot, _Le Drame norvegien_ (Paris, 1893).

The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov's _Istoria Russkago
Teatra_ (_History of the Russian Theatre_), vol. i. (St Petersburg,
1889); see also P. de Corvin, _Le Theatre en Russie_ (Paris, 1890). A.
Bruckner, _Geschichte der russischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1905), may
be consulted with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions
of other Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich's
_Istoria Slavianskikh Literatur_ (_History of Slavonic Literatures_),
German translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884).
(A. W. W.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Gallicanus_, part ii.; _Sapientia_.

[2] _Gallicanus_, part i.; _Callimachus_; _Abraham_; _Paphnutius_.

[3] The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special
circumstances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various
reasons account for its having been allowed to survive.

[4] To the earliest group belong _The Castle of Perseverance_;
_Wisdom who is Christ_; _Mankind_; to the second, or early Tudor
group, Medwell, _Nature_; _The World and the Child_; _Hycke-Scorner_,
&c.

[5] _Magnyfycence_.

[6] _New Custome_; N. Woodes, _The Conflict of Conscience_, &c.

[7] _Albyon Knight_.

[8] Rastell, _Nature of the Four Elements_; Redford, _Wit and
Science_; _The Trial of Treasure_; _The Marriage of Wit and Science_.

[9] _The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom_; _The Contention between
Liberality and Prodigality_.

[10] _Jack Juggler_; _Tom Tiler and his Wife_, &c.

[11] _The Four P's_, &c.

[12] _The Disobedient Child_ (c. 1560).

[13] The [Greek: Christos paschon], an artificial Byzantine product,
probably of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean
verse, was not known to the Western world till 1542.

[14] Of G. Manzini della Motta's Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio
della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably to
the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama
_Columpnarium_, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles
that of _The Cenci_. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are
the extant Landivio de' Nobili's _De captivitate Ducis Jacobi_ (the
_condottiere_ Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi's _Historia
Baetica_ (the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the
game author's _Ferdinandus_ (of Aragon) _Servatus_, which is called a
tragi-comedy because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine L.
Dali's _Hiempsal_ (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on
sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the
15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas
written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast
contempt; and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato
of Treviso, B. Campagna of Verona, _De passione Redemptoris_; and G.
F. Conti, author of _Theandrothanatos_ and numerous vanished plays.

[15] _Imber aureus_ (Danae), &c.

[16] L. Bruni's _Poliscena_ (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone's (1370-1463)
jovial _Lusus ebriorum_ s. _De lege bibia_; the papal secretary P.
Candido Decembrio's (1399-1477) non-extant _Aphrodisia_; L. B.
Alberti's _Philodoxios_ (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma's (d. before
1462) _Philogenia_ and _Confutatio coquinaria_ (a merry students'
play); the _Fraudiphila_ of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died
after 1470 and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de' Piccolomini's
own verse comedy, _Chrisis_, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P.
Domizio's _Lucinia_, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de' Medici in
1478, &c.

[17] Mondella, _Isifile_ (1582); Fuligni, _Bragadino_ (1589).

[18] Home, _Douglas_.

[19] Lazzaroni, _Ulisse il giovane_ (1719).

[20] _Didone abbandonata_, _Siroe_, _Semiramide_, _Artaserse_,
_Demetris_, &c.

[21] _Cleopatra_, _Antigone_, _Octavia_, _Mirope_, &c.

[22] e.g. _Bruto I._ and _II._

[23] _Filippo_; _Maria Stuarda_.

[24] Pellico, _Francesca da Rimini_; Niccolini, _Giovanni da
Procida_; _Beatrice Cenci_; Giacometti, _Cola di Rienzi_
(Giacometti's masterpiece was _La Marte civile_).

[25] Pyrogopolinices in the _Miles Gloriosus_.

[26] The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the
place he represented, were (according to Baretti) _Pantalone_, a
Venetian merchant; _Dottore_, a Bolognese physician; _Spaviento_, a
Neapolitan braggadocio; _Pullicinella_, a wag of Apulia;
_Giangurgulo_ and _Coviello_, clowns of Calabria; _Gelfomino_, a
Roman beau; _Brighella_, a Ferrarese pimp; and _Arlecchino_, a
blundering servant of Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such
personages (of whom four at least appeared in each play), there were
the _Amorosos_ or _Innamoratos_, men or women (the latter not before
1560, up to which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious
parts, and _Smeraldina_, _Colombina_, _Spilletta_, and other
_servettas_ or waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and
wore no masks.

[27] _Pasitea_.

[28] _Amicizia_.

[29] _Milesia_.

[30] _La Lena_; _Il Negromante_.

[31] _La Cassaria_; _I Suppositi_.

[32] Of Machiavelli's other comedies, two are prose adaptations from
Plautus and Terence, _La Clizia_ (Casina) and _Andria_; of the two
others, simply called _Commedie_, and in verse, his authorship seems
doubtful.

[33] _La Cortigiana_, _La Talanta_, _Il Ipocrito_, _Il Filosofo_.

[34] _Momolo Cortesan_ (_Jerome the Accomplished Man_); _La Bottega
del caffe_, &c.

[35] _La Vedova scaltra_ (_The Cunning Widow_); _La Putta onorata_
(_The Respectable Girl_); _La Buona Figlia_; _La B. Sposa_; _La B.
Famiglia_; _La B. Madre_ (the last of which was unsuccessful;
"goodness," says Goldoni, "never displeases, but the public weary of
every thing"), &c.; and _Il Burbero benefico_, called in its original
French version _Le Bourru bienfaisant_.

[36] _Moliere_; _Terenzio_; _Tasso_.

[37] _Pamela_; _Pamela Maritata_; _Il Filosofo Inglese_ (_Mr
Spectator_).

[38] _L' Amore delle tre melarancie_ (_The Three Lemons_); _Il
Corvo_.

[39] _Turandot_; _Zobeide_.

[40] _L' Amore delle tre m._ (against Goldoni); _L' Angellino
Belverde_ (_The Small Green Bird_), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and
Voltaire).

[41] _Aspasia_; _Polyxena_.

[42] _Ephemeridophobos_.

[43] _Timoleon_; _Konstantinos Palaeologos_; _Rhigas of Pherae_.

[44] _The Three Hundred_, or _The Character of the Ancient Hellene_
(Leonidas); _The Death of the Orator_ (Demosthenes); _A Scion of
Timoleon_, &c.

[45] The term is the same as that used in the old French collective
mysteries (_journees_).

[46] In some of his plays (_Comedia Serafina_; _C. Tinelaria_) there
is a mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the
Italian masked comedy.

[47] _Necromanticus_, _Lena_, _Decepti_, _Suppositi_.

[48] _Los Enganos_ (_Gli Ingannati_).

[49] _Cornelia_ (_Il Negromante_).

[50] Lope, _Armelina_ (Medea and Neptune as _deus ex machina_--si
modo machina adfuisset).

[51] _Menennos_.

[52] _El Azero de Madrid_ (_The Steel Water of Madrid_); _Dineros son
Calidad_ (= _The Dog in the Manger_), &c.

[53] _La Estrella de Sevilla_ (_The Star of Seville_, i.e. Sancho the
Brave); _El Nuevo Mundo_ (Columbus), &c.

[54] _Roma Abrasada_ (_R. in Ashes_--Nero).

[55] _Arauco domado_ (_The Conquest of Arauco_, 1560).

[56] _La Moza de cantaro_ (_The Water-maid_).

[57] _Las Mocedades_ (_The Youthful Adventures_) _del Cid_.

[58] _Don Gil de las calzas verdes_ (_D. G. in the Green Breeches_).

[59] _El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra_ (_The Deceiver of
Seville_, i.e. Don Juan, _and the Stone Guest_).

[60] _El Divino Orfeo_, &c.

[61] _El Magico prodigioso_; _El Purgatorio de San Patricio_; _La
Devocion de la Cruz_.

[62] _El Principe constante_ (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).

[63] _La Dama duende_ (_The Fairy Lady_).

[64] _Vida es sueno_ (_Life is a Dream_).

[65] _El Lindo Don Diego_ (_Pretty Don Diego_).

[66] _Desden con el desden_ (_Disdain against Disdain_).

[67] Luzan, _La Razon contra la mode_ (La Chaussee, _Le Prejuge a la
mode_).

[68] _El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit)._

[69] _El Si de las ninas (The Young Maidens' Consent)._

[70] _O cioso_ (_The Jealous Man_), &c. His _Inez de Castro_ is a
tragedy with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J.
Bermudez.

[71] _Don Duardos_, _Amadis_, &c.

[72] _Auto das Regateiras_ (_The Market-women_), _Pratica de
compadres_ (_The Gossips_), &c.

[73] _Emphatri[)o]es_, _Filodemo_, _Seleuco_.

[74] _Os Estrangeiros_, _Os Vilhalpandos_ (_The Impostors_).

[75] _Eufrosina_, _Ulyssipo_ (Lisbon), _Aulegrafia_.

[76] _Astarte_, _Hermione_, _Megara_.

[77] These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period
of the "_Arcadias_."

[78] _Cat[=a]o_.

[79] _Manoel de Sousa_, &c.

[80] _Antigone_ and _Electra_; _Hecuba_; and _Iphigenia in Aulis_.
The _Andria_ was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the
_Plutus_ of Aristophanes.

[81] Trissino, _Sofonisba_, by de Saint-Gelais.

[82] _La Soltane_ (1561).

[83] _Daire (Darius)._

[84] _La Mort de Cesar._

[85] _Achille_ (1563).

[86] _Les Lacenes_; _Marie Stuart or L'Ecossaise_.

[87] _La Juive_, &c.

[88] _Les Corivaux_ (1573).

[89] _La Reconnue_ (Le Capitaine Rodomont).

[90] _Les Esbahis._

[91] _Les Contens_ (S. Parabosco, _I Contenti_).

[92] _Les Neapolitaines_; _Les Desesperades de l'amour_.

[93] _Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo)._

[94] _Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni)._

[95] "L. du Peschier" (de Barry), _La Comedie des comedies_.

[96] _L'Amour tyrannique._

[97] _Agrippine_, _Le Pedant joue_.

[98] _Marianne._

[99] _Sophonisbe._

[100] _Les Bergeries._

[101] _Melite_; _Clitandre_, &c.

[102] _Le Veritable Saint Genest_; _Venceslas_.

[103] Steele, _The Lying Lover_; Foote, _The Liar_; Goldoni, _Il
Bugiardo_.

[104] Ruiz de Alarcon, _La Verdad sospechosa._

[105] _L'Illusion comique_ is antithetically mixed.

[106] _Andromaque_; _Phedre_; _Berenice_, &c.

[107] _Esther_; _Athalie_.

[108] _Le Cid_; _Polyeucte_.

[109] _Esther_; _Athalie_.

[110] Corneille, _Rodogune_; Racine, _Phedre_.

[111] _Brutus_; _La Mort de Cesar_; _Semiramis_.

[112] _OEdipe_; _Le Fanatisme_ (_Mahomet_).

[113] _Adelaide du Guesclin_.

[114] _L'Orphelin de la Chine_.

[115] _Tanis et Zelide_.

[116] _Les Guebres_.

[117] _Olimpie_.

[118] _Tancrede_.

[119] _La Mort de Cesar_; _Zaire_ (_Othello_).

[120] _Hamlet_; _Le Roi Lear_, &c.

[121] The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as valuable
contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare's
influence in France.

[122] Quinault, _L'Amour indiscret_ (Newcastle and Dryden's _Sir
Martin Mar-all_).

[123] _Le Mercure galant_; _Esope a la ville_; _Esope a la cour_
(Vanbrugh, _Aesop_).

[124] _Le Bal_ (_M. de Pourceaugnac_); Geronte in _Le Legataire
universel_ (Argan in _Le Malade imaginaire_); _La Critique du L._
(_La C. de l'ecole des femmes_).

[125] _Le Joueur_; _Le Legataire universel_.

[126] _Crispin rival de son maitre_; _Turcaret_.

[127] _Le Mechant_.

[128] _La Metromanie_.

[129] _Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard_; _Le Legs_; _La Surprise de
l'amour_; _Les Fausses Confidences_; _L'Epreuve_.

[130] _Le Philosophe marie_; _Le Glorieux_; _Le Dissipateur_.

[131] _La Fausse Antipathie_; _Le Prejuge a la mode_; _L'Ecole des
amis_; _Meluside_; _Pamela_. _L'Ecole des meres_ was the play which
Frederick the Great described as turning the stage into a _bureau
general de la fadeur_.

[132] See especially _Nanine_, founded on the original _Pamela_.

[133] _Le Philosophe sans le savoir_; _La Gageure imprevue_.

[134] e.g. _Eugenie_ (the original of Goethe's _Clavigo_) and _Les
Deux Amis_, or _Le Negociant de Lyon_.

[135] _Richard Coeur de Lion_, &c.

[136] _Zemire et Azor_; _Jeannot et Jeannette_.

[137] _Les Muses galantes_; _Le Devin du village_.

[138] _Pygmalion_.

[139] _Charles IX, ou l'ecole des rois_.

[140] _Hernani_ (1839); _Le Roi s'amuse_; _Ruy Blas_; _Les
Burgraves_, &c. Even in _Torquemada_, the fruit of its author's old
age, and full of bombast, the original power has not altogether gone
out.

[141] _Chatterton_.

[142] _Francois le champi_; _Claudie_.

[143] _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_.

[144] _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, as interpreted by Delaunay,
must always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable
_genre_.

[145] _Theatre de Clara Gazul_. _La Famille Carvajal_, one of these
pieces, treats the same story as that of _The Cenci_.

[146] _Lucrece_ (1843); _L'Honneur et l'argent_; _Charlotte Corday_.

[147] _La Cigue_; _L'Aventuriere_; _Gabrielle_; _Le Fils de Giboyer_,
&c.

[148] _Valerie_; _Bertrand et Raton_; _Le Verre d'eau_, &c.

[149] _Louis XI._

[150] _Adrienne Lecouvreur_.

[151] _La Dame aux camelias_; _Le Demi-monde_; _Le Supplice d'une
femme_; _Les Idees de Mme Aubray_; _L'Etrangere_; _Francillon_.

[152] _Les Pattes de mouche_; _Nos bons villageois_; _Patrie_.

[153] _Le Monde ou l'on s'ennuie_.

[154] _Frou-frou_.

[155] As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay's celebrated
_Satyre of the Three Estaits_, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the
Reformation, is in form a morality pure and simple.

[156] _Tom Tiler and his Wife_ (1578); _A Knack to know a Knave_ (c.
1594); _Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes_ (misattributed to G. Peele),
(printed 1599).

[157] An earlier drama by him, _Christus redivivus_, is said to have
been printed at Cologne.

[158] _Oedipus_; _Dido_; _Ulysses redux_.

[159] By A. Guarna.

[160] _Pax_; _Troas_; _Menaechmi_; _Oedipus_; _Mostellaria_;
_Hecuba_; _Amphytruo_; _Medea_. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The
date and place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity
Hall's _Herodes_, some time after 1567, are unknown.

[161] The date and place of performance of the Latin _Fatum
Vortigerni_ are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a
later time than Shakespeare's _Richard II._, which it seems in
certain points to resemble.

[162] Latin "academical" plays directly imitated from Seneca, but of
unknown date, are _Solymannidae_ (or the story of Solyman II. and his
son Mustapha), and _Tomumbeius_ (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt, 1516);
yet others exhibit his influence.

[163] _"Supposes" and "Jocasta,"_ ed. J. W. Cunliffe.

[164] His _Palamon and Arcyte_ (produced in Christ Church hall,
Oxford, in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare
with _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ this early dramatic treatment of a
singularly fine theme.

[165] _The History of the Collier._

[166] _A Historie of Error_ (1577), one of the many imitations of the
_Menaechmi_, may have been the foundation of the _Comedy of Errors_.
In the previous year was printed the old _Taming of a Shrew_, founded
on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare's
_Taming of the Shrew_ may have been suggested by _The Supposes_.

[167] _Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds
... are reproved_, &c. (1577).

[168] _The School of Abuse._

[169] _The Anatomy of Abuses._

[170] H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of _Promos and Cassandra_),
W. Rankine.

[171] It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players,
of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of
the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times
than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation of
Shrewsbury paid rewards to the _histriones_ of Prince Henry and of
the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players
of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot
and of Lord Furnival.

[172] _The Woman in the Moone_; _Sapho and Phao_.

[173] _Alexander and Campaspe._

[174] _Endimion_; _Mydas_.

[175] _Gallathea._

[176] _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay._

[177] _The Wounds of Civil War._ With Greene he wrote _A
Looking-Glass for London_.

[178] _Summer's Last Will and Testament_ is his sole entire extant
play. _Dido, Queen of Carthage_, is by him and Marlowe.

[179] _Patient Grissil_ (with Dekker and Haughton).

[180] _Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father._

[181] _Henry VIII._

[182] Ford, _Perkin Warbeck_.

[183] _Edward IV._; _If You Know Not Me_, &c.

[184] _Henry VIII._

[185] _The Merry Wives of Windsor._

[186] Massinger, _The Virgin Martyr_; Shirley, _St Patrick for
Ireland_.

[187] _Cleopatra_; _Philotas_.

[188] _Darius_; _Croesus_; _Julius Caesar_; _The Alexandraean
Tragedy_.

[189] _The Sad Shepherd_.

[190] _The Faithful Shepherdess._

[191] _The Queen's Arcadia._

[192] _Sejanus his Fall_; _Catiline his Conspiracy_.

[193] _Bussy d'Ambois_; _The Revenge of B. d'A._; _The Conspiracy of
Byron_; _The Tragedy of B._; _Chabot, Admiral of France_ (with
Shirley).

[194] _Arden of Faversham_; _A Yorkshire Tragedy_.

[195] _A Woman killed with Kindness_; _The English Traveller_.

[196] _Vittoria Coromboni_; _The Duchess of Malfi_.

[197] _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_; _The Broken Heart_.

[198] _Every Man in his Humour_; _Every Man out of his Humour_.

[199] Shadwell, _The Humorists_.

[200] It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate by
any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan plays,
and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers. Yet some
such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to remembrance of
highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley, his namesake Samuel,
John Day, and not a few others.

[201] The Latin comedy _Victoria_ by Abraham Fraunce of St John's was
written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney;
but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.

[202] (Bishop) Hacket's _Loyola_ was acted at Trinity in 1623.

[203] _Naufragium joculare--The Guardian_ (rewritten later as _The
Cutter of Coleman Street_).

[204] Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), _Eastward Hoe_ (1605);
Middleton, _A Game at Chess_ (1624); Shirley and Chapman, _The Ball_
(1632); Massinger(?), _The Spanish Viceroy_ (1634).

[205] _Twelfth Night._

[206] _The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street_, by "W. S."
(Wentworth Smith?).

[207] _The Alchemist_; _Bartholomew Fair_.

[208] Chapman, _An Humorous Day's Mirth_; Marston, _The Dutch
Courtesan_; Middleton, _The Family of Love_.

[209] Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe's English version of the
_Pastor fido_ (1646); after his death were published his translations
of two plays by A. de Mendoza.

[210] _A Short View of Tragedy_ (1693).

[211] _The Black Prince_; _Tryphon_; _Herod the Great_; _Altemira._

[212] _The Indian Queen._

[213] _The Indian Emperor_; _Tyrannic Love_; _The Conquest of
Granada._

[214] _Essay of Dramatic Poesy._

[215] _Essay of Heroic Plays._