Chapter VII: Front Matter (7)

Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as those of engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific study of practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking, and with honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost every civilized country than it is in England, where the limited scale upon which such work is carried on, the indifference of statesmen, officials and business men, and the incapacity of the public to understand the close relation between scientific study and practical success, contrast very unfavourably with the state of affairs in Germany or the United States. The backwardness of economic science has been an index of the danger threatening the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United Kingdom. There are very few questions of public or commercial importance upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be found amongst English works. This would matter very little, perhaps, if Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual experience, in the soundness of their policy, the present security of their position, and the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen or maintain it. But this is very far from being the case. If we take, for example, the corner-stone of the British commercial system in the 19th century, namely, the policy of "free trade" (q.v.), the public do not now read the economic works which supplied the theoretical basis of that policy, and, indeed, would not be convinced by them. The great men of the period, Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures. Long before his death, Bright's references in public speeches to the achievements of the Anti-Corn Law League were received with respectful impatience, and Peel's famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The result is that free trade had become by the end of the 19th century in the main an old habit, for which the ordinary English manufacturer could give no very reasonable explanation, whatever may be its influence in commerce and public affairs. The doctrine of free trade only prevailed in so far as it could be restated in terms which had a direct relevance to the existing position of England and existing conditions of international trade. And it was directly challenged by the representatives of Mr Chamberlain's school of Imperialist thought (see CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH). It thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial policy of different countries, and point out the alternative methods of dealing with present difficulties, with their probable results.

Commerce and finance.

The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its system of public finance (see e.g. ENGLISH FINANCE). The absence of conviction in regard to British commercial policy naturally had its counterpart in the attitude of many men to the financial system of the country. The eulogies showered upon it in the past were no longer considered adequate. The great increase in recent years in British military and naval expenditure, made necessary by the exceptional demands of a state of war and the great development of foreign powers, was partly responsible for the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great extension of the functions of the state during the latter part of the 19th century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent, partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely to increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave a deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal expenditure of the central government. The extension of government functions appeared much more likely to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure might therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite of the vast increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of increasing difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain without recourse to measures of a highly controversial character; and the search for new sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised, in an acute form, questions of national commercial policy and the relations between the United Kingdom and the colonies.

The development of the powers of the central government has been less than that of the functions of local governing authorities. This, again, is a movement much more likely to extend than to be checked. Local governing authorities now discharge economic functions of enormous importance and complexity, involving sums of money larger than sufficed to run important states a generation ago. The scientific study of the economics of local administration is, however, in its infancy, and requires to be taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of commercial policy and local government are closely bound up with the scientific study of the transport system. Although the British Empire contains within itself every known species of railway enterprise, the study of railways and other means of transport, and their relation to the business, the commerce and the social life of the country, is deplorably backward. It is obvious that no inquiry into commercial policy, or into such social questions as the housing of the poor, can be effective unless this deficiency is remedied.

The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire depends upon the efficiency of its industrial system. On this subject many monographs and larger works have been published in recent years, but dealing rather with such questions as trade unionism, co-operation and factory legislation, than the structure and organization of particular industries, or the causes and the results of the formation of the great combinations, peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not wanting in England, which are amongst the most striking economic phenomena of modern times.

These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies of the rising generation of economists. The claim of economics for recognition as a science and as a subject of study must be based on its relevance to the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the practical difficulties of each generation, and so contribute to the progress of nations.

LITERATURE.--See also FREE TRADE; PROTECTION; TARIFF; COMMERCIAL
TREATIES; TRUSTS; MONEY; FINANCE; &c. The bibliography of economics as
a whole would include a history of all the writers on the subject, and
is beyond our scope here; see the numerous articles on economic
subjects throughout this work. The article by Dr J.K. Ingram in the
ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is still a valuable
historical account. It is only possible to mention here a few of the
more recent text-books. The most important general work published in
English is Marshall's _Principles of Economics_, vol. i. (1st edition,
1890; 4th edition, 1898). J. Shield Nicholson's _Principles of
Political Economy_ (3 vols.) not only gives a survey of economic
principles since Mill's time, but contains much suggestive and
original work. The writer of this article is much indebted to the
works of Schmoller, particularly his _Grundris der allgemeinen
Volkswirtschaftslehre_ (1900), and Adolph Wagner, particularly his
_Grundlegung der politischen Okonomie_. On the history of economic
theory, Cannan's _History of the Theories of Production and
Distribution_ (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism, from a purely
objective standpoint, of the works of the English classical writers.
The most important English works published in recent years on general
English economic history are W. Cunningham's _Growth of Industry and
Commerce_, and W.J. Ashley's _Economic History_, while Vinogradoff's
_Villenage in England_ and _The Growth of the Manor_, as well as
Maitland's _Domesday Studies_, are of great importance to the student
of early economic institutions. D'Avenel's _Histoire economique de la
propriete, &c._ (_1200-1800_), is a monumental work on the history of
prices in France. Other books dealing with special subjects are likely
to take a very high place in economic literature. We may mention
particularly Charles Booth's _Life and Labour of the People in
London_, B.S. Rowntree's _Poverty_, Sidney and Beatrice Webb's
_History of Trade Unionism_ and _Industrial Democracy_, and Dr Arthur
Shadwell's _Industrial Efficiency_ (1906). These books are generally
regarded as typical of the best English work of recent years in
economic investigation. We may also mention Schloss's _Methods of
Industrial Remuneration_, a most important contribution to the study
of the wages question; C.F. Bastable's works on _International Trade_
and _Public Finance_; George Clare on the _Money Market_ and the
_Foreign Exchanges_; and A.T. Hadley's _Economics: An Account of the
Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896). Studies
of particular questions, both concrete and theoretical, in foreign
languages are too numerous to specify, and much of the best modern
work is to be found in economic periodicals. (W. A. S. H.)

ECONOMY, a township and a village of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township (1900) 1062; (1910) 860. The village is served by the Pennsylvania system. It was owned until 1904, when it was sold to a land company, by the Harmony Society (see COMMUNISM), commonly called the Economites, Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony, Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in New Harmony (q.v.), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert Owen, settled here in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which each family received a house and garden. The culture of silk, flax, grapes (for wine-making) and fruits and cereals in general, and the manufacture of flour and of woollen, flannel and cotton fabrics, were carried on under a rule requiring every adult to labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or mill. Celibacy had been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community. New members were received after a half-year's probation, and members who left received their original investment. Three hundred thus separated from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as their share of the communal property, to build the millennial kingdom of New Jerusalem at Phillipsburg (now Monaca), Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead of Bernhard Muller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow religionist, and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833 Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a religious colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his wife until 1871 was head of a similar community at Germantown in Webster parish. The Harmonists at Economy flourished under the rule of a tradesman, R.L. Baker, or Romelius Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and during the Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers were for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the employes who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered the members of the community, the basis of which was always religious. Baker died in 1868, and his successor, John Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first trustee. In 1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In 1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy.

See Morris Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United States_ (New
York, 1903); William A. Hinds, _American Communities_ (revised
edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, _The Harmony Society_
(Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, _The Communistic Societies of
the United States_ (New York, 1875); and among several excellent
monographs in German, Karl Knortz, _Die christlichkommunistische
Kolonie der Rappisten_ (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno Deiler, _Eine
vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Verteidigung des Grafen
de Leon_ (New Orleans, 1900).

ECONOMY, a word ranging in application from the careful thrift of an individual to the systematic arrangement of an organization. It is derived from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomia], the management ([Greek: nemein], to control) of an [Greek: oikos] or house, extended in meaning to the administration of a state. Of its original sense, the art or science of managing a household, the expression "domestic economy" survives, but the principal use in this sense is confined to the thrifty management of the financial resources of a household or of an individual. It is thus used as equivalent to "saving," not only of money, but of time, labour or effort, and, generally, of the least expenditure of means to attain a required end. It is on the principle of "economy" that many phonetic changes occur in the development of languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a principle or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the smallness of the effort made, and of the means taken to produce the result. The phrase "economy of truth" is due to an invidious application of the use, in patristic theology, of the word [Greek: oikonomia] for the careful presentation of such doctrine as would be applicable to the hearer (see J.H. Newman, _History of the Arians of the 4th Century_). "Economy" is also used in theology in such expressions as "Mosaic" or "Christian economy" as a synonym of "dispensation," for the administration of the world by God at particular times or for particular races. From the meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the word is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any organized body, and is equivalent almost to "system"; thus the "economy" of nature or of animal or plant life may be spoken of. The most common use, however, of the word is that of "political economy," the science dealing with the production, distribution and consumption of wealth (see ECONOMICS).

ECSTASY (Gr. [Greek: ekstasis], from [Greek: existemi], put out of its place, alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which the mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one dominant idea or object, and loses for the time its normal self-control. With this there is commonly associated the prevalence of some strong emotion, which manifests itself in various ways, and with varying degrees of intensity. This state resembles in many points that of catalepsy (q.v.), but differs from it sufficiently to constitute it a separate affection. The patient in ecstasy may lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic, apparently quite unconscious, yet, on awaking, there is a distinct recollection of visions perceived during this period. More frequently there is violent emotional excitement which may find expression in impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements and gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of temporary religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an epidemic. It is well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the dancing epidemics of Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and the _Convulsionnaires_ of St Medard at the grave of the Abbe Paris in the early part of the 18th century, and in more recent times has been witnessed during periods of religious revivalism. (See also INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY.)

ECTOSPORA, a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan parasites included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three orders, Gregarines, Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining character of the Ectospora is that the spore-mother-cells (sporoblasts) are formed at the periphery of the parent-individual (sporont); we may, however, go further, and say that the formation of all the different reproductive elements is uniformly peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are (a) that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (b) that growth and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or reproductive phase sets in.

There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows: the actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between certain Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see TRYPANOSOMES); the possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar microgametes (male elements), whose general structure greatly resembles that of a Heteromastigine Flagellate; the possession by various parasitic Flagellates (e.g. _Herpetomonas_) of an attached, resting phase, when the parasites become gregariniform, which strongly suggests the attached phase of many young, growing Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements of Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile and metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the exogenous type of reproduction, which is easily derivable from the multiple division of certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in turn, from the typical binary longitudinal fission of a Flagellate.

ECUADOR

Boundaries.

(officially _La Republica del Ecuador_), a republic of South America, bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S. by Peru, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its boundary lines with Colombia and Peru were in 1909 still unsettled, large areas of territory being claimed by all three republics. Under an agreement of the 15th of December 1894, the disputes were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign as arbitrator, but nothing was accomplished. On the 5th of November 1904, Colombia and Ecuador agreed to submit their dispute to the German emperor, and a convention of the 12th of September 1905 between Colombia and Peru established a _modus vivendi_ for the settlement of their conflicting claims, in which Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador, which are very defective, usually describe its territory as extending eastward to the Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in actual occupation of the region east of Huiririma-chico, on the Napo river, 3-1/2 degrees west of that frontier, those maps cannot be considered correct. The Trans-Andine territory occupied by Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area between the Coca and Napo, the provisional boundary line with Colombia, and a line running nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about lat. 2 deg. 50' S., long. 73 deg. 20' W.) to a point on the Santiago river in about lat. 4 deg. 12' S., long. 78 deg. W., which forms the provisional boundary with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed by Peru, which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting Ecuador to a comparatively small area covered by the Andes and western Cordillera and the narrow plain on the Pacific coast. From the Santiago river, a western affluent of the Maranon, the boundary line runs south-west and west across the Andes to the head waters of the Macara, down that stream to the Chira, or Achira, whose channel marks the frontier down to about 80 deg. 17' W., where a small stream (the Rio Alamo) enters from the north. The line then runs almost due north to the south shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil, following the western water parting of the lower Tumbez valley. A small district in the valley of the Chira is claimed by Peru. The northern boundary line is described elsewhere (see COLOMBIA). A small section of this line terminating on the Pacific coast is also in dispute, Ecuador claiming the main channel of the Mira as the dividing line, and Colombia claiming a small district south of that channel, the line running due west from the mouth of the most southern outlet of the Mira opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point of intersection with that river.

_Physical Geography._--The surface of Ecuador may be divided into
three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western
Cordillera and the coast; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two
great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau
lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in the
great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial, low-lying
plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down by the
mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by isolated
elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are still
subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower river
courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile and
productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near the
Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbouring
territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia, Brazil and
Peru--a great forest-covered plain descending gently toward the east,
broken on its western margin by short spurs from the Andes enclosing
highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated ranges between the larger
river courses, and traversed by large rivers flowing into the Napo and
Maranon. This region has been only partially explored, and but little
is known of the large areas lying between the navigable rivers.

Mountains.

The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two great
mountain chains which cross the greater part of the republic between
and almost parallel with the 78th and 79th meridians. The eastern
chain is known as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cordillera Oriental,
and the western as the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera).
Starting from the confused grouping on the southern frontier of the
two great chains and some transverse ranges, they run nearly north by
east to the Colombian frontier where another "knot" or junction
occurs. The summits of the western range form a line of noteworthy
regularity, but those of the eastern form a broken irregular line of
varying distances from the first. The elevated plateau between the two
great chains, which is about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m. wide, is
divided into three great shallow basins or plains by the transverse
ridges or _paramos_ of Tiupullo and Azuay. These are known as the
Quito, Ambato and Cuenca basins. South of the latter is the irregular
and deeply broken Loja basin, which can hardly be considered a part of
the great Ecuador plateau. The three great basins, which are broken
and subdivided by mountainous spurs and ridges, descend gradually
toward the south, the Quito plain having an average elevation of 9500
ft. above the sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800. They are also
characterized by the increasing aridity of the plateau from north to
south, the Quito plain being fertile and well covered with vegetation,
and the Ambato and Cuenca plains being barren and desolate except in
some favoured localities. The volcanic character of the region is
likewise responsible for large areas of barren surfaces. Rising from
this elevated plateau, along its eastern and western margins, are the
Cordilleras with their principal summits culminating far above the
line of perpetual snow, which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above
the sea. These summits are remarkable, not only for their great
height, but also for their apparent symmetrical arrangement in
parallel lines, sometimes in pairs facing each other across this
cyclopean passage. Nowhere in the world can there be found another
such assemblage of snow-clad peaks, several of which are active
volcanoes. There are 22 of them grouped around these central plains
almost within sight of each other. The western chain has the
distinction of having the highest summit, the eastern the greatest
number of high summits and the highest average elevation. From the
time of Humboldt's visit to this remarkable region down to the present
time there have been many diverse calculations of the height of these
peaks, but with a considerable variation. It is estimated that there
was a considerable decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes
during the past century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years,
Pichincha 218 ft. in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where
Humboldt resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time
Cotopaxi and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased
in elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These
changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a
cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations
of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investigators
are W. Reiss and A. Stubel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper (1880),
whose measurements of the principal summits were:--

_Eastern Cordillera._ _Western Cordillera._
+--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
| | Ft. | | Ft. |
+--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
| Cayambe (W.) | 19,186 | Cotocachi (W.) | 16,301 |
| Sara-Urcu " | 15,502 | Mojanda (R. & S.)| 14,088 |
| Antisana " | 19,335 | Pichincha (W.) | 15,918 |
| Sincholagua (R. & S.)| 16,365 | Atacatzo (R. & S.)| 14,892 |
| Ruminagui " | 15,607 | El Corazon | |
| Cotopaxi (W.) | 19,613 | (Chamalari) (W.) | 15,871 |
| Tunguragua (R. & S.)| 16,690 | Iliniza (R. & S.)| 17,405 |
| Altar (Capac-Urcu) " | 17,730 | Carahuairazo (W.) | 16,515 |
| Sangay " | 17,464 | Chimborazo " | 20,498 |
+--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+

The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of mud
and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the northern end of
the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of knot (_nudo_)
which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher peaks of
Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly of Chiles on
the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of 15,033 ft. Ibarra
on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered severely from its
eruptions. The name is derived from _imba_, fish, and _bura_, mother,
and is said to have originated from the quantities of a fish called
"prenadilla" (_Pimelodus cyclopum_) discharged from its crater during
one of its eruptions--a phenomenon which, after a searching
investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or Cayembi, the
second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the noteworthy
distinction of standing very nearly on the equator. Its base covers a
large area, and its square top, rising far above the snow-line, is one
of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with a double dome, and is
described as an extinct volcano, though Humboldt saw smoke issuing
from it in 1802. On its western side is the famous _hacienda_ (farm)
of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea, where Humboldt resided for
several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu stands south-east of Antisana in a
densely forested region, drenched with rain and only slightly
explored. Sincholagua and Ruminagui are the next two peaks, going
southward, and then the unrivalled cone of Cotopaxi (q.v.)--the
highest active volcano in the world--from whose summit smoke curls
upward unceasingly.

Llanganati or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition
that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes.
It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with
17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit like
that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38 deg. It rises from a plain somewhat
lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands free from the
surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give it an
exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic features
is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft. in three
leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses the face of
the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most notable eruption
was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed among the extinct
volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from it at different dates,
and a violent eruption occurred on January 12, 1886. The fertile
cultivated valley of Banos, with its thermal springs, lies at the base
of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes as "the most beautiful of
all the snow peaks in the country." The next in line is El Altar,
which the natives call Capac-Urcu ("king mountain"), whose broken cone
and impressive outlines make it one of the most attractive mountains
of Ecuador. Its summit comprises a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and
its crater is surrounded by a steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is
a tradition that this mountain was once higher than Chimborazo, but a
series of eruptions caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit
to its present altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no
signs of activity since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai,
the next and last large volcano to the south, is in a state of
frequent eruption, however, and is known as one of the most restless
volcanoes of the world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a
state of uninterrupted activity, but no damage has been done, because
there are no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though
of great interest to scientific investigators because of this
unceasing activity, and of its peculiar position in the Andean system,
and because of the difficult and dangerous country by which it is
surrounded, Sangay has been but rarely visited by European travellers.
Its eruptions are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava
and explosions of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer
intervals more violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown
2000 ft. above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the
streets of Guayaquil.

Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal peaks in
order from south to north, the first to claim attention is Chimborazo
(from _Chimpu-raza_, "mountain of snow"), the highest summit of
Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point of the Andes.
Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent in 1802, gives its
elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stubel as 20,703, and Whymper as
20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil, and, according to
Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the Guayas, on the west,
without a "positive break from the summit down to the plain." This,
however, is erroneous, for Whymper located a detached range running
parallel with the Cordillera on the west, for a distance of 65 m. with
the Chimbo valley between them. The magnificence of its mass is
imposing from almost any point of view, but it can be most fully
appreciated from its western or Pacific side, where its base is
covered with forest up to the snow-line, above which its pure white
cone rises another 5000 ft. An unobstructed view of the great mountain
is rarely obtained, however, because of the mists and clouds which
cover its cone. Its summits were reached for the first time in 1880 by
Edward Whymper, all previous attempts having failed. It is considered
to be an extinct volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only
7" to 8", from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow.
Moreover, the calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its
sides below the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of
streams of hot water from its northern side, seem to confirm the
deduction that Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of
Chimborazo, and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the
lower triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the
natives call _Chimborazo-embra_, "Chimborazo's wife"), whose hollow
cone collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged
rim which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr
Whymper's measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still farther
north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe. Its hollow
summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large lake.
Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two pyramidal
peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of the Ecuadorean
group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo ridge, and
overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French academician
Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission sent to Ecuador in
1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the equator, made a
trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner ascended to within
800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological structure of the
mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity. Chamalari, which
the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-shaped appearance, is
similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks the Quito basin and has
been ascended many times. Among the earlier explorers to reach its
summit were Bouger and La Condamine, Humboldt and Bonpland, and Jose
Caldas, the Granadian naturalist. Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with
nothing noteworthy in its appearance and history. Pichincha, its
famous neighbour, is apparently of later origin, according to Wagner,
and of slightly lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is
better known than Pichincha, the "boiling mountain," because of its
destructive eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its
summit comprises three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most
westerly, Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a
funnel-shaped basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the
bottom, whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an
angle of 20 deg. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30 deg.
Bouger and La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742,
after which Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in
1831, Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending
into the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in
1857, Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper in
1880. Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to get some
good photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic description of
his experiences in the same place. He found that the real cone of
eruption was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and 800 ft. in
diameter, containing about 70 vents. The temperature of the vapour
within the fumarole was 184 deg., and water boiled at 189 deg. There
have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish conquest--in
1539, 1566, 1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered Quito 3 ft. deep
with ashes and stones, but the last three were considered as the most
destructive to that city. The last happily broke down the western side
of the crater, which, it is believed, will ensure the city against
harm in any subsequent eruption. Since the earthquake of August 1867
Pichincha has sent forth dense masses of black smoke and great
quantities of fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-peaked mountain, rising
from an extremely rough country. It was ascended by Whymper in 1880.
All the higher summits of Ecuador have true glaciers, the largest
being found on Antisana, Cayambe and Chimborazo. Whymper located and
named no less than eleven on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on
Cayambe.

Rivers.

There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador--the streams
that flow south-eastward to the Maranon, or Amazon, and those which
flow westward to the Pacific. The southern part of the great central
plateau is arid and has a very light rainfall; it has no streams,
therefore, except from melting snows, and the higher elevations which
receive the impact of the easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall
becomes heavier, the plateau is covered with vegetation, and a
considerable number of small rivers flow westward through the
Cordillera to the Pacific. The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the
water-parting between the two systems. The largest of the
eastward-flowing rivers is the Napo, which rises in the eastern
defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua--the principal source being the
Rio del Valle, which traverses the Valle Vicioso. It at first flows
south by east, and at the village of Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level,
at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft., at the mouth of the Aguarico 586
ft., 500 at the mouth of the Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the
Maranon. Orton estimates its current at Napo in the month of November
as 6 m. an hour; in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and
produces a fine series of rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the
rate is not less than 4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120
ft., but at Coca it has widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to
nearly 1 m. Like most of the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge
into the Maranon is through several distinct channels. The Napo is
navigable for steam-boats for some distance above the mouth of the
Coca, and thence for canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft.
above the sea. Its total length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of
the Napo are the Coca and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray
from the south. The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near
Cayambe and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to
San Rafael (about 76 deg. 30' W. long.), where it turns sharply
southward to a junction with the Napo in about lat. 1 deg. S., long.
76 deg. W. The Coca forms the provisional boundary line between
Ecuador and Colombia from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also
rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows
south-eastward to a junction with the Napo in about long. 75 deg. W.,
its length being roughly estimated at 420 m. Little is known of its
course, or of the country through which it flows, which is
provisionally occupied by Colombia. The Curaray has its sources in the
defiles of the Cerros de Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the
Napo, its length being estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is
sluggish, where its waters are made unpalatable by a reddish slime.
The Napo and its tributaries are celebrated in the early history of
South America as the route by which Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana first
reached the Amazon, and it was afterwards the principal route by which
the early expeditions across the continent at this point connected the
Andean Plateau with the Amazon. The other rivers which flow through
the Oriente territory of Ecuador into the Maranon are the Tigre,
Pastaza, Morona and Santiago. The Tigre, of which little was known
until a recent date, is formed by the confluence of the Cunambo and
Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the eastern slopes of the Andes near
those of the Curaray. Its length below this confluence is 416 m., into
which are received 109 tributaries, the largest of which are the
Pucacuro and Corrientes. The Tigre is navigable at all stages up to
the Cunambo confluence, and promises to afford one of the most
valuable river routes in Ecuador. It enters the Maranon very near the
74th meridian. The Pastaza, or Pastassa, unlike the rivers already
described, has its source on the central plateau west of the principal
chain of the Andes, within the shadow of Cotopaxi, and breaks through
the Cordillera to the north of Tunguragua. After flowing southward
along the base of the high Andes for a short distance and receiving a
number of torrents from the snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward
across the plain and enters the Maranon about 70 m. above the mouth of
the Huallaga. The stream is known as the Patate down to its junction
with the Chambo, near Banos, and is not called Pastaza until the
Agoyan falls are passed. It was navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as
early as 1741, and is navigable for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft up
to the mouth of the Huasaga (about 124 m.) in times of high water, and
for canoes nearly 200 m. farther. The Pastaza, however, is subject to
irresistible floods caused by the sudden rising of the mountain
torrents on its upper course, especially the Toro, which sweep down
with such fury that navigation on the river is practically impossible.
The shallowness of the lower stream, where the current is sluggish, is
probably due to the great quantities of silt brought down by these
floods. Many of the rivers of eastern Ecuador are subject to similar
floods from the Andean slopes, which have cut away broad, deep
channels, through the adjacent plains, leaving long, narrow ridges
between their courses which the natives call _cuchillas_. The Morona
is formed by the confluence of the Manhuasisa and Cangaima about 310
m. above its mouth, and is freely navigable for small steamboats to
that point. The two confluents just mentioned have their sources in
the Andes, and flow for some distance across the plain before uniting
to form the Morona. Both are navigable for considerable distances. The
Morona follows a very tortuous course before entering the Maranon, at
long. 70 deg. W., and receives a large number of affluents, one of
which serves as the outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory.
Very little is definitely known of the affluents of the Morona,
Pastaza and Tigre, as the territory through which they run has been
but slightly explored. The Santiago, which enters the Maranon near the
Pongo de Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which
rises in the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source
among the mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland (_Peru in
1906_), the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low water for
steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1503 m., as
follows:--

Miles.
Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico 559
Curaray, up to Canonaco 286
Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence 416
Pastaza 31
Morona, up to the Rarayacu 211

These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of 19-1/2
ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m. of the
Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional 733
m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the Pastaza,
99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on the Manhuasisa,
Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and Huiviyacu.

On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three river
systems of considerable size--the Mira, the Esmeraldas and the Guayas.
The sources of the first--the Rioblanco, Pisco and Puntal--are to be
found on the northern slopes of the transverse ridge which culminates
in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is north and north-west to the
Colombian frontier, thence westward and north-west to the Pacific,
breaking through the Western Cordillera on its way. It forms the
boundary line for some distance between Ecuador and Colombia, but near
its mouth where the river turns northward Colombia has taken
possession of the left bank and all the territory covered by its large
delta. Its principal tributaries on the left are the San Pedro,
Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi and Canumbi, and on the right the San
Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe. The delta channels of the Mira are navigable,
being tributary to the Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains
all that part of the central plateau lying between the transverse
ridge of Tiupullo on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north,
together with the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and
Cotocachi, and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by
the confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba
between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the Pacific
in lat. 1 deg. N., long. 79 deg. 40' W., through a narrow and
precipitous gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient
to freshen the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger
and more important tributary, and should be considered the main
stream. It rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe, and
flows across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking through
the Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha. One of its
plateau tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of Cotopaxi and
is celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest of which
is about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their sources on the
western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or Guayaquil river is in
part an estuary extending northward from the Gulf of Guayaquil,
bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks formed by the silt brought
down from the neighbouring mountains. All the bordering country on
both sides is of the same description, and for a long distance inland
extensive areas of swampy country are submerged during the rainy
season. Above the mouth of the Daule the river is known as the
Bodegas, which in turn is formed by the confluence of the Babahoyo and
the Vinces. The Guayas also receives a large tributary from the east
called the Yaguachi. All these streams are navigable on their lower
courses, regular steamboat communication being maintained on the
Guayas and Bodegas to a river port of the latter name, 80 m. above
Guayaquil, and for 40 m. on the Daule. The navigable channels of all
the rivers are computed at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas,
according to Theodor Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and
includes the greater part of the lower plain and the western slopes of
the Cordillera Occidental as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which
is the main stream, has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the
Daule on the Sandomo ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi
on the south-eastern slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward
for a considerable distance before breaking through the Cordillera to
the western plain. The Guayas is one of the most interesting and
varied of the South American river systems, and is of great economic
importance to Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there
are a large number of short streams on the coast flowing into the
Pacific and Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special
importance in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are
the Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern
Esmeraldas and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some
navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin and the
Caraquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de
Caraquez (lat. 0 deg. 34' S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito.

Lakes.

There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but no
large ones. These are of two classes--those of the bowl-like valleys
and extinct craters of the mountainous region, and the reservoir lakes
of the lowland plains caused by the annual overflow of the rivers. It
is impossible to say how many of the latter there may be, for much of
the territory where they are found is unexplored. They are usually
shallow and malarial. Among the upland lakes, there are some of
special interest because of their position and historical association.
The Yaguar-cocha ("lake of blood"), in the province of Imbabura, near
Ibarra, which is only 1-1/2 m. in circumference, is celebrated for the
tradition that Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca
dynasty, defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and
threw so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters
to the colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200
ft. above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which
originated, it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain's
sides. There are two others of apparently the same origin on the
north-west slopes of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive
because of their gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the
mountains of Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft.
above the sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m.
in circumference, and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region.
It drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the
Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa, about
4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay, south of the
same place. Among the many thermal springs throughout the Andean
districts, the best known are at Belermos and San Pedro del Tingo,
north-east of Quito; at Cachillacta, in the district of Nanegal; at
Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Banos (5906 ft. elevation), near the
foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of Ruminagui and Chimborazo.

Coast.

The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. 1 deg. 20' N. to the
vicinity of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of
Guayaquil, in lat. 3 deg. 14' S., and has an outward curve. Its more
prominent headlands are Punta Galera, Cabo Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo
and La Puntilla, or Santa Elena Point. The bays on this coast are
commonly broad indentations, and the rivers discharging into them are
generally obstructed by bars. The small ports along the coast,
therefore, do not afford much protection to shipping. The most
northern of these bays is the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the
Mira delta. The head of the bay is fringed with islands and reefs,
behind which is the mouth of the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San
Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin and a network of navigable channels, all of
which are difficult of access. The small ports of La Tola and Pailon
are located on these waters. The port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of
the Esmeraldas river, is located near the southern entrance to this
bay. As the mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar and its current
is swift, the anchorage is outside in an open roadstead, only slightly
protected on the south. Farther south is the broad Bay of Manta, with
a small port of the same name at its southern extremity. The most
frequented port on this part of the coast is that of Bahia de
Caraquez, at the mouth of the Caraquez, or Caracas river, which is
also obstructed by a bar. There is a fertile, productive country back
of this port, and it is the objective point of a road from Quito.
Immediately north of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the Bay of Santa Elena,
with a small port of the same name, which has a good, well-sheltered
anchorage and is the landing-place of the West Coast cable. The Gulf
of Guayaquil, which lies between the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts,
is the largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South America between
Panama and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La Puntilla on the
north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates the land
eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a distance of
about 100 m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river, on which is
located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay and its
northern shores are fringed with swamps through which numerous
estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately west of the
Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great many shallow
tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far inland as Guayaquil,
but is used only by canoes. The upper end of the gulf is filling up
with the silt brought down from the Cordillera. It is divided midway
by the large island of Puna, at the eastern end of which is the
anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the Guayas. The steamship
channel passes between this island and the Peruvian coast, and is
known as the Jambeli channel. The passage north of Puna Island is
known as the Morro channel, but its entrance is obstructed by shoals
and it is considered dangerous for shipping. A small port in the
Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the gulf, is that of
Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port for the town of
Machala and the Zaruma mining region.

Islands.

There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any
considerable size--that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which is 29
m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m. wide. It lies in
the north-east part of the gulf, and is separated from the Ecuadorean
mainland by the Morro channel, and from the southern mainland by the
wider and deeper Jambeli channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge,
called the Zampo Palo, running through it, and its eastern shores have
some moderately high bluffs; otherwise the island is low and swampy,
and its shores, except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks.
The island is densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite
Peruvian shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater
part. It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of
Puna, at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health
resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its
connexion with Pizarro's invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it
had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives
resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce
them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amortajada
or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse
suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna
island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation,
and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low,
swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in the
lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no importance.
North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small islands on the
coast of more than local interest. The first of these is Salango, in
lat. 1 deg. 25' S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises to a
height of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered
anchorage much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh
provisions. The next is La Plata, in lat. 1 deg. 16' S., which rises
to a height of 790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side
where Drake is said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of
the Spanish treasure ship "Cacafuego." The Galapagos Islands (q.v.)
belong to the republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province of
Guayas.