Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

_Geology._[1]--The great longitudinal depression which lies between
the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the boundary
between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic beds which
form the greater part of the west of the country. The Eastern
Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist and other
crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera, on the
other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic age,
together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous fossils. Most
of the country between the Andes and the sea is covered by Tertiary
and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills which runs north-west from
Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and porphyritic rocks similar to
those of the Andes. In the intra-andine depression, between the East
and West Cordilleras, recent deposits with plant remains occur near
Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca is a sandstone containing
mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of Peru. Farther north nearly
the whole of the depression is filled with lavas, tuffs and
agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and recent volcanoes which
form the most striking feature of the Andes of Ecuador. These
volcanoes are most numerous in the northern half of the country, and
they stand indifferently upon the folded Mesozoic beds of the Western
Cordillera (e.g. Chimborazo, Iliniza, Pichincha), the ancient rocks of
the Eastern Cordillera (Altar, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the
floor of the great depression between. The lavas and ashes are for the
most part andesitic.

_Climate._--Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely contingent
on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another is a
matter of only a few hours' journey. Although the equator crosses the
northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city Of Quito,
a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of the
temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen every day in
the year from its great central plateau. In addition to the climatic
changes due to altitude, there are others caused by local arid
conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of mountain
ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts. These
influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect very
limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate and
mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf; at Santa
Elena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and vegetation is
scanty and dwarfed; at Salango island, 50 m. north of Santa Elena,
there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is luxuriant; 33 m.
farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert; and at Atacames bay,
135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and vegetation are again
favourable. On the plateau similar conditions prevail. There is no
great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere except in the valleys
and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant, but in general terms
it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation which characterize the
Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds southward, and are
substituted by arid conditions. Even here there are local
modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression, surrounded by
barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds, is celebrated for
its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be noted that the
Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-covered coastal plain of
Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of Peru, the two regions being
widely dissimilar. The mean annual temperature, on this plain,
according to an official publication, is 82.4 deg. F., and the range
is from 66 deg. to 95 deg. The heat is modified at many points on the
coast, however, by the cold Humboldt current which sweeps up the west
coast of South America from the Antarctic seas. The year is divided
into a wet and dry season--the former running from December to June,
and the latter from July to December. The rainy season, or _invierno_,
is broken by a short period of dry weather, called the _veranillo_
(little summer), shortly after the December solstice; otherwise it
rains every day, the streams overflow, land traffic is suspended, and
the air is drenched with moisture and becomes oppressive and
pestiferous. The dry season, which is called the _verano_, or summer,
is also broken by a short rainy spell called the _inviernillo_ (little
winter) or "cordonazo de San Francisco," which follows the September
equinox. Apart from these the two seasons are sometimes broken by
cloudless skies in winter, and a drizzling mist, called the _garua_,
in summer. In the inter-andine region the variations in temperature
are frequent and the averages comparatively low. An official estimate
gives the mean annual temperature as 64 deg. to 68 deg. between 6000
and 11,000 ft. In Quito the mean annual temperature is 58.8 deg., the
diurnal variation 10 deg., the annual maximum 70 deg., and the annual
minimum 45 deg. Other returns give the mean annual temperature at 55
deg. It is said that pulmonary tuberculosis is unknown in these
altitudes, though it is common in the coast districts. Catarrhal
complaints are common, however, and leprosy is widely prevalent, it
being necessary to maintain three large hospitals for lepers. In the
higher altitudes there are wide variations in the snow-fall and
intensity of the cold even on the same mountain. The line of permanent
snow is much higher on the plateau side in both ranges, the
precipitation being greater on the outer sides--those facing the
forested lowlands--and the terrestrial radiation being greater from
the barren surfaces of the plateau. In some instances the difference
in the elevation of the snow-line has been found to be fully 1000 ft.
Moreover, no two summits seem to retain the snow permanently at the
same altitude. For instance, in 1880 Whymper found permanent snow on
Cotocachi at 14,500 ft., while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit
(15,033 ft.); Antisana was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near
by Sara-Urcu, which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon
valley all the year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds
of permanent snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at
15,500 ft. on its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down to
14,500 ft., but no permanent beds of snow on its east side (elevation
15,871 ft.); and Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its
north-east and south sides in June--July. The eastern range was found
to receive the heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which human
residence is possible seems to be unusually high in Ecuador. Many of
the towns and villages of central Ecuador lie at altitudes ranging
from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to 9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital city of
Quito is 9343 ft. above the sea, and is celebrated for its agreeable
temperature, and also for its healthiness in spite of prevailing
unsanitary conditions. Above these towns are a number of farms and
herdsmen's habitations, where men live the whole or a part of the year
with less discomfort from low temperature than is experienced in
northern Europe and northern United States. According to Whymper, the
_tambo_ of Chuquipoquio, at the foot of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and
the _hacienda_ of Pedregal, near Iliniza, 11,629 ft., both being
permanently occupied. The _hacienda_ of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the
herdsmen's hut of Cunayaco on Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied
only for a part of the year. The highest elevations are generally
covered with ice and snow, and glaciers, according to Whymper, are to
be found upon no less than nine of the culminating peaks, and possibly
upon two or three more. These serve to modify the temperatures of the
plateau, which is swept by cold winds at all seasons of the year. The
prevailing wind is that of the north-east and south-east trade winds,
broken and modified on the plateau and western lowlands by mountain
barriers. Westerly and north-west winds are sometimes experienced, but
are not permanent.

_Flora._--The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by
various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson
(1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation of a
synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (_Synopsis plantarum
Quitensium_, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested lowlands
on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and described so
fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of about 3000 to 4000
ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical, including among its
economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, maize, yucca
(also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts, bananas, sweet
potatoes, yams, arracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H.B.K., or _Arracacha
esculenta_), indigo, rubber (_Castilloa_), ivory-nuts, cinchona and
bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000 ft., but a few, like
sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The alluvial valley of
the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for the richness of its
vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao, coffee, coco-nuts,
pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (_Psidium pomiferum_), guavas
(_Inga spectabilis_), shaddocks (or grape-fruit), pomegranates,
apricots, chirimoyas (_Anona Chirimolia_), granadillas (_Passiflora
quadrangularis_), paltas (_Persea gratissima_, otherwise known as
"alligator pears"), tunas (_Cactus_), mangoes (_Mangifera Indica_),
pacays (_Prosopis dulcis_), aji (Chile pepper), and many others of
less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a great variety
of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from the "tagua" palm,
_Phytelephas macrocarpa_), "toquilla" fibre (_Carludovica palmata_)
for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats, cabbage palms, several
species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods. Among the large trees which
are valued for their timber are redwood (_Humiria balsamifera_),
Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz (_Jacquinea ruscifolia_),
guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and walnut. From 6000 to 10,000
ft. above the sea, the indigenous species include the potato, maize,
oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_), and quinua (_Chenopodium quinoa_), and the
exotic species, wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), and
most of the fruits and vegetables of the northern temperate zone.
Wheat does not form a head below 4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The
larger forest trees are rarely seen above 10,000 ft., and even there
only on the outer slopes of the Cordilleras. The _Escallonia
myrtalloides_, however, is found at an elevation of 13,000 ft., and
the shrubby _Befarias_ 400 or 500 ft. higher. A characteristic growth
of the open plateau and upland valleys is the cabulla, cabaya or
maguey (_Agave americana_), whose fibre is much used by the natives in
the manufacture of cordage, sandals (_alpargatas_) and other useful
articles. In the treeless region lying between 11,600 and 13,800, or
in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft., the similarity of the
vegetation to that of the corresponding European region, according to
Wagner, is especially striking. On the _paramos_ of Chimborazo,
Pichincha, Iliniza, &c., the relation of characteristic genera to
those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe is as 5 to
4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the Upper
Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found 42 species,
of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which were from
Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were found above 15,000
ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above 14,000 ft., of which 35
species came from above 15,000 and 20 species from above 16,000 ft.
The highest specimen obtained was a lichen (_Lecanora subfusca_, L.)
on the south side of Chimborazo, 18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses
(_Grimmia_) were found on Chimborazo at 16,660 ft., ferns (_Polypodium
pycnolepis_, Kze.) at 14,900, and specimens of _Gentiana rupicola_, H.
B. K., _Achyrophorus quitensis_, Sz. Bip., _Culcitium nivale_, H. B.
K., at 16,300; _Phyllactis inconspicua_, Wedd., at 16,600,
_Astragalus geminiflorus_, H. B. K., at 14-15,000, _Geranium
diffusum_, H. B. K., at 16,000, _Malvastrum phyllanthos_, Asa Gray, at
16,500, _Draba obovata_, Benth., at 16,660, and _Ranunculus
praemorsus_, Kth., at 16,500--all on Chimborazo. _Fuchsia loxensis_,
H. B. K., was found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft., and
currant bushes (_Ribes glandulosum_, R. & P.), on Chimborazo, at
14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is
continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged with
moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to that of
the Colombian and Peruvian _montanas_, modified, if at all, by the
excessive humidity which prevails in this region.

_Fauna._--The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia, but
the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The Quadrumana
are represented by a large number of species, the eastern forests
being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian basin in
this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (_Felis concolor_),
jaguar (_F. onca_), ocelot (_F. grisea_), bear (_Ursus ornatus_), fox,
weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador, the llama
(_Auchenia_) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and vicuna,
represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and include most, if
not all, of the Amazonian species--the capybara (_Hydrochoerus
capybara_), cavia (_C. aperea_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_) and cutia
(_Dasyprocta aguti_), all amphibious and having an extensive range.
Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary in more
open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the country.
Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by the
Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent horses
are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the pasturage
on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown in
abundance in many districts. The Reptilia include countless numbers of
alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the tide-water
channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of lizards, of
which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin; snakes of every
description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon region down to the
beautifully marked coral snake; and a great variety of frogs and
toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially in the eastern forest
region, where the vampire bat is a serious obstacle to permanent
settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is distinguished for the great
variety of its genera and species, among which are many peculiar to
the Amazon valley, and others to the colder uplands. Among the Amazon
species may be mentioned the parrot, macaw (_Macrocercus_), toucan
(_Ramphastos_), curassow (_Crax_), penelope, trogon, and horned
screamer (_Palamedea cornuta_). There are also herons, ibises, storks
and cranes, including the great black-headed white crane, _Mycteria
americana_, which ranges from northern Argentina to Colombia. One
species of ibis, the _Theristicus caudatus_, is to be found, it is
said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of the pheasant and
partridge are not uncommon, and the "guacharo" (_Steatornis
caripensis_), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is found in
Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a large number of
genera and species, which include the condor, eagle, vulture, falcon,
hawk and owl. The condor (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_) is commonly found
between the elevations of 6000 and 16,000 ft., rarely, if ever,
descending to the lowland plains or rising above the lower peaks. It
preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts much loss upon stock
farmers through the destruction of calves, lambs, &c., but it very
rarely ventures to attack man or any of the larger animals. The eagle
common to Ecuador is the _Morphnus taeniatus_, and possibly the _M.
guaianensis_ on the eastern slopes of the Andes. The harrier-eagle
(_Herpetotheres cachinnans_) is also to be found throughout this part
of the continent. An eagle with buzzard-like habits, the _Leucopternis
plumbea_, is likewise common in Ecuador. Among the vultures the
turkey-buzzard group (_Rhinogryphus_ or _Cathartes_), including the
_R. aurus_, _burrovianus_ and _perniger_, is common everywhere. The
carrion crow, or black vulture (_Catharista atrata_), is also common
to every part of the country, and is the general scavenger. The
carrion hawks are represented by the _Polyborus tharus_, popularly
called the "caracara," and the _Phalcobaenus carunculatus_; the
falcons by the _Aesalon columbarius_; and the kites by the _Gampsonyx
swainsoni_. The Ecuadorean owl is the _Bubo nigrescens_. An
interesting species of the song birds is popularly known as the
"flautero" (flute-bird), which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes
are marvellous imitations of "the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute,"
but the singer itself, according to Mr Simson, is "a very
insignificant-looking little, greyish-coloured bird," which "always
dies in captivity." The most interesting group of the smaller birds is
that of the hummingbirds, of which the number and variety is
astonishing. Some of these have a very wide range, while others are
apparently limited to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The
best-known fish of Ecuador is the insignificant _Pimelodus cyclopum_,
the only fish found in the streams and lakes of the plateau region.
Its fame rests on Humboldt's publication of the tradition that great
numbers of this tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of
Imbabura and other volcanoes. Mr Whymper's explanation of the
phenomenon is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden
overflow during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they
inhabit. The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with
the fish found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay
is so named from the multitude of small fish (_sardinas_) which
inhabit its waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance,
except those of the Galapagos Islands.

The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large
number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey of
the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respect is
insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent of
Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all new
to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On Cotopaxi, at
elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus _Colpodes_
were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be considered a fair
illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural history
exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near Quito, which he
calls a "zoologist's paradise," Mr Whymper writes (_Travels amongst
the Great Andes of the Equator_): "Butterflies above, below and
around; now here, now there, by many turns and twists displaying the
brilliant tessellation of their under-sides ... May-flies and
dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across the paths;
and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very
beautiful--frosted--silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades,
who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in
infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs to
ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as _Dejeaniae_;
hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the
bishop of Ambato (possibly _Dielis_), in company with another
formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives 'the
Devil'; and occasional _Phasmas_ (caballo de palo) crawling painfully
about, like animated twigs." This description refers to a fertile
sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in the
forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers and
varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially
numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which had been
identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the uplands and
most of them new to science. The total number of species in Ecuador is
roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymenoptera are also numerous, but
less so than the Lepidoptera, with which the mountain slopes and
sunny, open spaces seem to be literally covered. Of moths alone Mr
Whymper took away with him specimens representing no less than 23
genera, with a probable addition of 13 genera more among his
undescribed specimens, the largest of which (an _Erebus odora_) was
7-1/4 in. across the wings. Among the Diptera, which includes a very
wide range of genera and species, are some of a highly troublesome
character, though on the whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and
mosquitoes so. His explorations, however, did not extend to the
eastern region, where the mosquitoes are usually described by
travellers as extremely troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the
eastern forests the tiny _pium_ fly (_Trombidium_, sp.?) is a
veritable pest. Of the insects which infest dwellings and prey upon
their human inmates, such as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &c., Ecuador
has more than a bountiful supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent
habit among the Indians and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous
these parasites are among the people. A good illustration of the
prevalence of house-infesting animals and insects is given by Mr
Whymper (_op. cit._ p. 391), who made a collection of 50 different
specimens of the vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil.

_Population._--The indigenous population of Ecuador was originally composed of two distinct races--the Quitus and Caras, the former being the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua origin. The Caras, according to tradition, entered the country from the coast, and had thoroughly established themselves there long before the conquest by the Inca rulers Tupac-Yupanqui and his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was comparatively easy because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same language, and were not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and customs. The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of these two races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under Spanish colonial rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction of the former population, and even yet they are subjected to a kind of debt-bondage which is slavery in all but the name. Notwithstanding all this they still represent from two-thirds to three-fourths of the actual population of Ecuador. East of the Andes the forests are inhabited by tribes of what are termed "aucas" or "infieles" (infidels)--Indians who are independent of both church and political control. Missions have been established among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only a small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region.

The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled about the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and are in great part grouped about the missions; the Jivaros who inhabit the valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos who occupy the forest region between the Pastaza and Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Mazanes of the lower Napo and Tigre, chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the best known of these tribes because of their successful resistance to the Spanish invaders. They are still independent of political control, live in permanent settlements, till the soil (producing Indian corn, beans, yucca and plantains), and have developed some rude manufactures. The Zaparos are less homogeneous, some of their hordes living in a state of complete savagery. They are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom they resemble in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent communities and cultivate the soil. The total number of "aucas" or uncivilized Indians in the republic has been estimated at about 200,000, but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador actually occupies and is evidently too high. Their settlements are usually small and very much scattered, and their aggregate number is evidently much under the earlier estimates. An official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880, however, places the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at 80,000, which is probably more nearly correct.

No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and estimates are little better than vague conjectures. One of these estimates, that published by P.F. Cevallos for 1889, which has been generally accepted, gave the total population as 1,272,161, and these figures have been used with but slight changes for various later estimates. A later official estimate appeared in 1900 in _La Republique de l'Equateur et sa participation a l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_, which gives for the provinces practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the same time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000. The white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which probably includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods at 300,000 to 450,000. The tendency is for the _mestizo_ who dwells in Indian communities to revert to the Indian type, and it is probable that the larger estimate is nearer the truth. On the other hand _mestizos_ who live among the whites and form new alliances with them eventually class themselves as whites wherever their social condition has been improved. As a rule, the _mestizos_ of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and non-progressive. As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders and the Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few proprietors, and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim unmixed European descent; consequently the _mestizos_ have limited opportunities to improve their condition.

The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile. The territory of the republic is divided among a very few of them, and its government is in their hands.

In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of negroes, and a somewhat larger number of their crosses with the other two races. The majority of these are to be found in the northern provinces. There are comparatively few negroes and mulattoes on the colder plateaus. Villavicencio estimated their numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592 mixed bloods, which is probably not far from the correct totals.

The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at about 6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin republics, 700 Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese.

_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into 15 provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were declared a dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are practically independent and constitute a second territory under the administration of _jefe territorial_ appointed by the national executive.

The official estimate (_La Republique de l'Equateur et sa
participation a l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_) gives the data for
the provinces and their capitals, which are shown on the next page.

These population figures are very nearly the same as those given by
Cevallos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as
80,000, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of the
provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially for
Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at the
date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was 50,841,
of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the provinces the
figures need not be questioned except those for the Oriente territory,
which are much too large for the region actually occupied by Ecuador,
and for the Galapagos Islands which are described by competent
authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population of these islands was 400
(principally convicts) on Chatham Island in 1901, about 115 on
Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903. Besides the provincial
capitals already noted, there are no large and important towns in the
country. The largest of the smaller towns is probably Jipijapa, in the
province of Manabi, which is the centre of the Panama hat industry and
had in 1900 an estimated population of 6000, nearly all Indians.

+----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
| Provinces. | Area. |Population.| Capital. |Population.|
+----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
| | sq. m. | | | |
| Carchi | 1495 | 40,000 | Tulcan | 5,000 |
| Imbabura | 2416 | 68,000 | Ibarra | 5,000 |
| Pichincha | 6219 | 205,000 | Quito | 80,000 |
| Leon | 2595 | 109,600 | Latacunga | 12,000 |
| Tunguragua | 1686 | 103,000 | Ambato | 8,000 |
| Chimborazo | 2990 | 122,000 | Riobamba | 12,000 |
| Bolivar | 1260 | 43,000 | Guaranda | 6,000 |
| Canar | 1519 | 64,000 | Azogues | 4,000 |
| Azuay | 3874 | 132,400 | Cuenca | 30,000 |
| Loja | 3707 | 66,000 | Loja | 10,000 |
| El Oro | 2340 | 32,600 | Machala | 3,200 |
| Guayas | 8216 | 98,100 | Guayaquil | 60,000 |
| Los Rios | 2296 | 32,800 | Babahoyo | 3,000 |
| Manabi | 7893 | 64,100 | Portoviejo | 5,000 |
| Esmeraldas | 5465 | 14,600 | Esmeraldas | 6,000 |
| Oriente (ter.) | unknown | | | |
| Galapagos Is. | 2865 | 2,000 | . . | . . |
+----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+

_Communications._--The first railway to be completed in Ecuador was
the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the last
section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of June
1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under
construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Bolivar to Machala,
province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caraquez to Chone, were
under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected, two to
penetrate the Ecuadorean _montana_. There is only one highway in the
country on which vehicles can be used, the paved road extending
southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil route, which was begun by
Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to fall into neglect. Other roads
have been projected to the coast and one to the eastern territory. The
ordinary roads are rough mule-tracks. These are difficult at all
times, and in the rainy season are quite impassable. On the Pacific
lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule, Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200
m. of navigable channels in the rainy season, and are used for the
transportation of produce and merchandise. There are also several
short river channels along the coast which are used by planters for
the same purpose. A great part of the country, however, is still
compelled to use the most primitive means of communication--mule
paths, fords in the smaller streams in the dry season, and rude
suspension bridges across deep gorges and swift mountain torrents. The
latter are usually constructed from the tough fibre of the _Agave
americana_ and consist of one or more cables. When of one cable,
called the _taravita_, the passenger and his luggage are drawn across
in a rude kind of basket suspended from it; but when two or more
cables are used, transverse sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon
them, forming a rude prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such
a bridge is called a _chimba-chaca_, and is very hazardous for an
unpractised foot. In 1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in
operation, connecting Quito with all the principal towns. The national
capital is connected with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via
Guayaquil) and at Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with
tramway and telephone lines. These public services are under the
general supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and
Telegraphs.

_Commerce._--Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small vessels
engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river
steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam
launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in the
transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-going
foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels, for
the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call. Less
frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other small
ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these are
difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade of
the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the Guayaquil
Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only L3,429,955, of which L1,573,389
(15,733,891 sucres) were credited to imports, and L1,856,566
(18,565,668 sucres) to exports. Of these totals, all but L127,532 of
the imports and L441,679 of the exports passed through the port of
Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a serious obstacle
to the development of a larger commerce.

_Agriculture._--The agricultural industries on which the export trade
depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands, and
include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and sweet
potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala are
celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the world's
supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee is produced
on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent quality.
The production is small, but would be increased at remunerative
prices. During the American civil war the planters of Ecuador entered
largely into the production of cotton, which at that time yielded
large profits, but the industry has declined to very insignificant
proportions since then because of inability to compete with the lower
cost of production in the United States. The output of sugar and
tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the conditions of
soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane produced is
turned into rum, which is consumed in the country. The tobacco grown
is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made to promote the
cultivation of indigo, but without much success. On the uplands,
wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and vegetables of many
kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for home consumption.
The vine is successfully grown in the warm upland valleys, both for
its fruit and for the production of wine. The staple foods for the
common people are potatoes on the plateau (which are chiefly consumed
in the form of _locro_, or potato-soup) and yucca- or cassava-meal in
the warmer regions. Although cattle and horses were not known before
the Spanish conquest, they have become since then important products
of the country. The best grazing lands are on the lower elevations
west of the Cordilleras in certain districts of the plateau and on the
slopes of some of the higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana.
Horses and mules are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for
their wool, which is used in home manufactures.

_Forest Products._--The forest and other natural products include
rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for the
manufacture of hats, hammocks, &c., cabaya fibre for shoes and
cordage, vegetable wool (_Bombax ceiba_), sarsaparilla, vanilla,
cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &c. The original source of
the Peruvian bark of commerce, the _Cinchona calisaya_, is completely
exhausted, and the "red bark" derived from _C. succirubra_, is now the
principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre of the
industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the forest
regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new. The
product is derived from the _Castilloa elastica_, the _Heveas_ not
being found west of the Andes.

_Minerals._--The mineral resources are much inferior to those of
Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where the
great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of mines. It is
also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in the river-beds
along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver has been mined at
Azogues, in the province of Canar, and is also to be found in Azuay.
Iron ores and lead are credited to several provinces, and platinum has
been found in Esmeraldas, where emerald mines have been worked ever
since the Spanish conquest. Coal of good quality has been found in
Azuay and at other points, and petroleum is known to exist in several
localities. Salt springs near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura,
have long been used by the natives in the manufacture of salt.

_Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a
primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities.
There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern
machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are
commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner. Some of
these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are chiefly made
for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made from the fibres of
the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from the fibre of the
_Agave americana_. The hats are an article of export, and are known
abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of admirable workmanship are
made in some localities, especially on the plateau about Quito. Among
other manufactories, all for the home market, may be mentioned:
flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum distilleries, breweries, chocolate
factories, a candle factory, saw-mills and tanneries.

_Government._--Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is that of a centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a written constitution and whose chief organs are an executive consisting of a president and vice-president, and a national congress consisting of two houses, a senate and a chamber of deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have been very frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions were adopted between 1830 and 1909.

The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended in
1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what may
be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the
executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-president
elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the people.
(Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these two
officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-president's term
beginning with the president's third year.) These officials cannot be
re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is
12,000 sucres per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene
extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he has
no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic and
consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the
provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of
justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials,
and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic.
The construction of railways with public funds and under government
supervision also places him at the head of a very important public
service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five
ministers:--foreign relations and justice; interior and public works;
finance; war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs--all of whom
may be impeached by congress. The executive authority is also
partially exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members,
including the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is
_ex-officio_ president. The council has important advisory functions,
and must be consulted by the president on every important measure or
appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen by the
national executive; the departments by _jefes politicos_ (political
chiefs); and the municipalities by _tenientes politicos_ (political
lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a _jefe territorial_
(territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony and governed
by special laws.

The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority of
South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members (2 from
each province) elected for two years, one-half the number being
renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42 deputies, who
are elected by the provinces for a period of two years, on a basis of
one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants and one supplementary
representative for an additional 15,000. A senator must be at least 35
years of age, and a deputy 25. The elections are direct, and members
of both houses may be re-elected. The immunities of legislators begin
30 days before the opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days
after its dissolution. Congress meets at Quito on the 10th of August,
and remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may
be extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes.
The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults.

The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme court,
located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public
prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in Quito,
Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a total of 9
judges; _a Tribunal de Cuentas_ of seven members at Quito; and various
municipal courts, or _alcaldes_, in the chief towns of the
departments. There are civil courts of first and second instance in
the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca
with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also police
commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace in the
municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases where
the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucres. The laws of Ecuador
are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include civil,
criminal and commercial codes.

_Army._--The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted
of 4 battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of
artillery (1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520
men, rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350
men. The national guard is composed of three classes: actives--all
enrolled citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries--enrolled citizens of
38 to 44 years; and passives--enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years.
These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school at
Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil.

_Education._--Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory
for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part Of the population
is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them. An
official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as 1297,
and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000. The secondary
schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about 4500 pupils. Higher
instruction includes the technical and professional schools with the
three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca, and 6 schools of
"trades and professions" (_artes y oficios_) in as many provinces. The
old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors divided into 5
faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law, Medicine, Physical and
Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There are also in Quito a school of
agriculture, astronomical observatory, botanical garden, museum and
national printing office, all apparently under the supervision of the
University.

_Church._--According to the constitution of 1884, "the religion of the
Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others are
excluded." The only opposition which the Church has ever had to
encounter has been from the "liberal" element within itself, and thus
has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to restrict
clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been
exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its
government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic. The
growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889 the
tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were abolished,
and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted. In 1902 a
signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage, but in 1904
a social revolution was effected by legislation, which placed the
Church under State control, forbade the foundation of new religious
orders and admission into the country of new religious communities,
and provided that the members of the episcopate must be citizens of
Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an archbishop at
Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja, Ibarra, Riobamba,
Guayaquil and Manabi.

_Finance._--The revenues of the republic are derived from import and
export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance tax, salt,
gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges, and sundry
miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts, telegraphs and
railways. Up to 1907 the customs duties were increased by surtaxes
amounting at that time to 100%. The minister of finance proposed to
abolish these surtaxes and double all the rates of duties involved. On
exports, however, all the duties were to be abolished except those on
cacao, coffee, hides, rubber, tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock
fibre and tobacco. For 1907 the revenues were L1,424,770 and the
expenditures L1,383,122.

On the 10th of October 1906, when the report of the provisional
government created by the revolution of the preceding January
presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total
obligations of the country were stated to be:--

Sucres.
Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucres gold
at 107% premium 25,423,740
Banco del Ecuador, advances 3,000,000
Banco Comercial y Agrocola, idem 2,400,000
Internal debt 739,575
Condor bonds 757,000
French Finance Corporation 887,000
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Total 33,207,315
In L sterling at 10 sucres per L 3,320,731

The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at L693,160 in
bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. under
contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing
interest on the sum of L2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33 years
and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value. This debt
originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colombian
confederacy and was charged with 21-1/2% of the indebtedness of the
three states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at L1,824,000, and in 1892
it was converted into a new consolidated debt of L750,000. Payments of
interest and amortization had been very irregular, and its transfer to
a foreign company as the price of a railway concession put an end to a
transaction which had been a serious discredit to the country. The
amount outstanding on the 31st of December 1907 was 10,808,000 sucres
(L1,080,800). It should be said that the difficulties in regard to
this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that the part assigned to it
in 1830 was much too large, and that it was contracted almost wholly
for the benefit of the two northern republics, Colombia and Venezuela.

_Money and Measures._--Under the law of 1898, which came into effect
on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard in
Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucres, and
banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their metallic
reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much confusion in the
circulating medium because of the depreciated value of the Quito
currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil, but the new law has
corrected the anomaly and has given a simple and uniform medium for
the whole country. The coinage under the law of 1898 consists of the
gold _condor_, of 10 _sucres_, which weighs 8.136 grams, contains
7.3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the English pound sterling
in value; the silver _sucre_, of 100 centavos, equivalent to 24d. in
value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and copper, the
denominations being decimal parts of the sucre. The sucre received its
name from the portrait of General Sucre engraved on the coin, and is
legal tender up to 10 sucres. The paper money circulation consists of
the issues of two Guayaquil banks--the Banco del Ecuador, and the
Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose united issues on June 30th, 1906,
amounted to 7,414,140 sucres (L741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time
issued notes which, according to Whymper, were not current at and
south of Riobamba, but it does not appear that this bank is authorized
to issue its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in
circulation on the 30th of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucres
gold and 2,522,802 sucres silver. Although the metric system was
adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures--the quintal,
libra, vara and fanega--are still in use, the quintal being equivalent
to about 101 lb.

_Antiquities._--Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable
remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European
period. At Canar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca, a
circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with a
roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the
Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains of
a pavilion; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun and a
small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Intihuaicu. On
one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas there are
remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower, the buttresses
of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions of a great
causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies and plates of silver
have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar sepulchral mounds, called
_tolas_, may be seen, as well as traces of military structures. On the
plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a height of 8658 ft., the ruins of
an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are utilized by the _hacienda_; and a
conical hill at its side is supposed to be of artificial
construction. The remains of another fortress and palace are preserved
at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring pueblo of Achupallas an ancient
temple of the sun now serves as parish church. In many localities,
especially in Imbabura, pottery and various objects are found
belonging to the pre-Colombian period, among which five and six rayed
stars (_casse-tetes_) are very numerous. (A. J. L.)

_History._--The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first it becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history, appears to be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes, among which the Quitus seem to hold the most important position. About A.D. 280 a foreign tribe is said to have forced their way inland up the valley of the Esmeraldas; and the kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for about 1200 years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance, over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the reign of the fourteenth _Caran Shyri_, or king of the Cara nation, Hualcopo Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by Tupac Yupanqui, the Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes were, not long after his death, successfully carried out by his son Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a decisive defeat on the Quitonians in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and secured his position by marrying Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri. By his will the conqueror left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his son by this alliance; while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar, an elder son by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two kingdoms, owing to Huascar's pretensions to supremacy over his brother; but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the usurper, and the establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of Quito and Cuzco. The fortunate monarch, however, had not long to enjoy his success; for Pizarro and his Spaniards were already at the door, and by 1533 the fate of the country was sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of the first occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no change of importance took place till 1710. In that year it was attached to the viceroyalty of Santa Fe; but it was restored to Peru in 1722. When, towards the close of the century, the desire for independence began to manifest itself throughout the Spanish colonies of South America, Quito did not remain altogether indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio Espejo, and his fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into hearty co-operation with Narino and Zea, the leaders of the revolutionary movement at Santa Fe; and it was at Espejo's suggestion that the political association called the _Escuela de Concordia_ was instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the Quitonians made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke; and both on that occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded in crushing the insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil took up the cry of liberty; and in spite of several defeats they continued the contest, till at length, under Antonio Jose de Sucre, who had been sent to their assistance by Bolivar, and reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under Andres de Santa Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in a battle fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200 ft. above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito, Don Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of the country was secured. A political union was at once effected with New Granada and Venezuela on the basis of the republican constitution instituted at Cucuta in July 1821--the triple confederation taking the name of Colombia.