Chapter XXIII: Act 1890: , No. 1108, ss. 45-48: Tasmania, Landlord and Tenant Act 1874, (11)

ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ (1791-1865), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg on the 23rd of September 1791. Matriculating at the university of Gottingen in 1811, he began by devoting himself to astronomy under Carl Friedrich Gauss; but he enlisted in the Hanseatic Legion for the campaign of 1813-14, and became lieutenant of artillery in the Prussian service in 1815. Having returned to Gottingen in 1816, he was at once appointed by Benhardt von Lindenau his assistant in the observatory of Seeberg near Gotha. There he completed his investigation of the comet of 1680, for which the Cotta prize was awarded to him in 1817; he correctly assigned a period of 71 years to the comet of 1812; and discovered the swift circulation of the remarkable comet which bears his name (see Comet). Eight masterly treatises on its movements were published by him in the Berlin _Abhandlungen_ (1829-1859). From a fresh discussion of the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 he deduced (1822-1824) a solar parallax of 8".57, long accepted as authoritative. In 1822 he became director of the Seeberg observatory, and in 1825 was promoted to a corresponding position at Berlin, where a new observatory, built under his superintendence, was inaugurated in 1835. He directed the preparation of the star-maps of the Berlin academy 1830-1859, edited from 1830 and greatly improved the _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_, and issued four volumes of the _Astronomische Beobachtungen_ of the Berlin observatory (1840-1857). Much labour was bestowed by him upon facilitating the computation of the movements of the asteroids. With this end in view he expounded to the Berlin academy in 1849 a mode of determining an elliptic orbit from three observations, and communicated to that body in 1851 a new method of calculating planetary perturbations by means of rectangular co-ordinates (republished in W. Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No. 141, 1903). Encke visited England in 1840. Incipient brain-disease compelled him to withdraw from official life in November 1863, and he died at Spandau on the 26th of August 1865. He contributed extensively to the periodical literature of astronomy, and was twice, in 1823 and 1830, the recipient of the Royal Astronomical Society's gold medal.

See _Johann Franz Encke, sein Leben und Wirken_, von Dr C. Bruhns
(Leipzig, 1869), to which a list of his writings is appended. Also,
_Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xxvi. 129; _V.J.S. Astr.
Gesellschaft_, iv. 227; Berlin. _Abhandlungen_ (1866), i., G. Hagen;
_Sitzungsberichte_, Munich Acad. (1866), i. p. 395, &c. (A. M. C.)

ENCLAVE (a French word from _enclaver_, to enclose), a term signifying a country or, more commonly, an outlying portion of a country, entirely surrounded by the territories of a foreign or other power, such as the detached portions of Prussia, Saxony, &c, enclosed in the Thuringian States. (From the point of view of the states possessing such detached portions of territory these become "exclaves.") "Enclave" is, however, generally used in a looser sense to describe a colony or other territory of a state, which, while possessing a seaboard, is entirely surrounded landward by the possession of some other power; or, if inland territory, nearly though not entirely so enclosed, e.g. the Lado Enclave in equatorial Africa.

ENCOIGNURE, in furniture, literally the angle, or return, formed by the junction of two walls. The word is now chiefly used to designate a small armoire, commode, cabinet or cupboard made to fit a corner; a _chaise encoignure_ is called in English a three-cornered chair. In its origin the thing, like the word, is French, and the delightful Louis Quinze or Louis Seize _encoignure_ in lacquer or in mahogany elaborately mounted in gilded bronze is not the least alluring piece of the great period of French furniture. It was made in a vast variety of forms so far as the front was concerned; in other respects it was strictly limited by its destination. As a rule these delicate and dainty receptacles were in pairs and placed in opposite angles; more often than not the top was formed of a slab of coloured marble.

ENCYCLICAL (from Late Lat. _encyclicus_, for _encyclius_ = Gr. [Greek: enkyklios], from [Greek: en] and [Greek: kyklos], "a circle"), an ecclesiastical epistle intended for general circulation, now almost exclusively used of such letters issued by the pope. The forms _encyclica_ and _encyclic_ are sometimes, but more rarely, used. The old adjectival use of the word in the sense of "general" (encircling) is now obsolete, though it survives in the term "encyclopaedia."

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The Greeks seem to have understood by encyclopaedia ([Greek: enkyklopaideia], or [Greek: enkyklios paideia]) instruction in the whole circle ([Greek: en kyklo]) or complete system of learning--education in arts and sciences. Thus Pliny, in the preface to his _Natural History_, says that his book treated of all the subjects of the encyclopaedia of the Greeks, "Jam omnia attingenda quae Graeci [Greek: tes enkyklopaideias] vocant." Quintilian (_Inst. Orat_. i. 10) directs that before boys are placed under the rhetorician they should be instructed in the other arts, "ut efficiatur orbis ille doctrinae quam Graeci [Greek: enkyklopaideian] vocant." Galen (_De victus ratione in morbis acutis_, c. 11) speaks of those who are not educated [Greek: en te enkyklopaideia]. In these passages of Pliny and Quintilian, however, from one or both of which the modern use of the word seems to have been taken, [Greek: enkyklios paideia] is now read, and this seems to have been the usual expression. Vitruvius (lib. vi. praef.) calls the encyclios or [Greek: enkyklios paideia] of the Greeks "doctrinarum omnium disciplina," instruction in all branches of learning. Strabo (lib. iv. cap. 10) speaks of philosophy [Greek: kai ten allen paideian enkyklion]. Tzetzes (_Chiliades_, xi. 527), quoting from Porphyry's _Lives of the Philosophers_, says that [Greek: enkyklia mathemata] was the circle of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and the four arts under it, arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. Zonaras explains it as grammar, poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics and simply every art and science ([Greek: aplos pasa techne kai episteme]), because sophists go through them as through a circle. The idea seems to be a complete course of instruction in all parts of knowledge. An epic poem was called cyclic when it contained the whole mythology; and among physicians [Greek: kyklo therapeuein], _cyclo curare_ (Vegetius, _De arte veterinaria_, ii. 5, 6), meant a cure effected by a regular and prescribed course of diet and medicine (see Wower, _De polymathia_, c. 24, S 14).

The word encyclopaedia was probably first used in English by Sir Thomas Elyot. "In an oratour is required to be a heape of all maner of lernyng: whiche of some is called the worlde of science, of other the circle of doctrine, whiche is in one worde of greke Encyclopedia" (_The Governour_, bk. i. chap. xiii.). In his Latin dictionary, 1538, he explains "Encyclios et Encyclia, the cykle or course of all doctrines," and "Encyclopedia, that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall science and studies." The term does not seem to have been used as the title of a book by the ancients or in the middle ages. The edition of the works of Joachimus Fortius Ringelbergius, printed at Basel in 1541, is called on the title-page _Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima_ [Greek: kyklopaideia]. Paulus Scalichius de Lika, an Hungarian count, wrote _Encyclopaediae seu orbis disciplinarum epistemon_ (Basileae, 1599, 4to). Alsted published in 1608 _Encyclopaedia cursus philosophici_, and afterwards expanded this into his great work, noticed below, calling it without any limitation _Encyclopaedia_, because it treats of everything that can be learned by man in this life. This is now the most usual sense in which the word encyclopaedia is used--a book treating of all the various kinds of knowledge. The form "cyclopaedia" is not merely without any appearance of classical authority, but is etymologically less definite, complete and correct. For as Cyropaedia means "the instruction of Cyrus," so cyclopaedia may mean "instruction of a circle." Vossius says, "Cyclopaedia is sometimes found, but the best writers say encyclopaedia" (_De vitiis sermonis_, 1645, p. 402). Gesner says, "[Greek: kyklos] est _circulus_, quae figura est simplicissima et perfectissima simul: nam incipi potest ubicunque in illa et ubicunque cohaeret. _Cyclopaedia_ itaque significat omnem doctrinarum scientiam inter se cohaerere; _Encyclopaedia_ est institutio in illo circulo." (_Isagoge_, 1774, i. 40).

In a more restricted sense, encyclopaedia means a system or classification of the various branches of knowledge, a subject on which many books have been published, especially in Germany, as Schmid's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie und Methodologie der Wissenschaften_ (Jena, 1810, 4to, 241 pages). In this sense the _Novum Organum_ of Bacon has often been called an encyclopaedia. But it is "a grammar only of the sciences: a cyclopaedia is not a grammar, but a dictionary; and to confuse the meanings of grammar and dictionary is to lose the benefit of a distinction which it is fortunate that terms have been coined to convey" (_Quarterly Review_, cxiii. 354). Fortunius Licetus, an Italian physician, entitled several of his dissertations on Roman altars and other antiquities encyclopaedias (as, for instance, _Encyclopaedia ad. Aram mysticam Nonarii,_ Pataviae, 1631, 4to), because in composing them he borrowed the aid of all the sciences. The _Encyclopaedia moralis_ of Marcellinus de Pise (Paris, 1646, fol., 4 vols.) is a series of sermons. Encyclopaedia is often used to mean a book which is, or professes to be, a complete or very full collection or treatise relating to some particular subject, as Blaine's work, _The Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports_ (London, 1852); _The Encyclopaedia of Wit_ (London, 1803); _The Vocal Encyclopaedia_ (London, 1807, 16mo), a collection of songs, catches, &c. The word is frequently used for an alphabetical dictionary treating fully of some science or subject, as Murray, _Encyclopaedia of Geography_ (London, 1834); Lefebvre Laboulaye, _Encyclopedie technologique: Dictionnaire des arts et manufactures_ (Paris, 1845-1847). Whether under the name of "dictionary" or "encyclopaedia" large numbers of this class of reference-work have been published. These are essentially encyclopaedic, being _subject books_ and not _word-books_. The important books of this character are referred to in the articles dealing with the respective subjects, but the following may be mentioned here: the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, in 12 vols. (1901), a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times; the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_, 2 vols. (1897-1898); Holtzendorff's _Encyklopadie der Rechtswissenschaft_ (1870; an edition in 2 vols., 1904); the _Dictionary of Political Economy_, edited by R.H. Inglis Palgrave, 3 vols. (1894; reprinted 1901); the Encyclopaedia Biblica, edited by T.K. Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black, 4 vols. (1899-1903); the _Dictionary of the Bible_, edited by James Hastings, 4 vols., with a supplementary volume (1904); an interesting series is the _Repertoire general du commerce_, dealing with the foreign trade of France, of which one part, the _Encyclopaedia of Trade between the United States of America and France_, with a preface by M. Gabriel Hanotaux, appeared, in French and English, in 1904.

The great Chinese encyclopaedias are referred to in the article on CHINESE LITERATURE. It will be sufficient to mention here the _Wen hien t'ung k'ao_, compiled by Ma Twa-lin in the 14th century, the encyclopaedia ordered to be compiled by the Emperor Yung-loh in the 15th century, and the _Ku Kin t'u shu thi ch'eng_ prepared for the Emperor K'ang-hi (d. 1721), in 5020 volumes. A copy of this enormous work, bound in some 700 volumes, is in the British Museum.

The most ancient encyclopaedia extant is Pliny's _Natural History_ in 37 books (including the preface) and 2493 chapters, which may be thus described generally:--book 1, preface; book 2, cosmography, astronomy and meteorology; books 3 to 6, geography; books 7 to 11, zoology, including man, and the invention of the arts; books 12 to 19, botany; books 20 to 32, medicines, vegetable and animal remedies, medical authors and magic; books 33 to 37, metals, fine arts, mineralogy and mineral remedies. Pliny, who died A.D. 79, was not a naturalist, a physician or an artist, and collected his work in his leisure intervals while engaged in public affairs. He says it contains 20,000 facts (too small a number by half, says Lemaire), collected from 2000 books by 100 authors. Hardouin has given a list of 464 authors quoted by him. His work was a very high authority in the middle ages, and 43 editions of it were printed before 1536.

Martianus Minneus Felix Capella, an African, wrote (early in the 5th cent.), in verse and prose, a sort of encyclopaedia, which is important from having been regarded in the middle ages as a model storehouse of learning, and used in the schools, where the scholars had to learn the verses by heart, as a text-book of high-class education in the arts. It is sometimes entitled _Satyra_, or _Satyricon_, but is usually known as _De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii_, though this title is sometimes confined to the first two books, a rather confused allegory ending with the apotheosis of Philologia and the celebration of her marriage in the milky way, where Apollo presents to her the seven liberal arts, who, in the succeeding seven books, describe their respective branches of knowledge, namely, grammar, dialectics (divided into metaphysics and logic), rhetoric, geometry (geography, with some single geometrical propositions), arithmetic (chiefly the properties of numbers), astronomy and music (including poetry). The style is that of an African of the 5th century, full of grandiloquence, metaphors and strange words. He seldom mentions his authorities, and sometimes quotes authors whom he does not even seem to have read. His work was frequently copied in the middle ages by ignorant transcribers, and was eight times printed from 1499 to 1599. The best annotated edition is by Kopp (Frankfort, 1836, 4to), and the most convenient and the best text is that of Eysserhardt (Lipsiae, 1866, 8vo).

Isidore, bishop of Seville from 600 to 630, wrote _Etymologiarum libri XX_. (often also entitled his _Origines_) at the request of his friend Braulio, bishop of Saragossa, who after Isidore's death divided the work into books, as it was left unfinished, and divided only into titles.

The tenth book is an alphabet of 625 Latin words, not belonging to his
other subjects, with their explanations as known to him, and often
with their etymologies, frequently very absurd. The other books
contain 448 chapters, and are:--1, grammar (Latin); 2, rhetoric and
dialectics; 3, the four mathematical disciplines--arithmetic,
geometry, music and astronomy; 4, medicine; 5, laws and times
(chronology), with a short chronicle ending in 627; 6, ecclesiastical
books and offices; 7, God, angels and the orders of the faithful; 8,
the church and sects; 9, languages, society and relationships; 11, man
and portents; 12, animals, in eight classes, namely, pecora et
jumenta, beasts, small animals (including spiders, crickets and ants),
serpents, worms, fishes, birds and small winged creatures, chiefly
insects; 13, the world and its parts; 14, the earth and its parts,
containing chapters on Asia, Europe and Libya, that is, Africa; 15,
buildings, fields and their measures; 16, stones (of which one is
echo) and metals; 17, de rebus rusticis; 18, war and games; 19, ships,
buildings and garments; 20, provisions, domestic and rustic
instruments.

Isidore appears to have known Hebrew and Greek, and to have been familiar with the Latin classical poets, but he is a mere collector, and his derivations given all through the work are not unfrequently absurd, and, unless when very obvious, will not bear criticism. He seldom mentions his authorities except when he quotes the poets or historians. Yet his work was a great one for the time, and for many centuries was a much valued authority and a rich source of material for other works, and he had a high reputation for learning both in his own time and in subsequent ages. His _Etymologies_ were often imitated, quoted and copied. MSS. are very numerous: Antonio (whose editor, Bayer, saw nearly 40) says, "plures passimque reperiuntur in bibliothecarum angulis." This work was printed nine times before 1529.

Hrabanus Maurus, whose family name was Magnentius, was educated in the abbey of Fulda, ordained deacon in 802 ("Annales Francorum" in Bouquet, _Historiens de la France_, v. 66), sent to the school of St Martin of Tours, then directed by Alcuin, where he seems to have learned Greek, and is said by Trithemius to have been taught Hebrew, Syriac and Chaldee by Theophilus an Ephesian. In his _Commentaries on Joshua_ (lib. ii. c. 5) he speaks of having resided at Sidon. He returned to Fulda and taught the school there. He became abbot of Fulda in 822, resigned in April 842, was ordained archbishop of Mainz on the 26th of July 847, and died on the 4th of February 856. He compiled an encyclopaedia _De universo_ (also called in some MSS. _De universali natura, De natura rerum,_ and _De origine rerum_) in 22 books and 325 chapters. It is chiefly a rearrangement of Isidore's _Etymologies_, omitting the first four books, half of the fifth and the tenth (the seven liberal arts, law, medicine and the alphabet of words), and copying the rest, beginning with the seventh book, verbally, though with great omissions, and adding (according to Ritter, _Geschichte der Philosophie_, vii. 193, from Alcuin, Augustine or some other accessible source) the meanings given in the Bible to the subject matter of the chapter; while things not mentioned in Scripture, especially such as belong to classical antiquity, are omitted, so that his work seems to be formed of two alternating parts. His arrangement of beginning with God and the angels long prevailed in methodical encyclopaedias. His last six books follow very closely the order of the last five of Isidore, from which they are taken. His omissions are characteristic of the diminished literary activity and more contracted knowledge of his time. His work was presented to Louis the German, king of Bavaria, at Hersfeld in October 847, and was printed in 1473, fol., probably at Venice, and again at Strassburg by Mentelin about 1472-1475, fol., 334 pages.

Michael Constantine Psellus, the younger, wrote [Greek: Didaskalia pantodape], dedicated to the emperor Michael Ducas, who reigned 1071-1078. It was printed by Fabricius in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (1712), vol. v., in 186 pages 4to and 193 chapters, each containing a question and answer. Beginning with divinity, it goes on through natural history and astronomy, and ends with chapters on excessive hunger, and why flesh hung from a fig-tree becomes tender. As collation with a Turin MS. showed that 35 chapters were wanting, Harles has omitted the text in his edition of Fabricius, and gives only the titles of the chapters (x. 84-88).

The author of the most famous encyclopaedia of the middle ages was Vincent (q.v.) of Beauvais (c. 1190-c. 1264), whose work _Bibliotheca mundi_ or _Speculum majus_--divided, as we have it, into four parts, _Speculum naturale_, _Speculum doctrinale_, _Speculum morale_ (this part should be ascribed to a later hand), and _Speculum historiale_--was the great compendium of mid-13th century knowledge. Vincent of Beauvais preserved several works of the middle ages and gives extracts from many lost classics and valuable readings of others, and did more than any other medieval writer to awaken a taste for classical literature. Fabricius (_Bibl. Graeca_, 1728, xiv. pp. 107-125) has given a list of 328 authors, Hebrew, Arabic, Greek and Latin, quoted in the _Speculum naturale_. To these should be added about 100 more for the _doctrinale_ and _historiale_. As Vincent did not know Greek or Arabic, he used Latin translations. This work is dealt with separately in the article on VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS.

Brunetto Latini of Florence (born 1230, died 1294), the master of Dante and Guido Cavalcanti, while an exile in France between 1260 and 1267, wrote in French _Li Livres dou Tresor_, in 3 books and 413 chapters. Book i. contains the origin of the world, the history of the Bible and of the foundation of governments, astronomy, geography, and lastly natural history, taken from Aristotle, Pliny, and the old French Bestiaries. The first part of Book ii., on morality, is from the _Ethics_ of Aristotle, which Brunetto had translated into Italian. The second part is little more than a copy of the well-known collection of extracts from ancient and modern moralists, called the _Moralities of the Philosophers_, of which there are many MSS. in prose and verse. Book iii., on politics, begins with a treatise on rhetoric, chiefly from Cicero _De inventione_, with many extracts from other writers and Brunetto's remarks. The last part, the most original and interesting of all, treats of the government of the Italian republics of the time. Like many of his contemporaries, Brunetto revised his work, so that there are two editions, the second made after his return from exile. MSS. are singularly numerous, and exist in all the dialects then used in France. Others were written in Italy. It was translated into Italian in the latter part of the 13th century by Bono Giamboni, and was printed at Trevigi, 1474, fol., Venice, 1528 and 1533. The _Tesoro_ of Brunetto must not be confounded with his _Tesoretto_, an Italian poem of 2937 short lines. Napoleon I. had intended to have the French text of the _Tesoro_ printed with commentaries, and appointed a commission for the purpose. It was at last published in the _Collection des documents inedits_ (Paris, 1863, 4to, 772 pages), edited by Chabaille from 42 MSS.

Bartholomew de Glanville, an English Franciscan friar, wrote about 1360 a most popular work, _De proprietatibus rerum_, in 19 books and 1230 chapters.