Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

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Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE EVELYN, JOHN: "He was admitted to the Middle Temple in
February 1637, and in May he became a fellow commoner of Balliol
College, Oxford." 'he' amended from 'be'.

ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "The supposition that sensation thus rests on a
material process of absorption from external bodies naturally led
up to the idea that plants and even inorganic substances are
precipient, and so to an indistinct recognition of organic life as
a scale of intelligence." 'substances' amended from 'subtances'.

ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "The conception of evolution was henceforward
irrepressible, and it incessantly reappears, in one shape or
another, up to the year 1858, when Charles Darwin and A.R. Wallace
published their Theory of Natural Selection." 'irrepressible'
amended from 'irrespressible'.

ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "And those of the eighth group are not only
unintelligible without the assumption of evolution, but can be
proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in some
cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires."
'unintelligible' amended from 'unin-intelligible'.

ARTICLE EVORA: "From 1663 to 1665 it was held by the Spaniards. In
1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom Pedro, took refuge in Evora;
and here was signed the convention of Evora, by which he was
banished." 'From' amended from 'Fom'.

ARTICLE EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR: "From this time until her death
(13th May 1885), previously to which she had been a constant
invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming children's
stories." 'May' amended from 'may'.

ARTICLE EXAMINATIONS: "In many universities of the United States
there is a definite understanding that emoluments shall only be
accepted by those needing them." 'In' amended from 'It'.

ARTICLE EXECUTION: "There may still be imprisonment in England,
under the writ--rarely used in practice--ne exeat regno, which
issues to prevent a debtor from leaving the kingdom." 'kingdom'
amended from 'kindgom'.

ARTICLE EXECUTION: "Under the German Code of Civil Procedure (Arts.
796 et seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer
adequate security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the
process is called arrest) as a guarantee of payment." 'Procedure'
amended from 'Prodecure'.

ARTICLE EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF: "The Apocalypse is called 1 Esdras,
our author 2 Esdras, and Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras, or 3 and 4
Esdras." 'Apocalypse' amended from 'Apocalyspe'.

ARTICLE EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF: "It is difficult to follow its
progress clearly, and the account ceases abruptly in. vi. 17-19
with the notice of the conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of
Judah." 'progress' amended from 'progrees'.

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention

by

THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

_All rights reserved_

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME X
EVANGELICAL CHURCH to FRANCIS JOSEPH

New York

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

VOLUME X, SLICE I

Evangelical Church Conference to Fairbairn, Sir William

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE EXPULSION
EVANGELICAL UNION EXTENSION
EVANS, CHRISTMAS EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES
EVANS, EVAN HERBER EXTERRITORIALITY
EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY EXTORTION
EVANS, SIR JOHN EXTRACT
EVANS, OLIVER EXTRADITION
EVANSON, EDWARD EXTRADOS
EVANSTON EXTREME UNCTION
EVANSVILLE EYBESCHUTZ, JONATHAN
EVARISTUS EYCK, VAN
EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL EYE (English town)
EVE EYE (organ)
EVECTION EYEMOUTH
EVELETH EYLAU
EVELYN, JOHN EYRA
EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN EYRE, EDWARD JOHN
EVEREST, SIR GEORGE EYRE, SIR JAMES
EVEREST, MOUNT EYRIE
EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL EZEKIEL
EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL EZRA
EVERETT, EDWARD EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF
EVERETT (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF
EVERETT (Washington, U.S.A.) EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF
EVERGLADES EZZO
EVERGREEN EZZOLIED
EVERLASTING F
EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE FABBRONI, ANGELO
EVESHAM FABER
EVIDENCE FABER, BASIL
EVIL EYE FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM
EVOLUTION FABER, JACOBUS
EVORA FABER, JOHANN
EVREUX FABERT, ABRAHAM DE
EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON FABIAN, SAINT
EWALD, JOHANNES FABIUS
EWART, WILLIAM FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS
EWE FABLE
EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT FABLIAU
EWING, ALEXANDER FABRE, FERDINAND
EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR FABRE D'EGLANTINE, FRANCOIS NAZAIRE
EWING, THOMAS FABRETTI, RAPHAEL
EXAMINATIONS FABRIANI, SEVERINO
EXARCH FABRIANO
EXCAMBION FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS
EXCELLENCY FABRICIUS, GEORG
EXCHANGE FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
EXCHEQUER FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT
EXCISE FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN
EXCOMMUNICATION FABRIZI, NICOLA
EXCRETION FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL
EXECUTION FABYAN, ROBERT
EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS FACADE
EXEDRA FACCIOLATI, JACOPO
EXELMANS, RENE JOSEPH ISIDORE FACE
EXEQUATUR FACTION
EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS & DUKE OF FACTOR
EXETER (England) FACTORY ACTS
EXETER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) FACULA
EXETER BOOK FACULTY
EXHIBITION FAED, THOMAS
EXHUMATION FAENZA
EXILARCH FAEROE
EXILE FAESULAE
EXILI FAFNIR
EXMOOR FOREST FAGGING
EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW FAGGOT
EXMOUTH FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES
EXODUS, BOOK OF FAGUET, EMILE
EXODUS, THE FA-HIEN
EXOGAMY FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK
EXORCISM FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL
EXORCIST FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LEON CESAR
EXOTIC FAIENCE
EXPATRIATION FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE
EXPERT FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANCOIS
EXPLOSIVES FAIR
EXPRESS FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN
EXPROPRIATION FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME X. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. B. R.
ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S.
Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c.

Flower.

A. D.
AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN.

Fielding, Henry.

A. F. B.
ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.SC.
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.

Felt.

A. F. P.
ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892;
Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under Protector
Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.

Ferrar, Bishop;
Fox, Edward;
Fox, Richard.

A. G.
MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of _The Chronicles of
Newgate_; _Secrets of the Prison House_; &c.

Finger Prints.

A. Go.*
REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

Faber, Basil, Jacobus and Johann;
Familists;
Farel, G.;
Flacius.

A. H.-S.
SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.
General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.

Fars;
Firuzabad.

A. L.
ANDREW LANG.
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.

Fairy;
Family.

A. L. B.
ALFRED LYS BALDRY.
Art Critic of the _Globe_, 1893-1908. Author of _Modern Mural
Decoration_ and biographies of Albert Moore, Sir H. von Herkomer,
R.A., Sir J. E. Millais, P.R.A., Marcus Stone, R.A., and G. H.
Boughton, R.A.

Fortuny.

A. N.
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.

Falcon;
Fieldfare;
Finch;
Flycatcher;
Fowl.

A. S.
ARTHUR SMITHELLS, F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. Author of
Scientific Papers on Flame and Spectrum Analysis.

Flame.

A. M. C.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.

Flamsteed.

A. W.
ARTHUR WATSON.
Secretary in the Academic Department, University of London.

Examinations (_in part_).

A. W. R.
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
_Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.

Fixtures;
Flat.

A. W. W.
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, D.LITT., LL.D.
See the biographical article: WARD, A. W.

Foote, Samuel;
Ford, John.

C. El.
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of
Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and
Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent
and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East
Africa, 1900-1904.

Finno-Ugrian.

C. F. B.
CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Dublin. Author of _Public Finance_; _Commerce of
Nations_; _Theory of International Trade_; &c.

Finance.

C. F. C.
C. F. CROSS, B.SC. (Lond.), F.C.S. F.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist.

Fibres.

C. F. R.
CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M., PH.D.
Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire,
U.S.A. Author of _A Story of English Rhyme_; _A History of
American Literature_; &c.

Fiske, John.

C. H. T.*
CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M.
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.

Ezekiel.

C. J.
CHARLES JOHNSON, M.A.
Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office. Joint Editor of the _Domesday
Survey_ for the _Victoria County History: Norfolk_.

Exchequer (_in part_).

C. J. B. M.
CHARLES JOHN BRUCE MARRIOTT, M.A.
Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union.

Football: _Rugby_ (_in part_).

C. J. N. F.
CHARLES JAMES NICOL FLEMING.
H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department.

Football: _Rugby_ (_in part_).

C. L. K.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of
London_.

Fabyan;
Fastolf.

C. P. I.
SIR COURTENAY PEREGRINE ILBERT, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
Clerk of the House of Commons. Chairman of Statute Law Committee.
Parliamentary Counsel to the Treasury, 1899-1901. Legal Member of
Council of Governor-General of India, 1882-1886; President, 1886.
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _The Government of India_;
_Legislative Method and Forms_.

Evidence.

C. W. A.
CHARLES WILLIAM ALCOCK. (d. 1907).
Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London.

Football: _Association_ (_in part_).

D. H.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.

First of June, Battle of the;
Fox, Charles James.

D. Mn.
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director
of the London Missionary Society.

Excommunication.

D. N. P.
DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow.
Formerly Superintendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of
Physicians, Edinburgh. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University,
1884. Author of _Essentials of Human Physiology_; &c.

Fever.

D. S. M.*
DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT.
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author
of _Arabic _Papyri of the Bodleian Library_; _Mohammed and the
Rise of Islam_; _Cairo, Jerusalem_ and Damascus_.

Fatimites.

E. B.
EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D.
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the _New York Herald_ and the
_New York Times_. Author of _Fencing_; _Wilderness Pets_;
_Sporting in Nova Scotia_; &c.

Foil-fencing;
Football: _American_ (_in part_).

E. Ca.
EGERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _Schools and Masters of
Fence_; &c.

Fencing.

Ed. C.*
THE HON. EDWARD EVAN CHARTERIS.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.

Fair (_in part_).

E. C. B.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.

Fontevrault;
Francis of Assisi, St;
Francis of Paola, St.

E. C. Q.
EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in
Celtic, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Finn mac Cool.

E. D. R.
LIEUT.-COLONEL EMILIUS C. DELME RADCLIFFE.
Author of _Falconry: Notes on the Falconidae used in India in
Falconry_.

Falconry.

E. E. A.
ERNEST E. AUSTEN.
Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South
Kensington.

Flea.

E. E. H.
REV. EDWARD EVERETT HALE.
See the biographical article: HALE, E. E.

Everett, Edward.

E. G.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

Ewald, Johannes;
Fabliau;
Fabre, Ferdinand;
Feuillet;
Finland: _Literature_;
FitzGerald, Edward;
Flaubert;
Flemish Literature;
Forssell.

E. H. P.
EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A.
See the biographical article: PALMER, E. H.

Firdousi (_in part_).

E. K.
EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head
of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, City and Guilds of London
Institute. Author of _A Manual of Dyeing_; &c. Editor of _Journal
of the Society of Dyers and Colourists_.

Finishing.

E. M. Ha.
ERNEST MAES HARVEY.
Partner in Messrs. Allen Harvey & Ross, Bullion Brokers, London.

Exchange.

E. O.*
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the University of
Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.

Fistula.

E. O. S.
EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.INST.M.E.
Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President,
National Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International Fire
Service Council. Author of _Fires and Public Entertainments_; &c.

Fire and Fire Extinction.

E. Pr.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of
Manchester. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and
Lisbon Geographical Society.

Falcao;
Ferreira.

E. Re.
ELISEE RECLUS.
See the biographical article: RECLUS, J. J. E.

Fire.

E. Tn.
REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, (d. 1907).
Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of
the Jesuits in England_.

Feckenham;
Fisher, John.

E. W. H.
ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge.
Stokes Lecturer in Mathematics in the University.

Fourier's Series.

F. C. C.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of
Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.

Extreme Unction.

F. G. P.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
College of Surgeons.

Eye: _Anatomy_.

F. J. H.
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of
the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History,
especially Roman Britain; &c.

Fosse.

F. J. W.
FREDERICK JOSEPH WALL, F.C.S.
Secretary to the Football Association.

Football: _Association_ (_in part_).

F. R. C.
FRANK R. CANA.
Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.

France: _Colonies_.

F. S.
FRANCIS STORR, M.A.
Editor of the _Journal of Education_, London. Officier d'Academie,
Paris.

Fable.

G. A. B.
GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.SC., PH.D., F.R.S.
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of
Zoology, British Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society
of London.

Flat-fish.

G. A. Be.
GEORGE ANDREAS BERRY, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Formerly Senior
Ophthalmic Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on
Ophthalmology in the University of Edinburgh. Vice-President,
Ophthalmological Society. Author of _Diseases of the Eye_; _The
Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis_; _Subjective Symptoms in
Eye Diseases_; &c.

Eye: _Diseases_.

G. B. A.
GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, A.M., B.D., PH.D., LITT.D.
Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of _American
Historical Review_. Author of _Civilization during the Middle
Ages_; _Political History of England_, 1066-1216; &c.

Feudalism.

G. C. L.
GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly
Editor and Proprietor of the _Melbourne Herald_. Secretary,
Colonial Committee of Royal Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900.
Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887. Secretary, Royal Commission,
Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Commissioners for
Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
and Melbourne, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1880-1881.

Exhibition.

G. E.
REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign
Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.

Flanders.

G. F. Z.
GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INST.C.E.
Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_.

Flour and Flour Manufacture.

G. G. P.*
GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.

Fishery, Law of.

G. P.
GIFFORD PINCHOT, A.M., D.SC., LL.D.
Professor of Forestry, Yale University. Formerly Chief Forester,
U.S.A. President of the National Conservation Association. Member
of the Society of American Foresters, Royal English Arboricultural
Society, &c. Author of _The White Pine_; _A Primer of Forestry_;
&c.

Forests and Forestry: _United States_.

G. W. T.
REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

Fairuzabadi;
Fakhr ud-Din Razi;
Farabi;
Farazdaq.

H. B. S.
REV. HENRY BARCLAY SWETE, M.A., D.D., LITT.D.
Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge University. Fellow of
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College,
London. Fellow of British Academy. Hon. Canon of Ely Cathedral.
Author of _The Holy Spirit in the New Testament_; &c.

Fathers of the Church.

H. Ch.
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
11th Edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-Editor of the
10th edition.

Forster.

H. De.
HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
_Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta Sanctorum_.

Fiacre, Saint;
Florian, Saint.

H. F. G.
HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of
Cambridge. Author of "Amphibia and Reptiles," in the _Cambridge
Natural History_.

Flamingo.

H. L. S.
H. LAWRENCE SWINBURNE (d. 1909).

Flag.

H. St.
HENRY STURT, M.A.
Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; _Personal
Idealism_.

Fechner;
Feuerbach, Ludwig A.

H. W. C. D.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.

Fitz Neal;
Fitz Peter, Geoffrey;
Fitz Stephen, William;
Fitz Thedmar;
Flambard;
Florence of Worcester.

H. W. S.
H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of _The Times_ at Vienna. Correspondent of _The
Times_ at Rome, 1897-1902.

Fabrizi.

I. A.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of
Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author
of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the
Middle Ages_.

Exilarch;
Eybeschutz.

J. A. C.
SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G.
See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR JOSEPH A.

Eyck, Van.

J. A. H.
JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.

France: _Geology_.

J. A. S.
JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A.

Ficino;
Filelfo.

J. B.*
JOSEPH BURTON.
Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction,
Manchester.

Firebrick (_in part_).

J. B. P.
JAMES BELL PETTIGREW, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) (1834-1908).
Chandos Professor of Medicine and Anatomy, University of St
Andrews, 1875-1908. Author of _Animal Locomotion_; &c.

Flight and Flying (_in part_).

J. Bt.
JAMES BARTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
&c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects.
Member of Institute of Junior Engineers.

Foundations.

J. C. M.
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, LL.D.
See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK.

Faraday.

J. E. C. B.
JOHN EDWARD COURTENAY BODLEY, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France. Author of _France_; _The Coronation of Edward VII._; &c.

France: _History_, 1870-1910.

J. E. P. W.
JOHN EDWARD POWER WALLIS, M.A.
Puisne Judge, Madras. Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Inns
of Court Reader in Constitutional Law, 1892-1897. Formerly Editor
of _State Trials_.

Extradition.

J. F. St.
JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.
Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
Aramaic. Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.

Exodus, Book of.

J. G. H.
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
Author of _Plating and Boiler Making_; _Practical Metal Turning_;
&c.

Forging;
Founding.

J. G. R.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer
on the English Language, Strassburg University. Author of _History
of German Literature_; &c.

Fouque, Baron.

J. H. P.*
JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. (d. 1908).
Formerly Professor of Fine Arts in Catholic University of Dublin.
Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Cantor Lecturer, Society of
Arts, 1885. Author of _Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork_;
_Ancient and Modern Gold and Silversmith's Work_; _The Trajan
Column_; &c.

Fan.

J. Hl. R.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
Pitt_; chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_.

Fouche.

J. H. R.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family
History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c.

Ferrers: _Family_;
Fitzgerald: _Family_.

J. I.
JULES ISAAC.
Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons.

Francis I. of France.

J. K. L.
SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D.
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of
the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in
China, 1856-1859. Mathematical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval
College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873; Greenwich, 1873-1885. President,
Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884. Honorary Fellow, Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London.
Author of _Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing
Winds and Currents_; _Studies in Naval History_; _Sea Fights and
Adventures_; &c.

Farragut;
Fitzroy.

J. L. B.
JULIAN LEVETT BAKER, F.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Examiner in Brewing to the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Department of Technology. Hon.
Secretary of the Institute of Brewing. Author of _The Brewing
Industry_; &c.

Fermentation.

J. Ma.
JOHN MACDONALD.

Fair (_in part_).

J. M. S.
JAMES MONTGOMERY STUART.
Author of _The History of Free Trade in Tuscany_; _Reminiscences
and Essays_.

Foscolo.

J. Pa.
JAMES PATON, F.L.S.
Superintendent of Museums and Art Galleries of Corporation of
Glasgow. Assistant in Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh,
1861-1876. President of Museums Association of United Kingdom,
1896. Editor and part-author of _Scottish National Memorials_,
1890.

Feather (_in part_).

J. P. E.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN.
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours
elementaire d'histoire du droit francais_; &c.

France: _Law and Institutions_.

J. R. C.
JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.
Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy,
Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's
_Theory of Heat_.

Fluorescence.

J. R. F.*
JOSEPH R. FISHER.
Editor of the _Northern Whig_, Belfast. Author of _Finland and the
Tsars_; _Law of the Press_; &c.

Finland.

J. R. J. J.
JULIAN ROBERT JOHN JOCELYN.
Colonel, R.A. Formerly Commandant, Ordnance College; Member of
Ordnance Committee; Commandant, Schools of Gunnery.

Fireworks: _History_.

J. S. Bl.
REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant Editor, 9th edition, _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Joint
Editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. Translated Ritschl's
_Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and
Reconciliation_.

Fasting;
Feasts and Festivals.

J. S. F.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC, F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
of London.

Felsite;
Flint.

J. S. K.
JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S.. F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of
North Star. Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon.
Member, Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor
of _Statesman's Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_.

Finland (_in part_);
Flinders.

J. T. Be.
JOHN T. BEALBY.
Joint Author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
_Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
_Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.

Fens;
Ferghana (_in part_).

K. S.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_.

Fiddle;
Fife;
Flageolet;
Flute (_in part_).

L. D.*
LOUIS DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

Formosus.

L. F. S.
LESLIE FREDERIC SCOTT, M.A., K.C.C.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.

Factor.

L. J.
LIEUT.-COLONEL LOUIS CHARLES JACKSON, R.E., C.M.G.
Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office.
Formerly Instructor in Fortification, R.M.A., Woolwich. Instructor
in Fortification and Military Engineering, School of Military
Engineering, Chatham

Fortification and Siegecraft.

L. V.*
LUIGI VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper
Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; _Fire and Sword in
the Caucasus_; &c.

Faliero;
Fanti, Manfredo;
Farini, Luigi Carlo;
Farnese: _Family_;
Ferdinand I. and IV. of Naples;
Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies;
Fiesco; Filangieri, C.;
Florence;
Foscari;
Fossombroni;
Francis II. of the Two Sicilies;
Francis IV. and V. of Modena.

M. Ha.
MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.SC, F.L.S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of
"Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_; and papers for various
scientific journals.

Flagellate;
Foraminifera.

N. W. T.
NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding
Member of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought
Transference_; _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_; &c.

Faith Healing;
Fetishism;
Folklore.

O. H.*
OTTO HEHNER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts.
Vice-President of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
Ireland. Author of works on Butter Analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c.

Food Preservation.

O. M.
DAVID ORME MASSON, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on
chemistry in the transactions of various learned societies.

Fireworks: _Modern_.

P. A.
PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes
Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les
heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_.

Flagellants.

P. A. K.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.

Ferghana (_in part_);
Finland (_in part_).

P. C. Y.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

Falkland;
Fanshaw;
Fawkes, Guy;
Fell, John;
Fortescue, Sir John.

P. C. M.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.SC, LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
Professor at Oxford, 1881-1891. Examiner in Zoology to the
University of London, 1903. Author of _Outlines of Biology_; &c.

Evolution.

P. G. K.
PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
Art Critic of the _Observer_ and the _Daily Mail_. Formerly Editor
of _The Artist_. Author of _The Art of Walter Crane_; _Velasquez,
Life and Work_; &c.

Fiorenzo di Lorenzo;
Fragonard.

P. J. H.
PHILIP JOSEPH HARTOG, M.A., L. ES SC. (Paris).
Academic Registrar of the University of London. Author of _The
Writing of English_, and articles in the Special Reports on
educational subjects of the Board of Education.

Examinations (_in part_).

P. W.
PAUL WIRIATH.
Director of the Ecole Superieure Pratique de Commerce et
d'Industrie, Paris.

France: _History to_ 1870.

R. Ad.
ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article: ADAMSON, R.

Fichte;
Fourier, F. C. M.

R. A. S. M.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
Palestine Exploration Fund.

Font.

R. H. C.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of
Trinity College, Dublin. Author and Editor of _Book of Enoch_;
_Book of Jubilees_; _Apocalypse of Baruch_; _Assumption of Moses_;
_Ascension of Isaiah_; _Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs_; &c.

Ezra: _Third and Fourth Books of_.

R. J. M.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
_St James's Gazette_, London.

Fenians;
Fitzgerald, Lord Edward;
Flood, Henry.

R. L.*
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in
British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
Africa_; &c.

Flying-Squirrel; Fox.

R. N. B.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
_Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the
Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.

Fersen, Counts von.

R. Po.
RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence
sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_;
&c.

Franche-Comte.

R. P. S.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy,
London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and
Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the
Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of
Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c.

Flute: _Architecture_.

R. S. C.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Author of _The Italic Dialects_.

Falisci.

R. Tr.
ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and
Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford.

France: _Statistics_.

S. A. C.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and
Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University,
1904-1908. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws
of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old
Testament History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.

Exodus, The;
Ezra and Nehemiah, Books of.

S. C.
SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
See the biographical article: COLVIN, S.

Fine Arts;
Finiguerra;
Flaxman.

St C.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF

Fenelon.

S. E. B.
HON. SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D.
Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale
University. Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the
American Bar Association. Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut.
Author of _Modern Political Institutions_; _American Railroad
Law_; &c.

Extradition: U.S.A.

S. E. S.-R.
STEPHEN EDWARD SPRING-RICE, M.A., C.B. (1856-1902).
Formerly Principal Clerk, H.M. Treasury, and Auditor of the Civil
List. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Exchequer (_in part_).

T. A. I.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

Explosives: _Law_.

T. As.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly
Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897.
Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute. Author of the _Classical Topography of the Roman
Campagna_; &c.

Faesulae;
Falerii;
Falerio;
Fanum Fortunae;
Ferentino;
Fermo;
Flaminia Via;
Florence: _Early History_;
Fondi;
Fonni;
Forum Appii.

T. Ba.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the
Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of
Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and
Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

Exterritoriality.

T. H. H.*
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys,
India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. H.M.
Commissioner for the Persia-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.

Everest, Mount.

T. K. C.
REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

Eve (_in part_).

T. Se.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant
Editor of _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1901.
Joint-author of _The Bookman History of English Literature_.
Author of _The Age of Johnson_; &c.

Fawcett, Henry.

T. Wo.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
College, Dundee.

Flax.

V. M.
VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON.
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

Flute (_in part_).

W. A. B. C.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
the _Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.

Feldkirch.

W. A. P.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.

Excellency;
Faust;
Febronianism.

W. B.*
WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great
Britain. Author of _English Stoneware and Earthenware_; &c.

Firebrick (_in part_).

W. Ca.
WALTER CAMP, A.M.
Member of Yale University Council. Author of _American Football_;
_Football Facts and Figures_; &c.

Football: _American_ (_in part_).

W. Ga.
WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.SC.
Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds. Scientific
Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln
College, Oxford. Author of _The Races and Migrations of the
Mackerel_; _The Impoverishment of the Sea_; &c.

Fisheries.

W. He.
WALTER HEPWORTH.
Formerly Commissioner of the Council of Education, Science and Art
Department, South Kensington.

Fool.

W. M. R.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.

Ferrari, Gaudenzio;
Fielding, Copley;
Franceschi, Piero;
Francia.

W. P. P.
WILLIAM PLANE PYCRAFT, F.Z.S.
Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum. Formerly
Assistant Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford.
Vice-President of the Selborne Society. Author of _A History of
Birds_; &c.

Feather (_in part_).

W. N. S.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S.
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in
the University of London. President of Permanent International
Meteorological Committee. Member of Meteorological Council,
1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fellow of
Emmanuel College, 1877-1899; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author
of _Text Book of Practical Physics_; &c.

Fog.

W. P. R.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High
Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education,
Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long
White Cloud, a History of New Zealand_; &c.

Fox, Sir William.

W. R. S.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R.

Eve (_in part_).

W. R. E. H.
WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich.
Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich.
Part Author of Valentin-Hodgkinson's _Practical Chemistry_; &c.

Explosives.

W. Sch.
SIR WILHELM SCHLICH, K.C.I.E., M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Professor of Forestry at the University of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of
St John's College. Author of _A Manual of Forestry_; _Forestry in
the United Kingdom_; _The Outlook of the World's Timber Supply_;
&c.

Forests and Forestry.

W. W. F.*
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford
Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of
the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican
Period_; &c.

Fortuna.

W. W. R.*
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC. THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York. Author of _Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von
Hessen_.

Ferrara-Florence, Council of.

Principal Unsigned Articles

Evil Eye. Fault. Fig. Fontenoy.
Excise. Federal Government. Filigree. Foot and Mouth
Execution. Federalist Party. Fir. Disease.
Executors and Fehmic Courts. Fives. Forest Laws.
Administrators. Felony. Fleurus. Forfarshire.
Exeter. Fez. Florida. Forgery.
Exile. Fezzan. Foix. Formosa.
Eylau. Fictions. Fold. Foundling
Famine. Fife. Fontenelle. Hospitals.
Fountain.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
the final volume.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME X

EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE, a convention of delegates from the different Protestant churches of Germany. The conference originated in 1848, when the general desire for political unity made itself felt in the ecclesiastical sphere as well. A preliminary meeting was held at Sandhof near Frankfort in June of that year, and on the 21st of September some five hundred delegates representing the Lutheran, the Reformed, the United and the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg. The gathering was known as _Kirchentag_ (church diet), and, while leaving each denomination free in respect of constitution, ritual, doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act unitedly in bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches and in defending the rights and liberties of the churches in the federation. The organization thus closely resembles that of the Free Church Federation in England. The movement exercised considerable influence during the middle of the 19th century. Though no _Kirchentag_, as such, has been convened since 1871, its place has been taken by the _Kongress fur innere Mission_, which holds annual meetings in different towns. There is also a biennial conference of the evangelical churches held at Eisenach to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no legislative force.

EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious denomination which originated in the suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816-1893), minister of a United Secession congregation in Kilmarnock, Scotland, for certain views regarding faith, the work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, and the extent of the atonement, which were regarded by the supreme court of his church as anti-Calvinistic and heretical. Morison was suspended by the presbytery in 1841 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two other ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar opinions, the four met at Kilmarnock on the 16th of May 1843 (two days before the "Disruption" of the Free Church), and, on the basis of certain doctrinal principles, formed themselves into an association under the name of the Evangelical Union, "for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and otherwise aiding one another, and also for the purpose of training up spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and 'pleasure of the Lord.'" The doctrinal views of the new denomination gradually assumed a more decidedly anti-Calvinistic form, and they began also to find many sympathizers among the Congregationalists of Scotland. Nine students were expelled from the Congregational Academy for holding "Morisonian" doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from the Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with the Evangelical Union. The Union exercised no jurisdiction over the individual churches connected with it, and in this respect adhered to the Independent or Congregational form of church government; but those congregations which originally were Presbyterian vested their government in a body of elders. In 1889 the denomination numbered 93 churches; and in 1896, after prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was incorporated with the Congregational Union of Scotland.

See _The Evangelical Union Annual; History of the Evangelical Union_,
by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); _The Worthies of the E. U._ (1883); W.
Adamson, _Life of Dr James Morison_ (1898).

EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born near the village of Llandyssul, Cardiganshire, on the 25th of December 1766. His father, a shoemaker, died early, and the boy grew up as an illiterate farm labourer. At the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a Presbyterian minister, David Davies, he was affected by a religious revival and learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The itinerant Calvinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined the latter denomination. In 1789 he went into North Wales as a preacher and settled for two years in the desolate peninsula of Lleyn, Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in Anglesey. Here, on a stipend of L17 a year, supplemented by a little tract-selling, he built up a strong Baptist community, modelling his organization to some extent on that of the Calvinistic Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the money being collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South Wales.

In 1826 Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where he remained for two years, removing in 1828 to Cardiff. In 1832, in response to urgent calls from the north, he settled in Carnarvon and again undertook the old work of building and collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in South Wales, and died at Swansea on the 19th of July 1838. In spite of his early disadvantages and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye in a youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling he united a nimble mind and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple, his piety humble and his faith fervently evangelical. For a time he came under Sandemanian influence, and when the Wesleyans entered Wales he took the Calvinist side in the bitter controversies that were frequent from 1800 to 1810. His chief characteristic was a vivid and affluent imagination, which absorbed and controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the name of "the Bunyan of Wales."

His works were edited by Owen Davies in 3 vols. (Carnarvon,
1895-1897). See the _Lives_ by D.R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton Hood
(1883).

EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born on the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near Newcastle Emlyn, Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something of the "Rebecca Riots," and went to school at the neighbouring village of Llechryd. In 1853 he went into business, first at Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year made his way to Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied arts and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and the Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened by the religious revival of 1858-1859. In 1862 he succeeded Thomas Jones as minister of the Congregational church at Morriston near Swansea. In 1865 he became pastor of Salem church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied for nearly thirty years despite many invitations to English pastorates. In 1894 he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor. He died on the 30th of December 1896. He was chairman of the Welsh Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest ministry, his eloquence and his literary work, especially in the denominational paper _Y Dysgedydd_, he achieved a position of great influence in his country.

See _Life_ by H. Elvet Lewis.

EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787-1870), British soldier, was born at Moig, Limerick, in 1787. He was educated at Woolwich Academy, and entered the army in 1806 as a volunteer, obtaining an ensigncy in the 22nd regiment in 1807. His early service was spent in India, but he exchanged into the 3rd Light Dragoons in order to take part in the Peninsular War, and was present in the retreat from Burgos in 1812. In 1813 he was at Vittoria, and was afterwards employed in making a military survey of the passes of the Pyrenees. He took part in the campaign of 1814, and was present at Pampeluna, the Nive and Toulouse; and later in the year he served with great distinction on the staff in General Ross's Bladensburg campaign, and took part in the capture of Washington and of Baltimore and the operations before New Orleans. He returned to England in the spring of 1815, in time to take part in the Waterloo campaign as assistant quartermaster-general on Sir T. Picton's staff. As a member of the staff of the duke of Wellington he accompanied the English army to Paris, and remained there during the occupation of the city by the allies. He was still a substantive captain in the 5th West India regiment, though a lieutenant-colonel by brevet, when he went on half-pay in 1818. In 1830 he was elected M.P. for Rye in the Liberal interest; but in the election of 1832 he was an unsuccessful candidate both for that borough and for Westminster. For the latter constituency he was, however, returned in 1833, and, except in the parliament of 1841-1846, he continued to represent it till 1865, when he retired from political life. His parliamentary duties did not, however, interfere with his career as a soldier. In 1835 he went out to Spain in command of the Spanish Legion, recruited in England, and 9600 strong, which served for two years in the Carlist War on the side of the queen of Spain. In spite of great difficulties the legion won great distinction on the battlefields of northern Spain, and Evans was able to say that no prisoners had been taken from it in action, that it had never lost a gun or an equipage, and that it had taken 27 guns and 1100 prisoners from the enemy. He received several Spanish orders, and on his return in 1839 was made a colonel and K.C.B. In 1846 he became major-general; and in 1854, on the breaking-out of the Crimean War, he was made lieutenant-general and appointed to command the 2nd division of the Army of the East. At the battle of the Alma, where he received a severe wound, his quick comprehension of the features of the combat largely contributed to the victory. On the 26th of October he defeated a large Russian force which attacked his position on Mount Inkerman. Illness and fatigue compelled him a few days after this to leave the command of his division in the hands of General Pennefather; but he rose from his sick-bed on the day of the battle of Inkerman, the 5th of November, and, declining to take the command of his division from Pennefather, aided him in the long-protracted struggle by his advice. On his return invalided to England in the following February, Evans received the thanks of the House of Commons. He was made a G.C.B., and the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1861 he was promoted to the full rank of general. He died in London on the 9th of January 1870.

EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908), English archaeologist and geologist, son of the Rev. Dr A.B. Evans, head master of Market Bosworth grammar school, was born at Britwell Court, Bucks, on the 17th of November 1823. He was for many years head of the extensive paper manufactory of Messrs John Dickinson at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, but was especially distinguished as an antiquary and numismatist. He was the author of three books, standard in their respective departments: _The Coins of the Ancient Britons_ (1864); _The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain_ (1872, 2nd ed. 1897); and _The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_ (1881). He also wrote a number of separate papers on archaeological and geological subjects--notably the papers on "Flint Implements in the Drift" communicated in 1860 and 1862 to _Archaeologia_, the organ of the Society of Antiquaries. Of that society he was president from 1885 to 1892, and he was president of the Numismatic Society from 1874 to the time of his death. He also presided over the Geological Society, 1874-1876; the Anthropological Institute, 1877-1879; the Society of Chemical Industry, 1892-1893; the British Association, 1897-1898; and for twenty years (1878-1898) he was treasurer of the Royal Society. As president of the Society of Antiquaries he was an _ex officio_ trustee of the British Museum, and subsequently he became a permanent trustee. His academic honours included honorary degrees from several universities, and he was a corresponding member of the Institut de France. He was created a K.C.B. in 1892. He died at Berkhamsted on the 31st of May 1908.

His eldest son, ARTHUR JOHN EVANS, born in 1851, was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, and Gottingen. He became fellow of Brasenose and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. He travelled in Finland and Lapland in 1873-1874, and in 1875 made a special study of archaeology and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of the utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece and the eastern Mediterranean (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION AND CRETE). He is a member of all the chief archaeological societies in Europe, holds honorary degrees at Oxford, Edinburgh and Dublin, and is a fellow of the Royal Society. His chief publications are: _Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script_ (1896); _Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script_ (1898); _The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult_ (1901); _Scripta Minoa_ (1909 foll.); and reports on the excavations. He also edited with additions Freeman's _History of Sicily_, vol. iv.

EVANS, OLIVER (1755-1819), American mechanician, was born at Newport, Delaware, in 1755. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright, and at the age of twenty-two he invented a machine for making the card-teeth used in carding wool and cotton. In 1780 he became partner with his brothers, who were practical millers, and soon introduced various labour-saving appliances which both cheapened and improved the processes of flour-milling. Turning his attention to the steam engine, he employed steam at a relatively high pressure, and the plans of his invention which he sent over to England in 1787 and in 1794-1795 are said to have been seen by R. Trevithick, whom in that case he anticipated in the adoption of the high-pressure principle. He made use of his engine for driving mill machinery; and in 1803 he constructed a steam dredging machine, which also propelled itself on land. In 1819 a disastrous fire broke out in his factory at Pittsburg, and he did not long survive it, dying at New York on the 21st of April 1819.

EVANSON, EDWARD (1731-1805), English divine, was born on the 21st of April 1731 at Warrington, Lancashire. After graduating at Cambridge (Emmanuel College) and taking holy orders, he officiated for several years as curate at Mitcham. In 1768 he became vicar of South Mimms near Barnet; and in November 1769 he was presented to the rectory of Tewkesbury, with which he held also the vicarage of Longdon in Worcestershire. In the course of his studies he discovered what he thought important variance between the teaching of the Church of England and that of the Bible, and he did not conceal his convictions. In reading the service he altered or omitted phrases which seemed to him untrue, and in reading the Scriptures pointed out errors in the translation. A crisis was brought on by his sermon on the resurrection, preached at Easter 1771; and in November 1773 a prosecution was instituted against him in the consistory court of Gloucester. He was charged with "depraving the public worship of God contained in the liturgy of the Church of England, asserting the same to be superstitious and unchristian, preaching, writing and conversing against the creeds and the divinity of our Saviour, and assuming to himself the power of making arbitrary alterations in his performance of the public worship." A protest was at once signed and published by a large number of his parishioners against the prosecution. The case was dismissed on technical grounds, but appeals were made to the court of arches and the court of delegates. Meanwhile Evanson had made his views generally known by several publications. In 1772 appeared anonymously his _Doctrines of a Trinity and the Incarnation of God, examined upon the Principles of Reason and Common Sense_. This was followed in 1777 by _A Letter to Dr Hurd, Bishop of Worcester, wherein the Importance of the Prophecies of the New Testament and the Nature of the Grand Apostasy predicted in them are particularly and impartially considered_. He also wrote some papers on the Sabbath, which brought him into controversy with Joseph Priestley, who published the whole discussion (1792). In the same year appeared Evanson's work entitled _The Dissonance of the four generally received Evangelists_, to which replies were published by Priestley and David Simpson (1793). Evanson rejected most of the books of the New Testament as forgeries, and of the four gospels he accepted only that of St Luke. In his later years he ministered to a Unitarian congregation at Lympston, Devonshire. In 1802 he published _Reflections upon the State of Religion in Christendom_, in which he attempted to explain and illustrate the mysterious foreshadowings of the Apocalypse. This he considered the most important of his writings. Shortly before his death at Colford, near Crediton, Devonshire, on the 25th of September 1805, he completed his _Second Thoughts on the Trinity_, in reply to a work of the bishop of Gloucester.

His sermons (prefaced by a Life by G. Rogers) were published in two
volumes in 1807, and were the occasion of T. Falconer's _Bampton
Lectures_ in 1811. A narrative of the circumstances which led to the
prosecution of Evanson was published by N. Havard, the town-clerk of
Tewkesbury, in 1778.