Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the arrival of the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited by Phrygians, and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians and other native races. This native population remained, and constituted the majority of the inhabitants of the rural parts and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were left in possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, _B.G._ i. 31) on condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who took the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the arts and crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands. They were henceforth ranked as "Galatians" by the outside world equally with their overlords, and it was from their numbers that the "Galatian" slaves who figure in the markets of the ancient world were drawn. The conquerors, who were few in number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not in the towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their castles kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With the decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with the natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation was accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became as complete as that of the Normans with the Saxons in England, but they gave to the mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and long retained their national characteristics and social customs, as well as their language (which continued in use, side by side with Greek, in the 4th century after Christ). In the 1st century, when St Paul made his missionary journeys, even the towns Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were few) were not Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and trade, was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected by Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to appear in the towns only in the later 2nd century. In the rustic parts a knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the 3rd century; but only in the 4th and 5th centuries, after the transference of the centre of government first to Nicomedia and then to Constantinople placed Galatia on the highway of imperial communication, was Hellenism in its Christian form gradually diffused over the country. (See also ANCYRA; PESSINUS; GORDIUM.)

II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C., included the greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz. Galatia Proper, part of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia, Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia, part of Lycaonia (including Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly 100 years it was the frontier province, and the changes in its boundaries are an epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the Euphrates, one client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in 6-5 B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, A.D. 1-2; Comana, A.D. 34-35,--together forming Pontus Galaticus,--the Pontic kingdom of Polemon, A.D. 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In A.D. 70 Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since A.D. 17) with Armenia Minor became the centre of the forward movement and Galatia lost its importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a vast double governorship until A.D. 114 (probably), when Trajan separated the two parts, making Galatia an inferior province of diminished size, while Cappadocia with Armenia Minor and Pontus became a great consular military province, charged with the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's reorganization Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the name retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia of Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the addition of a few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia Prima and Secunda or Salutaris, the division indicating the renewed importance of Galatia in the Byzantine empire. After suffering from Persian and Arabic raids, Galatia was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed to the Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.

The question whether the "Churches of Galatia," to which St Paul addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or southern part of the province has been much discussed, and in England Prof. Sir W.M. Ramsay has been the principal advocate of the adoption of the South-Galatian theory, which maintains that they were the churches planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and Antioch (see GALATIANS). In the present writer's opinion this is supported by the study of the historical and geographical facts.[1]

AUTHORITIES.--Van Gelder, _De Gallis in Graecia et Asia_ (1888);
Staehelin, _Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater_ (1897); Perrot, _De Galatia
prov. Rom._ (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Histor. Geogr._ (1890), _St
Paul_ (1898), and Introd. to _Histor. Commentary on Galatians_ (1899).
For antiquities generally, Perrot, _Explor. archeol. de la Galatie_
(1862); K. Humann and O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien_ (1890);
Koerte, _Athen. Mitteilungen_ (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, _Journ.
of Hellenic Studies_ (1899); and Anderson, _Map of Asia Minor_
(London, Murray, 1903). (J. G. C. A.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above
statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.--Ed. _E.B._

GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. This early Christian scripture is one of the books militant in the world's literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his propaganda was no accident in its history; it originated in a controversy, and the varying views of the momentous struggle depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally determined, from time to time, the conception of the epistle's aim and date. Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be given here. (See PAUL.) It must suffice to say that to the present writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of Acts xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra, Derbe and Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian [Greek: chora] with Phrygia upon the other.[1] A further visit to the latter country is mentioned, upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to whom the epistle was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the most part (iv. 8) of pagan birth, belonging to the northern section of the province, perhaps mainly in its south-western district adjoining Bithynia and the province of Asia. The scanty allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as any objection to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical difficulty. The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all does the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century A.D., was Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and inscriptions indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated throughout the province did not exclude the infusion either of Greek religious conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree of elementary Greek culture needful for the understanding of Galatians cannot be shown to have been foreign to the inhabitants of north Galatia. So far as any trustworthy evidence is available, such Hellenic notions as are presupposed in this epistle might well have been intelligible to the Galatians of the northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance with Roman jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends (_Uber rom. Recht im Galaterbrief_, 1895), not merely that Paul must have acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of Roman law was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.

The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after the period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the _terminus ad quem_ is more difficult to fix.[2] The composition may be placed (cf. the present writer's _Historical New Testament_, pp. 124 f. for details) either during the earlier part of Paul's residence at Ephesus (Acts xix. 1, 10, so most editors and scholars), or on his way from Ephesus to Corinth, or at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek, Salmon).

The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica, but the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul undertaken some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe. When he composed this letter, he had visited the churches twice. On the former of these visits (iv. 13 [Greek: to proteron]), though broken down by illness (2 Cor. xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically welcomed, and the immediate result of his mission was an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5, iv. 14 f.). The local Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But they failed to maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7, v. 21) the apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due to discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence in some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective. Otherwise, this second visit is left in the shadow.[3] So far as it was accompanied by warnings, these were evidently general rather than elicited by any definite and imminent peril to the churches. Not long afterwards, however, some judaizing opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous anonymity of the [Greek: tines] in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by one prominent and influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance among the Galatians, promulgating a "gospel" which meant fidelity to, not freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament, they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which required to be supplemented by legal exactitude,[4] including ritual observance (iv. 10) and even circumcision,[5] while at the same time they sought to undermine his authority[6] by pointing out that it was derived from the apostles at Jerusalem and therefore that his teaching must be open to the checks and tests of that orthodox primitive standard which they themselves claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic privileges was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).

When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had evidently not yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised. It was not too late to arrest the Galatians on their downward plane, and the apostle, unable or unwilling to re-visit them, despatched this epistle. How or when the information came to him, we do not know. But the gravity of the situation renders it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time in writing to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from allusions like those in i. 6 ([Greek: tacheos] and [Greek: metatithesthe]--the lapse still in progress), we may conclude that the interval between the reception of the news and the composition of the letter must have been comparatively brief.

After a short introduction[7] (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual word of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical vindication[8] of his apostolic independence, which, developed negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main sections in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he drifts over from an account of this interview with Peter into a sort of monologue upon the incompatibility of the Mosaic law with the Christian gospel (ii. 15-21),[9] and this starts him afresh upon a trenchant expostulation and appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding the alternatives of law and spirit. Faith dominates this section; faith in its historical career and as the vantage-ground of Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be merely a provisional episode[10] culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28) as a message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The genuine "sons of Abraham" are not legalistic Jewish Christians but those who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate outburst then follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the apostle essays, with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity over legalism as the free and final religion for men, applying this to the moral situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12). This conception of freedom then leads him to define the moral responsibilities of the faith (v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent misconception and to enforce the claims of the gospel upon the individual and social life of the Galatians. The epilogue (vi. 11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt, emphatic sentences, the main points of the epistle.

The allusion in vi. 11 [Greek: (idete pelikois hymin grammasin egrapsa te eme cheiri)] is to the large bold size[11] of the letters in Paul's handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are matters of dispute. It is "a sensational heading" (Findlay), but it may either refer[12] to the whole epistle (so Augustine, Chrysostom, &c., followed by Zahn) or, as most hold (with Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18). Paul commonly dictated his letters. His use of the autograph here may have been to prevent any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal emphasis of his message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians knew his handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript from a feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize that, after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating them like children, "playfully hinting that surely the large letters will touch their hearts" (so Deissmann, _Bible-Studies_ (1901), 346 f.).

The earliest allusion to the epistle[13] is the notice of its inclusion in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be heard in Justin Martyr's _Dial._ xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known to Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of its popularity multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the Ophites to Irenaeus and the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's _Canon and Text of N.T._, 1907, pp. 201-203). It is no longer necessary for serious criticism to refute the objections to its authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain quarters;[14] as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's commentaries, "to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism." Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion (cf. Tert. _Adv. Marc._ 2-4) removed what he judged to be some interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion's text is more original than the canonical (_Theolog. Tijdschrift_, 1887, 400 f. 451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation in _Die Einheitlichkeit der paulin_. _Briefe_, 1894, pp. 100 f. and Zahn's _Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons_, ii. 409 f.), and little or no weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J.A. Cramer) to disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even D. Volter, who applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, admits that Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a literary unity (_Paulus und seine Briefe_, 1905, pp. 229-285). The frequent roughnesses of the traditional text suggest, however, that here and there marginal glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a ([Greek: to gar Sina oros estin en te Arabia]) probably represents the explanatory and prosaic gloss of a later editor, as many scholars have seen from Bentley (_Opuscula philologica_, 1781, pp. 533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S. Baljon and C. Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and unpremeditated, "one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine and inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, such as may often have been seen by his Galatians" (J. Macgregor). But there is a certain rhythmical balance, especially in the first chapter (cf. J. Weiss, _Beitrage zur paulin. Rhetorik_, 1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere the rush and flow of feeling carry with them some care for rhetorical form, in the shape of antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might more or less unconsciously retain.[15] All through, the letter shows the breaks and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis. Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, are its most characteristic features.[16] The trenchant remonstrances and fiery outbursts make it indeed "read like a dithyramb from beginning to end."

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of more modern editions in English, the most competent
are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and
grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot
(11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall
(_Expositor's Greek Testament_, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in
Ellicott's _Commentary_, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879),
B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (_Pulpit Comment._, 1885), Dr Agar
Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (_Century Bible_), Dr E.H.
Perowne (_Cambridge Bible_, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (_Internat.
Handbooks to N.T._, 1899) also comment on the English text. The
editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their
subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Historical Commentary on
Galatians_ (1899) contains archaeological and historical material
which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor,
those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being
adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by
F. Sieffert (in Meyer's _Comment._, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed.,
1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott
(1834), A. Wieseler (Gottingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859),
J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd
ed., _Hand.-Commentar_, 1892), and Zockler (2nd ed., 1894) may still
be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld's commentary (1852)
discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the
standpoint of Baur's criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed.,
1894) and W. Bousset (_in Die Schriften des N.T._, 2nd ed., 1907) are
more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X.
Reithmayr (1865), A. Schafer (Munster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892,
also in _Cursus scripturae sacrae_, 1907) are the most satisfactory
modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be
forgotten that the 16th century produced the _Literalis expositio_ of
Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona
(Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther
(Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin
and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (_Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u.
Romer Christen_, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter.
For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and
Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably
expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (_Das Evangelium
Paulus_, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (_St Paul's Conception of
Christianity_, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (_Expositor's
Bible_). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (_Galat. und
Apostelgeschichte_, 1882) and M. Thomas (_Melanges d'histoire et de
litt. religieuse_, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H.
Askwith's essay (_Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date_,
1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood
(_Studies in St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_, 1887) criticizes
Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all
biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in
works like Sabatier's _The Apostle Paul_ (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon's
_Story of St Paul_ (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw's _The Pauline Epistles_
(2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, _Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli_
(1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar's _Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum
Galaterbrief_ (1887), to which may be added a series of papers by
Haupt in _Deutsche Evang.-Blatter_ (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183,
238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in the _Zeitschrift fur
wiss. Theologie_ ("Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal." 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866,
pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been
noted in the course of this article. See further under PAUL.
(J. Mt.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which
lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated
in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a
matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent
dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the
archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the
north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia
as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English
reader in P.W. Schmiedel's exhaustive article in _Encycl. Biblica_
(1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert's _Student's Life of Paul_ (1902),
pp. 260-272. Schmiedel's arguments are mainly directed against Sir
W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann,
takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the
controversy (_Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes_, Munster, i. W.,
1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and
Zockler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman,
Prof. Valentine Weber.

[2] The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to
put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with,
if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in _The Date of
St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_ (1906).

[3] It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten,
Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsacker) or whether they
are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and
Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening
of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to
have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians' defection.

[4] Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in
ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).

[5] The critical dubiety about [Greek: oude] in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn's
excursus and Prof. Lake in _Expositor_, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws
a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that
the agitators had quoted Paul's practice as an authoritative sanction
of the rite.

[6] This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word [Greek: oi
dokountes] ("those of repute," ii. 6), while other echoes of their
talk can be overheard in such phrases as "we are Abraham's seed"
(iii. 16), "sinners of Gentiles" (ii. 15) and "Jerusalem which is our
mother" (iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of
"seeking to please men" (i. 10) and "preaching circumcision" (v. 11).

[7] Not only is the address "to the churches of Galatia" unusually
bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was
on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to
concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet the [Greek:
hemeis] of i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.

[8] Cf. Hausrath's _History of the N.T. Times_ (iii. pp. 181-199),
with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that "Paul stands before us like an
ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and
shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to
be called Imperator."

[9] Cf. T.H. Green's _Works_, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the
indirect abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the
apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he
dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.

[10] Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
(cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy
for the evil _yezer_ of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues,
it is an aggravation.

[11] According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
use of his son, [Greek: idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin] (cf.
Field's _Notes on Translation of the New Testament_, p. 191). If the
point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot
have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have
assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2
Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, _Johannine Grammar_, pp. 530-532).

[12] For [Greek: egrapsa], the epistolary aorist, at the close of a
letter, cf. Xen. _Anab._ i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX)
and Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ x.

[13] Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the
later N.T. literature to Galatians (_Die Ursprunglichkeit des
Galaterbriefes_, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of
the literary evidence.

[14] Cf. especially J. Gloe's _Die jungste Kritik des Galaterbriefes_
(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Steck and Loman
(_Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal._,
1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already
referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling's _The Testimony of St Paul to
Christ_ (1905), 28 f.

[15] Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,
_Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_ (1905), pp.
43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into
unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 ([Greek: emoi men
ouk okneron, hymin d' asphales]) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv.
33, a reminiscence of Menander.

[16] This affects even the vocabulary which has also "einen gewissen
vulgaren Zug" (Nageli, _Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus_, 1905,
pp. 78-79).

GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,917 (town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable for the fine Gothic church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, count of Soleto, with a fine portal and rose-window. The interior contains frescoes by Francesco d' Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the fine mausoleum of the son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported by four columns, with his statue beneath it.

GALATZ (_Galatii_), a city of Rumania, capital of the department of Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. W. by N. of its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including 12,000 Jews. The Danube is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. Galatz is built on a slight eminence among the marshes which line the intervening shore and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the shallow mere called Lake Bratych (_Bratesul_), more than 50 sq. m. in extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th century, of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved streets and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every year, the city improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays were constructed along the Danube; electric tramways were opened in the main streets, which were lighted by gas or electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, or north-western part of the city, which is the more open and comfortable, contains many of the chief buildings. These include the prefecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals and the offices of the international commission for the control of the Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at Galatz. There are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and other churches; the most interesting being the cathedral, and St Mary's church, in which is the tomb of the famous Cossack chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been rifled of its contents by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and the headquarters of the III. army corps, protected by a line of fortifications which extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as the Sereth line. But the main importance of the city is commercial. Galatz is the chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three waterways, the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways which intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, machinery, and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a large trade in petroleum and salt, Galatz ranks first among Rumanian cities in its export of timber, and second to Braila in its export of grain. It possesses many saw-mills, paste-mills, flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and petroleum refineries; manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap and candles. Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but cargoes consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the principal owners being British.

GALAXY, properly the MILKY WAY, from the Greek name [Greek: ho galaxias], sc. [Greek: kyklos], from [Greek: gala], milk, cf. the Lat. _via lactea_ (see STAR). The word is more generally employed in its figurative or transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant or distinguished persons or objects.

GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general and orator. He served under Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian War. As praetor in 151 B.C. in farther Spain he made himself infamous by the treacherous murder of a number of Lusitanians, with their wives and children, after inducing them to surrender by the promise of grants of land. For this in 149 he was brought to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by holding up his little children before the people to gain their sympathy. He was consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in Cicero's opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His speeches, however, were almost forgotten in Cicero's time.

Livy xlv. 35; Appian, _Hisp._ 58-60; Cicero, _De orat._ i. 53, iii. 7;
Brutus 21.

GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman emperor (June A.D. 68 to January 69), born near Terracina, on the 24th of December 5 B.C. He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, _Annals_, vi. 20; Suetonius, _Galba_, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany, Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the first half of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68 Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived Galba's spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the senate and Roman people; after the murder of Nero, he assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. At first he was welcomed by the senate and the party of order, but he was never popular with the soldiers or the people. He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by scornfully refusing to pay them the reward promised in his name, and disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of Germany, who demanded that the senate should choose another emperor, first made him aware of his own unpopularity and the general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a sign of fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to meet the rebels--he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter--was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near the Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been emperor ("omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset").

See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 7-49;
Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, _Civil War and
Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70_ (1908); W.A. Spooner, _On
the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius_ in Introd. to his edition
(1891) of the _Histories_ of Tacitus.

GALBANUM (Heb. _Helbenah_; Gr. [Greek: chalbane]), a gum-resin, the product of _Ferula galbaniflua_, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps also of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% of terpene; about 65% of a resin which contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a very small quantity of the colourless crystalline substance _umbelliferone_, C9H6O3. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In Exodus xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the making of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in medicine, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that "the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill a serpent." The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolescent.

GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, Kohistan and Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, are identified with the _Calcienses populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goes, who crossed the Pamir in 1603 and described them as "of light hair and beard like the Belgians." The word "Galcha," which has been explained as meaning "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably simply the Persian _galcha_, "clown" or "rustic," in reference to their uncouth manners. The Galchas conform physically to what has been called the "Alpine or Celtic European race," so much so that French anthropologists have termed them "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks, black, chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, never oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face and round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The Galchas for the most part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.

See Robert Shaw, "On the Galtchah Languages," in _Journ. As. Soc.
Bengal_, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of
the Hindoo-Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, _An
Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_ (1815); _Bull. de la societe
d'anthropologie de Paris_ (1887); Charles Eugene D'Ujfalvy de
Mezoe-Koevesd, _Les Aryens_ (1896), and in _Revue d'anthropologie_
(1879), and _Bull. de la soc. de geogr._ (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,
_Races of Europe_ (New York, 1899).

GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist divine, was born in 1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where his father was vicar. In 1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor of his college. He remained some years at Oxford, discharging actively the duties of tutor, and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester cathedral. In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and was ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, returning to England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he passed in London as assistant to John Rowe, an Independent minister who had charge of an important church in Holborn; Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in the following year. His principal work, _The Court of the Gentiles_, which appeared in parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse of miscellaneous philosophical learning. It resembles the _Intellectual System_ of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work both in general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's endeavour (based on a hint of Grotius in _De veritate_, i. 16) is to prove that the whole philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or mangled reproduction of Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth referred the Democritean doctrine of atoms to Moses as the original author, so Gale tries to show that the various systems of Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. Like so many of the learned works of the 17th century, the _Court of the Gentiles_ is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical discrimination.

His other writings are: _A True Idea of Jansenism_ (1669); _Theophil,
or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ_ (1671);
_Anatomie of Infidelitie_ (1672); _Idea theologiae_ (1673);
_Philosophia generalis_ (1676).

GALE, THOMAS (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and antiquarian, was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In 1666 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high master of St Paul's school, in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York on the 7th (or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, _Opuscula mythologica, ethica, et physica_, and editions of several Greek and Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old works bearing on Early English history, entitled _Historiae Anglicanae scriptores_ and _Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae, Anglo-Danicae scriptores XV_. He was the author of the inscription on the London Monument in which the Roman Catholics were accused of having originated the great fire.

See J.E.B. Mayor, _Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne_, 448-450.

GALE. 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from Dan. _gal_, mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense of boisterous) a wind of considerable power, considerably stronger than a breeze, but not severe enough to be called a storm. In nautical language it is usually combined with some qualifying word, as "half a gale," a "stiff gale." In poetical and figurative language "gale" is often used in a pleasant sense, as in "favouring gale"; in America, it is used in a slang sense for boisterous or excited behaviour.

2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; a "hanging gale" is an arrear of rent left over after each successive "gale" or rent day. The term survives in the Forest of Dean, for leases granted to the "free miners" of the forest, granted by the "gaveller" or agent of the crown, and the term is also applied to the royalty paid to the crown, and to the area mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. Eng. _gafol_, which survives in "gavel," in gavelkind (q.v.), and in the name of the office mentioned above. The root from which these words derive is that of "give." Through Latinized forms it appears in _gabelle_ (q.v.).

3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or gaul, sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of the word is _gagel_. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub found on bogs and moors in the British Islands, and widely distributed in the north temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked leaves and inconspicuous, apetalous, unisexual flowers borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like fruit is attached to the persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea and as a country medicine. John Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1228) describes it as sweet willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The genus _Myrica_ is the type of a small, but widely distributed order, _Myricaceae_, which is placed among the apetalous families of Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow family. _Myrica cerifera_ is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree (q.v.).

GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (1606-1678), prince bishop of Munster, belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and was born on the 12th of October 1606. Reduced to poverty through the loss of his paternal inheritance, he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him from fighting on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the concluding stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1650 he succeeded Ferdinand of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Munster. After restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, Galen had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of the citizens of Munster; but at length this was crushed, and the bellicose bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an important personage in Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of the directors of the imperial army raised to fight the Turk; and after the peace which followed the Christian victory at St Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English king Charles II. in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of Louis XIV. and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to make a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again attacked Holland six years later he was in alliance with Louis, but he soon deserted his new friend, and fought for the emperor Leopold I. against France. Afterwards in conjunction with Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of Sweden, and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the 19th of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform the church, but his chief energies were directed to increasing his power and prestige.

See K. Tucking, _Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C.B. von Galen_
(Munster, 1865); P. Corstiens, _Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van
Munster_ (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Husing, _Furstbischof C.B. von Galen_
(Munster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the _English Historical Review_,
vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in
1666, entitled _Letter to the bishop of Munster containing a
Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse_.

GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer and other writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of ancient medical writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about A.D. 130. His father Nicon, from whom he received his early education, is described as remarkable both for excellence of natural disposition and for mental culture; his mother, on the other hand, appears to have been a second Xanthippe. In 146 Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his twentieth year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and of the peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited other cities, and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. A few years later he went for the first time to Rome. There he healed Eudemus, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, and other persons of distinction; and ere long, by his learning and unparalleled success as a physician, earned for himself the titles of "Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and "Paradoxopoeus," the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and envy of his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in Venetia, by the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In 170 he returned to Rome with the latter, who, on departing thence to conduct the war on the Danube, having with difficulty been persuaded to dispense with his personal attendance, appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. In Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his reputation as a physician, and writing some of his most important treatises. It would appear that he eventually betook himself to Pergamus, after spending some time at the island of Lemnos, where he learned the method of preparing a certain popular medicine, the "terra lemnia" or "sigillata." Whether he ever revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are the time and place of his death. According to Suidas, he died at the age of seventy, or in the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, however, we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one of the most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He composed, it is said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, including logic, ethics and grammar. Of the published works attributed to him, 83 are recognized as genuine, 19 are of doubtful authenticity, 45 are confessedly spurious, 19 are fragments, and 15 are notes on the writings of Hippocrates.

Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic philosophy, was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the numerous commentaries and original treatises, a catalogue of which is given in his work _De propriis libris_, one only has come down to us, the treatise on _Fallacies in dictione_ ([Greek: Peri ton kata ten lexin sophismaton]). Many points of logical theory, however, are discussed in his medical and scientific writings. His name is perhaps best known in the history of logic in connexion with the fourth syllogistic figure, the first distinct statement of which was ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no evidence from Galen's own works that he did make this addition to the doctrines of syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides Minas from a Greek commentator on the _Analytics_, referring the fourth figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, as generally supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an amplification or alteration of the indirect moods of the first figure already noted by Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.

In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the superscription _Galenus_, entitled [Greek: Galenou eisagoge dialektike]. Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth figure, and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of the Aristotelian and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest contempt. He shows demonstratively that it cannot be regarded as a writing of Galen's, and ascribes it to some one or other of the later Greek logicians. A full summary of its contents will be found in the 1st vol. of the _Geschichte der Logik_ (pp. 591-610), and a notice of the logical theories of the true Galen in the same work, pp. 559-577.

There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's
works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo.
Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston,
Caspar Hoffman, Rene Chartier, Haller and Kuhn. Of Latin translations
Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following
century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.;
at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by Rene
Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in
1821-1833, by C.G. Kuhn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An
epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R.
Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen's
smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Muller and G. Helmreich was
published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909.

Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and
medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles
under the headings of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. See also Rene Chartier's
Life, in his edition of Galen's works; N.F.J. Eloy, _Dictionnaire
historique de la medecine_, s.v. "Galien," tom. i. (1778); F. Adams's
"Commentary" in his _Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta_ (London and
Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, "A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen,
so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology," _Trans. Provincial
Med. and Surg. Assoc._ vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg,
_Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l'anatomie, la physiologie
et la pathologie du systeme nerveux_ (These pour le Doctorat en
Medecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, "The Practical Medicine of
Galen and his Time," _The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
Rev._, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, "Die Schriften des
Claudius Galenos," _Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie_, 1889, 1892 and
1896.

GALENA, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena (formerly the Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, about 165 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom 918 were foreign-born; (1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways; the Galena river has been made navigable by government locks at the mouth of the river, but the river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky limestone bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, and a number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General U.S. Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the Civil War. In the vicinity there are the most important deposits of zinc and lead in the state, and the city derives its name from the deposits of sulphide of lead (galena), which were the first worked about here; below the galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or smithsonite) ores, which was the main zone worked between 1860 and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende, or zinc sulphide, now the principal source of the mineral wealth of the region. The production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is unimportant. The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery, flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is afforded by the river. Galena was originally a trading post, called by the French "La Pointe" and by the English "Fever River," the river having been named after le Fevre, a French trader who settled near its mouth. In 1826 Galena was laid out as a town and received its present name; it was incorporated in 1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre was opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father of the celebrated actor of that name.

GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the extreme S.E. part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring river. Pop. (1890) 2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were negroes and 251 were foreign-born; (1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. It is situated at the intersection of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis ("Frisco System") railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region, extremely valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in 1877. Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing establishments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former S. of Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated in 1877, and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.

GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide (PbS). The mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, and it is sometimes now known as lead-glance (Ger. _Bleiglanz_). It crystallizes in the cubic system, and well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; the usual form is the cube or the cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important character, and one by which the mineral may always be recognized, is the perfect cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is brilliant and metallic. The colour of the mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; it is opaque; the hardness is 2-1/2 and the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned crystals are not common, but the presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by fine striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure are of common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such masses present a spangled appearance owing to the numerous bright cleavages.

The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur 13.4%. The mineral nearly always contains a small amount of silver, and sometimes antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, &c. Argentiferous galena is an important source of silver; this metal is present in amounts rarely exceeding 1%, and often less than 0.03% (equivalent to 10-3/4 ounces per ton). Since argentite (Ag2S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable that the silver isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that native silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.