Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

[1] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Galeria," suggests an origin from
_galera_, a galley, on the analogy of "nave," from _navis_, the
galley being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, _alii alia
opinantur_.

GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. _galee_, _galie_, from the Med. Lat. _galea_, Ital. _galea_, Port. _gale_, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form _galera_ are derived the Mod. Fr. _galere_, Span. and Ital. _galera_), a long single or half decked vessel of war, with low free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps; but also having masts for sails. The word is used generally of the ancient war vessels of Greece and Rome of various types, whose chief propelling power was the oar or sweep, but its more specific application is to the medieval war vessel which survived in the navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers after the general adoption of the larger many-decked ship of war, propelled solely by sail-power. Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval battle in which the galley played the principal part. The "galleass" or "galliass" (Med. Lat. _galeasea_, Ital. _galeazza_, an augmented form of _galea_) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually carried three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated structure. The "galliot" (O. Fr. _galiot_, Span. and Port. _galeota_, Ital. _galeotta_, a diminutive of _galea_) was a small light type of galley. The "galleon" (formerly in English "galloon," Fr. _galion_, derived from the Med. Lat. _galio_, _galionis_, a derivative of _galea_) was a sailing ship of war and trade, shorter than the galley and standing high out of the water with several decks, chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th century in the carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or sweeps varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men. This labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves or prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to sentence condemned criminals to row in the war galleys of the state. Traces of this in France can be found as early as 1532, but the first legislative enactment is in the _Ordonnance d'Orleans_ of 1561. In 1564 Charles IX. forbade the sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less than ten years. The galley-slaves were branded with the letters _Gal._ At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war purposes had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the galleys and of the convict rowers (_galeriens_) was at Marseilles. The majority of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others were sent to Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work in the arsenal. At Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on the galleys, which were moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore prisons were, however, provided for them, known as _bagnes_, baths, a name given to such penal establishments first by the Italians (_bagno_), and said to have been derived from the prison at Constantinople situated close by or attached to the great baths there. The name _galerien_ was still given to all convicts, though the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the French Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed to _forcat_. In Spain _galera_ is still used for a criminal condemned to penal servitude.

A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
Jean Marteilhes's _Memoirs of a Protestant_, translated by Oliver
Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of one
of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes.

GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. _Cis_, on this side, i.e. of the Alps), in ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of Liguria and Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited by various Celtic and other peoples, of whom the Celts were in continual hostility to Rome. In early times it was bounded on the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in Caesar's time by Liguria and the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War (203 B.C.) these tribes were severely punished by the Roman generals for the assistance they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district into two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was made directly subject to the government at Rome, while the northern portion was put under a distinct authority, probably similar to the usual transmarine commands (see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, Eng. trans., bk. iv. c. 10).

For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
district see ITALY (ancient), and ROME: _History, Ancient_.

GALLIC ACID, trioxybenzoic acid (HO)3(3.4.5.)C6H2CO2H.H2O, the _acidum gallicum_ of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K. W. Scheele; it occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate root-bark, in tea, in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%, and in other vegetable productions. It may be prepared by keeping moist and exposed to the air for from four to six weeks, at a temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C., a paste of powdered gall-nuts and water, and removing from time to time the mould which forms on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water, the hot solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic acid drained, and purified by dissolving in boiling water, recrystallization at about 27 deg. C., and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water. The production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol and ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced by heating an aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It crystallizes in white or pale fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky needles, and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold and 3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200 deg. C., and at 210 deg. to 215 deg. it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol, C6H3(OH)3. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an insoluble, blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except in alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown. Solution of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid, gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids, or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phosphorus oxychloride at 120 deg. C. gallic acid yields tannic acid, and with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100 deg., _rufigallic acid_, C14H8O8, an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic acid, convert it into _ellagic acid_, C14H8O9 + H2O, probably a fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably in many plants, and composes the "bezoar stones" found in the intestines of Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid has been, and is still, largely used as an astringent, styptic and haemostatic. Gallic acid, however, does not coagulate albumen and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So far is it from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutralization in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote actions.

GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories maintaining that the church and king of France had ecclesiastical rights of their own, independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction of the pope. Gallicanism had two distinct sides, a constitutional and a dogmatic, though both were generally held together, the second serving as the logical basis of the first. And neither is intelligible, except in relation to the rival theory of Ultramontanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that the church's infallible authority was committed to pope and bishops jointly. The pope decided in the first instance, but his judgments must be tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops before they had the force of law. This ancient theory survived much longer in France than in other Catholic countries. Hence the name of Gallican is loosely given to all its modern upholders, whether of French nationality or not. Constitutional Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state in France. It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the theocratic pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power directly of God; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to become a reality, the Gallican theory became of great importance. It was elaborated, and connected with dogmatic Gallicanism, by the famous theologian, Edmond Richer (1559-1631), and finally incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that the temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient liberties of the Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible teaching authority of the church belongs to pope and bishops jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome, and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines continued to be largely held. They were asserted in an extreme form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which almost severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802 Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs. Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French governments continued to uphold two of the ancient "Gallican Liberties." The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs whenever the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and papal bulls were not allowed to be published without the leave of the state. (See also FEBRONIANISM.) (St. C.)

GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849- ), French soldier and colonial administrator, was born at Saint-Beat, in the department of Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military academy of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the Marines, becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He saw service in the Franco-German War, and between 1877 and 1881 took an important part in the explorations and military expeditions by which the French dominion was extended in the basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly valuable service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu, almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce on the upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the Societe de Geographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed in Martinique. On the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and on the 20th of December was nominated governor of Upper Senegal. He obtained several successes against Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory to agree to a treaty by which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger (see SENEGAL: _History_). In connexion with his service in West Africa, Gallieni published two works--_Mission d'exploration du Haut-Niger, 1879-1881_ (Paris, 1885), and _Deux Campagnes au Sudan francais_ (Paris, 1891)--which, besides possessing great narrative interest, give information of considerable value in regard to the resources and topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of colonel, and from 1893 to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding the second military division of the territory. In 1899 he published his experiences in _Trois Colonnes au Tonkin_. In 1896 Madagascar was made a French colony, and Gallieni was appointed resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to governor-general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out against the French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni succeeded in completing the subjugation of the island. He also turned his attention to the destruction of the political supremacy of the Hovas and the restoration of the autonomy of the other tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle, Ratsimamanga, and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior, in October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in 1897, on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova hegemony, and made an end of Hova intrigues against French rule. The task of government was one of considerable difficulty. The application of the French customs and other like measures, disastrous to British and American trade, were matters for which Gallieni was not wholly responsible. His policy was directed to the development of the economic resources of the island and was conciliatory towards the non-French European population. He also secured for the Protestants religious liberty. In 1899 he published a _Rapport d'ensemble sur la situation generale de Madagascar_. In 1905, when he resigned the governorship, Madagascar enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In 1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army corps and military government of Lyons. He reviewed the results of his Madagascar administration in a book entitled _Neuf Ans a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1908).

GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, Roman emperor from A.D. 260 to 268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about 218. From 253 to 260 he reigned conjointly with his father, during which time he gave proof of military ability and bravery. But when his father was taken prisoner by Shapur I. of Persia, in 260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his release, or to withstand the incursions of the invaders who threatened the empire from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of their military and provincial commands, which were transferred to equites. During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful pestilence; and the chief cities of Greece were sacked by the Goths, who descended on the Greek coast with a fleet of five hundred. His generals rebelled against him in almost every province of the empire, and this period of Roman history came to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless, these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians. Gallienus was killed at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while besieging Aureolus, who was proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian legions. His sons Valerianus and Saloninus predeceased him.

Life by Trebellius Pollio in _Script. Hist. Aug._; on coins see
articles in _Numism. Zeit._ (1908) and _Riv. ital. d. num._ (1908).

GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE, MARQUIS DE, Prince de Martignes (1830-1909), French general, was born in Paris on the 23rd of January 1830. He entered the army in 1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in 1853, and served with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in the Italian campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a time he served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded. When he returned to France to recover from his wounds he was entrusted with the task of presenting the captured standards and colours to the emperor, and was promoted _chef d'escadrons_. He went again to Algeria in 1864, took part in expeditions against the Arabs, returned to Mexico as lieutenant-colonel, and, after winning further distinction, became in 1867 colonel of the 3rd Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71 he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At the battle of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in the heroic charge of General Margueritte's cavalry division, which extorted the admiration of the old king of Prussia. Made prisoner of war at the capitulation, he returned to France during the siege of Paris by the French army of Versailles, and commanded a brigade against the Communists. In the suppression of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly, and on that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army, made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the chamber of deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna subdivision of Algeria, and commanded an expedition against El Golea, surmounting great difficulties in a rapid march across the desert, and inflicting severe chastisement on the revolted tribes. On the general reorganization of the army he commanded the 31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of division in 1875, he successively commanded the 15th infantry division at Dijon, the IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps at Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive years, and attained a European reputation on all cavalry questions, and, indeed, as an army commander. Decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1887, he received the military medal for his able conduct of the autumn manoeuvres in 1891, and after again commanding at the manoeuvres of 1894 he retired from the active list. Afterwards he took an important part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899 to 29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet, and distinguished himself by the firmness with which he dealt with cases of unrest in the army, but he then retired into private life, and died on the 8th of July 1909.

GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally LUCIUS ANNAEUS NOVATUS), son of the rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher, was born at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of the Christian era. At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a rhetorician of some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio. His brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises _De Ira_ and _De Vita Beata_, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded to by the poet Statius (_Silvae_, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned together to Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to Nero. Towards the close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was proconsul of the newly constituted senatorial province of Achaea, but seems to have been compelled by ill-health to resign the post within a few years. During his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed the charge brought by the Jews against the apostle Paul (Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion ("But Gallio cared for none of these things") shows the impartial attitude of the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days. He survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death by order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.

Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M.
Ramsay, _St Paul the Traveller_, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings' _Dict.
of the Bible_ (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given by
Anatole France in _Sur la pierre blanche_.

GALLIPOLI (anc. _Callipolis_), a seaport town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by rail, 46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune, 13,459. It is situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of Taranto, but is united to the mainland by a bridge, protected by a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifications have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine, however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.

The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its name ("beautiful city") shows. It is hardly mentioned in ancient times. Pliny tells us that in his time it was known as Anxa. It lay a little off the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, but was reached by a branch from Aletium (the site is marked by the modern church of S. Maria della Lizza), among the ruins of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no Latin ones, have been found. (T. As.)

GALLIPOLI (Turk. _Gelibolu_, anc. [Greek: Kallipolis]), a seaport and city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula 132 m. W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in 40 deg. 24' N. and 26 deg. 40' 30" E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly opposite is Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is here about 2 m. wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; its streets are narrow and dirty, and many of its houses are built of wood, although there are a few better structures, occupied by the foreign residents and the richer class of Turkish citizens. The only noteworthy buildings are the large, crowded and well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are several mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman and Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor Justinian (483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to Bayezid I. (1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly called the tombs of the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built on a cliff, has a fine appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. Gallipoli is the seat of a Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, and is the principal station for the Turkish fleet. From its position as the key of the Dardanelles, it was occupied by the allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the isthmus a few miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was fortified with strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly on the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the Russians threatening to take possession of Constantinople. The peninsula thus isolated by the fortified positions has the Gulf of Saros on the N.W., and extends some 50 m. S.W. The guns of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the strait joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.

The district (_sanjak_) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and comprises four _kazas_ (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its excellent cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, noted for its cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and canary seed; (3) Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi (Peristeri) on the coast of the Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the neighbourhood formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and largely exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however, amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit of the viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and replanted their lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture their occupation.

There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli itself, except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line of railway between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been prejudicial to the transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts have been made to obtain concessions for the construction of a railway that would connect this port with the Turkish railway system. Steamers to and from Constantinople call regularly. In 1904 the total value of the exports was L80,000. Wheat and maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to Turkish ports on the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great Britain; canary seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. Semolina and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, principally sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople and Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from Germany and Austria. These goods are imported through Constantinople. Cordage is chiefly obtained from Servia. Other imports are fuel, iron and groceries.

The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th century B.C. At an early date it became a Christian bishopric, and in the middle ages developed into a great commercial city, with a population estimated at 100,000. It was fortified by the East Roman emperors owing to its commanding strategic position and its valuable trade with Greece and Italy. In 1190 the armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into the power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force in the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, established themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their leader massacred almost all the citizens; they were vainly besieged by the allied troops of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew in 1307, after dismantling the fortifications. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded Europe, and Gallipoli was the first city to fall into their power. The Venetians under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.

GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) 5560. It is served by the Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, and (at Gallipolis Ferry, West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the Baltimore & Ohio railway. The city is built on a level site several feet above the river's high-water mark. It has a United States marine hospital and a state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's manufactures are lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was settled in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received worthless deeds to lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, founded by Col. William Duer (1747-1799) and others in 1787 and officially organized in 1789 as the Compagnie du Scioto in Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his associates abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen. This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for the use of about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the Scioto, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option only. The dishonesty of those who conducted the sales in France, the unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and the failure of Duer and his associates to meet their contract with the Ohio Company, caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790, and two subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about 150,000 acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and in October 1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained for two months at Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of Gallipolis, where rude huts had been built for them. This land, however, fell within the limits of the tract bought outright by the Ohio Company, which sold it to the Scioto Company, and to which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto Company to pay. In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United States, decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were legally vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company sold to the French settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they occupied and adjacent improved lots, and the United States government granted to them 24,000 acres in the southern part of what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this land (still known as the "French Grant"), however, was ever occupied by them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was first chartered as a city in 1865.

See Theodore T. Belote, _The Scioto Speculation and the French
Settlement at Gallipolis_ (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No.
3 of the _University Studies_ of the University of Cincinnati.

GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840), American Roman Catholic priest, called "The Apostle of the Alleghanies," was born at the Hague on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.), the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin (1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748-1806), until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown, Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such misdirected zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his father's death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia "by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession"; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest, who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin's "great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable purposes, contracted." In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: _A Defence of Catholic Principles_ (1816), _Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures_ (1820), _Appeal to the Protestant Public_ (1834), and _Six Letters of Advice_ (1834), in reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.

See Sarah M. Brownson, _Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest_
(New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing in
_American Catholic Records_ (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October 1886,
pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton in _The
Gallitzin Memorandum Book_, in _American Catholic Historical Society
of Philadelphia, Records_, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.

GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (_Comptes rendus_, 1875, 81, p. 493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeleeff (c. 1869) from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see ELEMENT). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, and precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30.15 deg. C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5.956 (24.5 deg. C.), of the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0.079 (12-23 deg. C.) and for the liquid 0.082 (106-119 deg.) [M. Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and K. Seubert.

_Gallium oxide_ Ga2O3 is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish mass
which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium forms
colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are
converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are
precipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not
by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium
ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In
neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By
heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the _dichloride_
GaCl2 is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164 deg. C.
and readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride GaCl3
is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream of
chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of
nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at
75.5 deg. C. and boiling at 215-220 deg. C. The bromide, iodide and
sulphate are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best
detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines
of wave length 4171 and 4031.

GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. _galon_, Central Fr. _jalon_, and was Latinized as _galo_ and _galona_. It appears to be connected with the modern French _jale_, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without much plausibility to Gr. [Greek: gaulos], a milk pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub. in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard gallon of the United States.

GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a "Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council, elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have such "rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of Commons of Great Britain"; the president-general and grand council were to be "an inferior distinct branch of the British legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the grand council and of the British parliament was to be "requisite to the validity of all ... general acts or statutes," except that "in time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared by the grand council and approved by the president-general, shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the British parliament." The individual colonies, however, were to retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at L40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, "shared with Thomas Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen opposed to the Revolution."

Among his pamphlets are _A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of
Great Britain and the Colonies_ (1775); _Historical and Political
Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion_
(1780); _Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
American Independence_ (1780); and _The Claim of the American
Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of
Law and Justice_ (1788).

See Thomas Balch (Ed.), _The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a
Committee of the House of Commons_ (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H.
Baldwin, _Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician_ (New Haven, 1903);
and M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2
vols., New York, 1897).

GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is "On the Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was published in the _Phil. Trans._, 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and also wrote several scientific papers for the _Edinburgh Review_ and various scientific journals. His _Encyclopaedia_ article, "Probability," was published separately.

See _Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (1852).

GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the _Novantia_ of the Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE.

GALLOWS[1] (a common Teutonic word--cf. Goth. _galga_, O.H. Ger. _galgo_, Mod. Ger. _Galgen_, A.S. _galzan_, &c.--of uncertain origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible "gallows" was used for the cross on which Christ suffered (so _galga_ in Ulfilas's Gothic Testament).[2] Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather.

According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set apart for the purpose inside the gaol.

The word "gibbet," the Fr. _gibet_, gallows, which appears in the first instance to have meant a crooked stick,[3] was originally used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet" for any holding up to public infamy or contempt.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The word "gallows" is the plural of a word (_galwe_, _galowe_,
_gallow_) which, according to the _New English Dictionary_, was
occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th
century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of
"a gallows," and, in the older form, of "a pair of gallows," this
referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century
onwards "gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a
new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. "The latter, though
not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to
be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in
commonly evaded" (_New Eng. Dict._ s.v. "Gallows").

[2] In Med. Lat. "gallows" was translated by _furia_ and _patibulum_,
both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of
punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. _Furia_, in
feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major
jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.

[3] Cf. Wace, _Roman de Rou_, iii. 8349:

"Et il a le gibet saisi
Qui a son destre braz pendi."

GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous insects of the genus _Oestrus_. Signor Moriggia[1] has described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of the human hand, which was caused by _Acarus domesticus_. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation." For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the "stimulus" and the "supporter of the stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly _Nematus gallicola_ are found on four different species of willow, _Salix fragilis_, _S. alba_, _S. caprea_ and _S. cinerea_;[2] and the galls of a Cynipid, _Biorhiza aptera_, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured also from the deodar.[3] Often the gall bears no visible resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less modified special organs of the plant. The gall of _Cecidomyia strobilina_, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth, seed-shaped gall of the American _Cynips seminator_, Harris, according to W.F. Bassett,[4] is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid, _Rhodites rosae_, represents leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the "artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by _Aphilothrix gemmae_, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.[5] E. Newman held the view that many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.[6] Galls vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The polythalamous gall of _Aphilothrix radicis_, found on the roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls of another Cynipid, _Andricus occultus_, Tschek,[7] which occurs on the male flowers of _Quercus sessiliflora_, is 2 millimetres, or barely a line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the oak-leaf hairy galls of _Spathegaster tricolor_, which are of a crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others lenticular. The "knoppern" galls of _Cynips polycera_, Gir., are cones having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, "some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs."[8] The characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American willow, _Salix humilis_, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the growing larva.[9]

Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (_Cynips_ and its allies), which infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect insect, tunnels its way,--usually in autumn, though sometimes, as has been observed of some individuals of _Cynips Kollari_, after hibernation.

Among the commoner of the galls of the _Cynipidae_ are the "oak-apple" or "oak-sponge" of _Andricus terminalis_, Fab.; the "currant" or "berry galls" of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., above mentioned; and the "oak-spangles" of _Neuroterus lenticularis_,[10] Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith,[11] and the succulent "cherry-galls" of _Dryophanta scutellaris_, Oliv. The "marble" or "Devonshire woody galls" of oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced by _Cynips Kollari_,[12] already alluded to. They were first introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in several parts of Scotland.[13] They contain about 17% of tannin.[14] On account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets. The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls,[15] produced on a species of oak by _Cynips insana_, Westw., have been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (_mala insana_), or apples of Sodom (_poma sodomitica_), alluded to by Josephus and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (_Bibl. Researches in Palestine_, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular fruit called by the Arabs _'Osher_, produced by the _Asclepias gigantea_ or _procera_ of botanists. What in California are known as "flea seeds" are oak-galls made by a species of _Cynips_; in August they become detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.[16]