Chapter XV: Part 15

During the 17th and 18th centuries, while the Romanist majority of the Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva as even a subordinate member of the Confederation, the city itself was distracted on several occasions by attempts of the citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in the aristocratic government of the town, though these attempts were only partially successful. But the last half of the 18th century marks the most brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding half century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is remarkable. In 1794 the effects of the French Revolution were shown in the more liberal constitution granted by the city government. But in 1798 the city was annexed to France and became the capital of the French department of Léman (to be carefully distinguished from the Swiss _canton_ of Léman, that is Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in 1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was suppressed. On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered its independence, and finally, in 1815, was received as the junior member of the Swiss confederation, several bits of French and Savoyard territory (as pointed out above) being added to the narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic in order to give the town some protection against its non-Swiss neighbours.

The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government for the city and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal independence till the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798 public worship according to the Romanist form had been strictly forbidden. In 1799 already the first attempts were made to reestablish it, and in 1803 the church of St Germain was handed over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814, looking forward to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city territory to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom of worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819 the canton (the new portions of which were inhabited mainly by Romanists) was annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the bishop in 1821 being authorized to add "and of Geneva" to his episcopal style. After the adventure of the "Escalade" the fortifications were once more strengthened and extended, these works being completed about 1726. But, in 1822, some of the bastions were converted into promenades, while in 1849 the rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the city to expand and gradually assume its present aspect.

When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a new constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary, for there is no mention in it of the sovereignty of the people. It set up a _conseil représentatif_ or legislature of 250 members, which named the _conseil d'état_ or executive, while it was itself elected by a limited class, for the electoral qualification was the annual payment of direct taxes to the amount of 20 Swiss livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till 1842 that this system, though much criticized, was modified. In the early part of 1841 the "Third of March Association" was formed to watch over the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon an _assemblée constituante_, which in 1842 elaborated a new constitution that was accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing on the city a government distinct from that of the canton, it set up for the latter a _grand conseil_ or legislature, and a conseil _d'état_ or executive of 13 members, both elected for the term of 4 years. But this constitution did not seem liberal enough to many citizens, so that in 1846 the government gave way to the Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a constitution that was accepted by a popular vote on the 21st of May 1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its main features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals ruled the state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though extravagant and inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the town was modernized and developed, but the finances were badly administered, and Fazy became more and more a radical dictator. "On voudrait faire de Genève," sighed the conservative, de la Rive, "la plus petite des grandes villes, et pour moi je préfère qu'elle reste la plus grande des petites villes." In 1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the _conseil d'état_, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops were forced to intervene so as to restore order.

The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865 to 1870, and did much to improve the finances of the state. In 1870 the Radicals regained the supremacy under their new chief, Antoine Carteret (1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This was a period of religious strife, due to the irritation caused by the Vatican council, and the pope's attempt to revive the bishopric of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod (1824-1891) was named in 1864 _curé_ of Geneva, and made bishop of Hebron _in partibus_, acting as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne. Early in 1873 the pope named him "vicar apostolic of Geneva," but he was expelled a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till 1883, when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal in 1890. The Radical government enacted severe laws as to the Romanists in Geneva, and gave privileges to the Christian Catholic Church, which, organized in 1874 in Switzerland, had absorbed the community founded at Geneva by Père Hyacinthe, an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no longer recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways, though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats ruled from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the "Referendum" (1879) into the cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the separation of church and state having been rejected by the people at a vote, they gave way to the Radicals. The Radicals went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the reins of power till 1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they introduced the "Initiative" into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892 the principle of proportional representation so far as regards the _grand conseil_, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in again, their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1902) till his death, and then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James and an excellent historian. They attempted to rule by aid of the Socialists, but their power fluctuated as the demands of the Socialists became greater. On the 30th of June 1907 the Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation of Church and State.

AUTHORITIES.--D. Baud-Bovy, _Peintres genevois, 1702-1807_ (2 vols.,
Geneva, 1903-1904); J.T. de Belloc, _Le Cardinal Mermillod_ (Fribourg,
1892): M. Besson, Recherches _sur les origines des évêchés de Genève,
Lausanne et Sion_ (Fribourg, 1906); J.D. Blavignac, Armorial genevois
(Geneva, 1849), and _Études sur Genève depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos
jours_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr. Bonivard, _Chroniques de
Genève_ (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867); F. Borel, _Les Foires de
Genève au XV^e siècle_ (Geneva, 1892); Ch. Borgeaud, _Histoire de
l'université de Genève, 1559-1798_ (Geneva, 1900); E. Choisy, _La
Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, 1898), and _L'État
chrétien Calviniste à Genève au temps de Théodore de Bèze_ (Geneva,
1902); F. de Crue, _La Guerre féodale de Genève et l'établissement de
la Commune, 1205-1320_ (Geneva, 1907); H. Denkinger, _Histoire
populaire du canton de Genève_ (Geneva, 1905); E. Doumergue, _La
Genève Calviniste_ (containing a minute topographical description of
16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii. of the author's _Jean
Calvin_) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, _Les Relations politiques de
Genève avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 à 1564_ (Geneva, 1894);
_Documents de l'Escalade de Genève_ (Geneva, 1903); G. Fatio and F.
Boissonnas, _La Campagne genevoise d'après nature_ (Geneva, 1899), and
_Genève à travers les siècles_ (Geneva, 1900); H. Fazy, _Histoire de
Genève à l'époque de l'Escalade, 1598-1603_ (Geneva, 1902), and _Les
Constitutions de la République de Genève_ (to 1847) (Geneva, 1890);
J.B.G. Galiffe, _Genève historique et archéologique_ (2 vols., Geneva,
1869-1872); J.A. Gautier, _Histoire de Genève_ (to 1691) (6 vols.,
1896-1903); F. Gribble and J.H. and M.H. Lewis, _Geneva_ (London,
1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Genève (new ed.; Geneva, 1889); C.
Martin, _La Maison de Ville de Genève_ (Geneva, 1906); _Mémoires et
documents_ (publ. by the local Historical Society since 1821); F.
Mugnier, _Les Évêques de Genève-Annecy, 1535-1870_ (Paris, 1888);
_Pierre de Genève, St_ (monograph on the cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva,
1891-1899); A. de Montet, _Dictionnaire biographique des Genevois,
&c._ (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878); C.L. Perrin, _Les Vieux Quartiers de
Genève_ (Geneva, 1904); A. Pfleghart, _Die schweizerische
Uhrenindustrie_ (Leipzig, 1908); _Régeste genevois avant 1312_
(Geneva, 1866); _Registres du conseil de Genève_, vols. i. and ii.,
1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, _Histoire du peuple de Genève
depuis la Réforme jusqu'à l'Escalade_ (7 vols., from 1536-1568;
Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, _Le Rétablissement du Catholicisme à
Genève il y a deux siècles_ (Geneva, 1880); P. Vaucher, _Luttes de
Genève contre la Savoie_, 1517-1530 (Geneva, 1889); _Recueil
généalogique suisse (Genève)_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-1907).
(W. A. B. C.)

GENEVA CONVENTION, an international agreement for the purpose of improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies in the field, originally adopted at an international conference held at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by the convention of July 6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This later agreement is the one now known as the Geneva Convention. The conference of 1864 was the result of a movement which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled _Un Souvenir de Solférino_ by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist, in which he described the sufferings of the wounded at the battle of Solférino with such vivid effect that the subject became forthwith one of public interest. It was energetically taken up by M. Gustave Moynier, whose agitation led to an unofficial congress being held at Geneva in October 1863. This was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by the Swiss government in 1864. The convention which was there signed (22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, afterwards received the adherence of every civilized power.

At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in 1868, a supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of fourteen additional articles, five of which related to war on land and nine to naval warfare. The additional articles were not, however, ratified by the chief states, and never became operative. The Brussels International Conference (1874) for the codification of the law and customs of war occupied itself with the Geneva Convention and again drew up a number of articles which were submitted to the interested governments. But, as in the case of the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to them.

At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her objections to the application of the convention to maritime warfare, and agreed to the adoption of a special convention "adapting to Maritime warfare the principles of the Geneva Convention." A _voeu_ was also adopted by the conference expressing the wish that a special conference should be held as soon as possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864.

In deference to the above _voeu_ the Swiss government in 1901 sounded the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether the time had not come to call the proposed special conference, but the replies received did not give much encouragement and the matter was dropped for the time being. By a circular note of the 17th of February 1903, the Swiss government invited all the states which had signed or adhered to the Geneva Convention to send representatives to a conference to be held at Geneva in the following September. Some governments did not accept the invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the beginning of 1904, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss government again invited the powers to send delegates to a conference in the following May. Meanwhile war broke out between Russia and Japan and there was again an adjournment. At length in March 1906 an invitation was accepted by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia, Venezuela, Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was held at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was adopted, which now takes the place of that of 1864.[1] The adoption of the new Geneva Convention entailed a revision of the above-mentioned Hague Convention and a new edition of the latter is one of the documents adopted at the Peace Conference of 1907.

The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles divided into the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick; (ii.) medical units and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.) material; (v.) convoys of evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive emblem; (vii.) application and carrying out of the Convention; (viii.) prevention of abuses and infractions; (ix.) general provisions.

The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907 (18th of October) adapting the above conventions to maritime warfare as follows: (N.B. The alterations are in italics. The parts of the older convention of 1899 which have been suppressed are in brackets).

i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting
the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall have
been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commencement or
during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are
employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while hostilities
last.

These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war as
regards their stay in a neutral port.

ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise
be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent power
to whom they belong has given them an official commission and has
notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement of or
during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.

These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the competent
authorities, declaring that they had been under their control while
fitting out and on final departure.

iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral countries
shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral power to
whom they belong has given them an official commission and notified
their names to the belligerent powers at the commencement of or during
hostilities, and in any case before they are employed] _on condition
that they are placed under the orders of one of the belligerents, with
the previous consent of their own Government and with the
authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter
shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or
during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are
employed._

iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford
relief and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the
belligerents independently of their nationality.

The governments engage not to use these ships for any military
purpose.

These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the
combatants.

During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk and
peril.

The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them; they
can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain
course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even detain them, if
important circumstances require it.

As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing
papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.

v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being painted
white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre and a half
in breadth.

The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished by
being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about a
metre and a half in breadth.

The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which may
be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar painting.

All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, together
with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by
the Geneva Convention, _and, in addition, if they belong to a neutral
State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the
belligerent under whose direction they are placed._

_Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained
by the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under
whom they were acting._

_The above-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-time to
ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the
belligerent whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that
the special painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous._

vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on
board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be
captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any
violation of neutrality they may have committed.]

_The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used,
whether in time of peace or in time of war, to protect ships therein
mentioned._

vii. _In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall
be respected and shall receive as much consideration as possible._

_These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war,
but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall
be necessary for the sick and wounded._

_Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may make
use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall
first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board._

viii. _The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board
war-ships shall cease if they are used against the enemy._

_The fact that the crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals
on war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the
defence of the sick or wounded, and the existence of a
radio-telegraphic installation on board, is not considered as a
justification for withdrawing the above-mentioned protection._

ix. _Belligerents may appeal to the charitable zeal of commanders of
neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and
look after the sick and wounded._

_Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have
spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall
have the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities.
In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such
transport; but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to
capture for any violation of neutrality they may have committed._

[vii.] x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured
ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical
instruments which are their own private property.

This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary, and
can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it
possible.

The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into
their hands [the enjoyment of their salaries intact] _the same
allowances and pay as those of persons of the same rank in their own
navy_.

[viii.] xi. Sailors and soldiers, _and other persons officially
attached to navies or armies_, who are taken on board when sick or
wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected]
respected and looked after by the captors.

xii. _Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return
of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military
hospital-ships, hospital-ships of aid societies or of private
individuals, merchant ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the
nationality of these vessels._

xiii. _If the wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a
neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that
they may take no further part in war operations._

xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents who
fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The captor
must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep them or
send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port, or even to
a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated cannot
serve as long as the war lasts.

xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral port
with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary
arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be guarded
by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to take part
in the military operations.

_The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by
the State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong._
(T. Ba.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the
Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great
Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention,
however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely to
considerations of domestic legislation.

GENEVA, LAKE OF, the largest lake of which any portion belongs to Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is called _Lacus Lemannus_ by the old Latin and Greek writers, in 4th century A.D. _Lacus Lausonius_ or _Losanetes_, in the middle ages generally _Lac de Lausanne_, but from the 16th century onwards _Lac de Genève_, though from the end of the 18th century the name _Lac Léman_ was revived--according to Prof. Forel _Le Léman_ is the proper form. Its area is estimated at 223 sq. m. (Swiss Topographical Bureau) or 225½ sq. m. (Forel), of which about 140 sq. m. (134½ sq. m. Forel) are politically Swiss (123½ sq. m. belonging to the canton of Vaud, 11½ sq. m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m. to that of the Valais), the remainder (83 sq. m.) being French since the annexation of Savoy in 1860--the entire lake is included in the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized by the congress of Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in nearly the whole of the south shore, save its western and eastern extremities, which belong respectively to Geneva and to the Valais.

The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end,
between Villeneuve (E.) and St Gingolph (W.), and quits it at its west
end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important
tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse (N.).
The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east end is
broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the city of
Geneva. The bird's eye length of the whole lake, from Chillon to
Geneva, is 39½ m., but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line of the
north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore 44¾ m. The
maximum depth is 1015½ ft., but the mean depth only 500 ft. The
surface is 1231¼ ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or 1220 ft. (Forel) above
sea-level. The greatest width (between Morges and Amphion) is 8½ m.,
but the normal width is 5 m. The lake forms two well-marked divisions,
separated by the strait of Promenthoux, which is 216½ ft. in depth, as
a bar divides the Grand Lac from the Petit Lac. The _Grand Lac_
includes the greater portion of the lake, the _Petit Lac_ (to the west
of the strait or bar) being the special Genevese portion of the lake,
and having an area of but 30½ sq. m. The unusual blueness of the
waters has long been remarked, and the transparency increases the
farther we get from the point where the Rhone enters it, the deposits
which the river brings down from the Alps gradually sinking to the
bottom of the lake. At Geneva we recall Byron's phrase, "the blue
rushing of the arrowy Rhone" (_Childe Harold_, canto iii. stanza 71).
The limit of visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in winter (in
February 1891 Prof. Forel observed an extreme of 70½ ft.) and 21¼ ft.
in summer. Apart from the seasonal changes in the level of the lake
(which is highest in summer, no doubt because of the melting of the
Alpine snows that feed the Rhone), there are also the remarkable
temporary disturbances of level known as the _seiches_, in which the
whole mass of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to
shore. According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal and
transverse _seiches_. The effect of the longitudinal _seiches_ at
Geneva is four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the
lake, while the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for
the uninodal longitudinal _seiches_ (35½ minutes for the binodal) and
10 minutes for the transverse _seiches_ (5 minutes for the binodal).
The maximum height of a recorded _seiche_ at Geneva is rather over 6
ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are irregular.
The principal winds that blow over the lake are the _bise_ (from the
N.E.), the _vaudaire_ or _Föhn_ (from the S.E.), the _sudois_ or _vent
de pluie_ (from the S.W.) and the _joran_ (from the N.W.). The storm
winds are the _molan_ (from the Arve valley towards Geneva) and the
_bornan_ (from the Drance valley towards the central portion of the
lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes, one
reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du Rhône to fish
seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but twenty
indigenous species (of which the _Féra_, or _Coregonus fera_, is the
principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the 19th
century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been found
on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the lake was
the "Guillaume Tell," built in 1823 at Geneva by an Englishman named
Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie générale de navigation sur
le lac Léman was formed, and in 1875 constructed the first saloon
steamer, the "Mont Blanc." But despite this service and the railways
along each shore, the red lateen sails of minor craft still brighten
the landscape. The railway along the northern shore runs from Geneva
past Nyon, Rolle, Morges, Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and
Montreux to Villeneuve (56½ m.). That on the south shore gains the
edge of the lake at Thonon only (22¼ m. from Geneva), and then runs
past Evian and St Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the
harbour of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the
surface of the water, and are named _Pierres du Niton_ (supposed to be
altars to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest
from the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of
Switzerland: the official height is 376.86 mètres, which in 1891 was
reduced to 373.54 mètres, though 376.6 mètres is now said to be the
real figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map
vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis.

For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F.A. Forel's
monumental work, _Le Léman_ (3 vols. Lausanne, 1892-1904); also (with
fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, _Autour du lac Léman_
(Geneva, 1902). (W. A. B. C.)

GENEVIÈVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512), patroness of Paris, lived during the latter half of the 5th century. According to tradition, she was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris; her parents were called Severus and Gerontia, but accounts differ widely as to their social position. According to the legend, she was only in her seventh year when she was induced by St Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to the religious life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris, where she distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her austere life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns; and when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by an assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack would come to nothing (451). She is also said to have had great influence over Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have caused a church to be built over the tomb of St Denis. Her death occurred about 512 and she was buried in the church of the Holy Apostles, popularly known as the church of St Geneviève. In 1793 the body was taken from the new church, built in her honour by Louis XV., when it became the Panthéon, and burnt on the Place de Grève; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel of the neighbouring church of St Étienne du Mont, where they still attract pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp on the 3rd of January. The frescoes of the Panthéon by Puvis de Chavannes are based upon the legend of the saint.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main source is the anonymous _Vita s. Genovefae
virginis Parisiorum_, published in 1687 by D.P. Charpentier. The
genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch (_Neues Archiv_,
1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne, _Bibliothèque de l'École
des Chartes_ (1893), _Bulletin critique_ (1897), p. 473. Krusch
continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century forgery
(_Scriptores rer. Merov_. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
medii aevi_ (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, _Clovis_, ii. 249-254. The
legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_,
January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, _Ste
Geneviève_, in "Les Saints" series (Paris, 1900).

GENEVIÈVE, GENOVEVA or GENOVEFA, OF BRABANT, heroine of medieval legend. Her story is a typical example of the widespread tale of the chaste wife falsely accused and repudiated, generally on the word of a rejected suitor. Genovefa of Brabant was said to be the wife of the palatine Siegfried of Treves, and was falsely accused by the majordomo Golo. Sentenced to death she was spared by the executioner, and lived for six years with her son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. Siegfried, who had meanwhile found out Golo's treachery, was chasing the roe when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie of Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine of the Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the 18th of January 1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which Louis afterwards had to do penance. The change in name may have been due to the cult of St Geneviève, patroness of Paris. The tale first obtained wide popularity in _L'Innocence reconnue, ou vie de Sainte Geneviève de Brabant_ (pr. 1638) by the Jesuit René de Cérisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent subject for dramatic representation in Germany. With Genovefa's history may be compared the Scandinavian ballads of _Ravengaard og Memering_, which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of Gunild, who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig. When Duke Henry went to the wars he left his wife in charge of Ravengaard, who accused her of infidelity. Gunild is cleared by the victory of her champion Memering, the "smallest of Christian men." The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is a version of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been the daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036 King Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was nothing in her domestic history to warrant the legend, which is given as authentic history by William of Malmesbury (_De gestis regum Anglorum_, lib. ii. § 188). She was called Cunigund after her marriage, and perhaps was confused with St Cunigund, the wife of the emperor Henry II. In the _Karlamagnus-saga_ the innocent wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and wife of King Hugo, and in the French Carolingian cycle the emperor's wife Sibille (_La Reine Sibille_) or Blanchefleur (_Macaire_). Other forms of the legend are to be found in the story of Doolin's mother in _Doon de Mayence_, the English romance of _Sir Triamour_, in the story of the mother of Octavian in _Octavian the Emperor_, in the German folk book _Historie von der geduldigen Königin Crescentia_, based on a 12th-century poem to be found in the _Kaiserchronik_; and the English _Erl of Toulouse_ (c. 1400). In the last-named romance it has been suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I. count of Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d'Orange of the Carolingian romances, and the empress Judith, second wife of Louis the Pious.

See F.J. Child, _English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, vol. ii.
(1886), art. "Sir Aldingar"; S. Grundtvig, _Danske Kaempeviser_
(Copenhagen, 1867); "Sir Triamore," in _Bishop Percy's Folio MS._, ed.
Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); _The Romance of
Octavian_, ed. E.M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882); _The
Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn_, ed. G. Lüdtke (Berlin,
1881); B. Seuffert, _Die Legende von der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa_
(Würzburg, 1877); B. Golz, _Pfalzgräfin Genovefa in der deutschen
Dichtung_ (Leipzig, 1897); R. Köhler, "Die deutschen Volksbücher von
der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa," in _Zeitschr. für deutsche Philologie_
(1874).

GENGA, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1551), Italian painter and architect, was born in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to the woollen trade, but showed so much inclination for drawing that he was sent to study under an obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca Signorelli, with whom he remained a considerable while, frequently painting the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He next worked in Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della Vite; and in the latter city he painted various compositions for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading local statesman. Returning to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo in the decorations of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the church of S. Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most distinguished works, "The Resurrection," remarkable both for design and for colouring. He studied the Roman antiquities with zeal, and measured a number of edifices; this practice, combining with his previous mastery of perspective, qualified him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria della Rovere, the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and commissioned him to execute works in connexion with his marriage-festivities. This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope Leo X., Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his dominions; he took Genga with him, and appointed him the ducal architect. As he neared the close of his career, Genga retired to a house in the vicinity of Urbino, continuing still to produce designs in pencil; one, of the "Conversion of St Paul," was particularly admired. Here he died on the 11th of July 1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter and architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His own son Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of celebrity. In Genga's paintings there is a great deal of freedom, and a certain peculiarity of character consonant with his versatile, lively and social temperament. One of his leading works is in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena--a triptych in oil-colours, representing the "Annunciation," "God the Father in Glory," and the "Madonna and Child." Among his architectural labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro; the bishop's palace at Sinigaglia; the façade of the cathedral of Mantua, ranking high among the productions of the 16th century; and a new palace for the duke of Urbino, built on the Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in the fortifications of Pesaro.

GENISTA, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Three are native in Britain. _G. anglica_ is the needle-furze or petty whin, found on heaths and moist moors, a spinous plant with slender spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves and short racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. _G. tinctoria_, dyer's green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has no spines. Other species are grown on rock-work or as greenhouse plants.

GENIUS (from Lat. _genere_, _gignere_), a term which originally meant, in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit, who has no exact parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his earlier aspect is of purely Italian origin as one of the deities of family or household. Every man has his genius, who is not his creator, but only comes into being with him and is allotted to him at his birth. As a creative principle the genius is restricted to man, his place being taken by a Juno (cp. Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. The male and female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the protector of generation and of parturition (_tutela generandi, pariendi_), although the female appears less prominent. It is the genius of the _paterfamilias_ that keeps the marriage bed, named after him _lectus genialis_ and dedicated to him, under his special protection. The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual self, accompanies him from the cradle to the grave. In many ways he exercises a decisive influence on the man's character and mode of life (Horace, _Epistles_, ii. 2. 187). The responsibility for happiness or unhappiness, good or bad fortune, lay with the genius; but this does not suppose the existence of two genii for man, the one good and the other bad ([Greek: agathodaimôn], [Greek: kakodaimôn]), an idea borrowed from the Greek philosophers. The Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism, always endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended to enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging or cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed himself or failed to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's birthday was naturally a suitable occasion for honouring his genius, and on that occasion offerings of incense, wine, garlands, and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. 2; Ovid, _Tristia_, iii. 13. 18). As the representative of a man's higher self and participating in a divine nature, the genius could be sworn by, and a person could take an oath by his own or some one else's genius. When under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became more and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them, not however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius of Jupiter (Jovis Genio, _C.I.L._ i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto, Priapus. In a more extended sense the genius is also the generator and preserver of human society, as manifested in the family, corporate unions, the city, and the state generally. Thus, the genius publicus Populi Romani--probably distinct from the genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the Capitol was dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the sex (_Genio ... sive mas sive femina_)--stood in the forum near the temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned with a diadem, and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It frequently appears on the coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice, not confined to bloodless offerings like those of the genius of the house, was offered to him annually on the 8th of October. There were genii of cities, colonies, and even of provinces; of artists, business people and craftsmen; of cooks, gladiators, standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the army generally (_genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque exercitus_). In imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the reigning emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were publicly worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore falsely was flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths, stables, streets, and markets, had their own genius. The word thus gradually lost its original meaning; the nameless local genii became an expression for the universality of the _divinum numen_ and were sometimes identified with the higher gods. The local genius was usually represented by a snake, the symbol of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. Hence snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, _Aen._ v. 95; Persius i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The personal genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga, with head sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a drinking cup and cornu copiae, frequently in the position of one offering sacrifice.

See W.H. Roscher, _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and article by J.A. Hild
in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, where full
references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L. Preller,
_Römische Mythologie_, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa, _Religion
und Kultur der Römer_.

Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural "genii" (with a singular "genie") is used in English, as equivalent to the Arabic _jinn_, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are described, for instance, in _The Arabian Nights_. But "genius" itself has become the regular English word for the highest conceivable form of original ability, something altogether extraordinary and beyond even supreme educational prowess, and differing, in kind apparently, from "talent," which is usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the term "genius" is confined. The attempt, however, to define either quality, or to discriminate accurately between them, has given rise to continual controversy, and there is no agreement as to the nature of either; and the commonly quoted definitions of genius--such as Carlyle's "transcendant capacity of taking trouble, first of all,"[1] in which the last three words are usually forgotten--are either admittedly incomplete or are of the nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any substantial light has been thrown on the matter by the modern physiological school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity of genius as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental derangement. The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the word, and partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are many cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy, have shown remarkable originality, which may be described as genius, but there are at least just as many in whom no such physical abnormality can be observed. The word "genius" itself however has only gradually been used in English to express the degree of original greatness which is beyond ordinary powers of explanation, i.e. far beyond the capacity of the normal human being in creative work; and it is a convenient term (like Nietzsche's "superman") for application to those rare individuals who in the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or administrative life. The English usage was originally derived, naturally enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term (with the analogy of the Greek [Greek: daimôn]), and in the 16th and 17th centuries we find it equivalent simply to "distinctive character or spirit," a meaning still commonly given to the word. The more modern sense is not even mentioned in Johnson's _Dictionary_, and represents an 18th-century development, primarily due to the influence of German writers; the meaning of "distinctive natural capacity or endowment" had gradually been applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to the results of education and study, and the antithesis has extended since, through constant discussions over the attempt to differentiate between the real nature of genius and that of "talent," until we now speak of the exceptional person not merely as having genius but as "a genius." This phraseology appears to indicate some reversion to the original Roman usage, and the identification of the great man with a generative spirit.

Modern theories on the nature of "genius" should be studied with
considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting and
thought-provoking in such works as J.F. Nisbet's _Insanity of Genius_
(1891), Sir Francis Galton's _Hereditary Genius_ (new ed., 1892), and
C. Lombroso's _Man of Genius_ (Eng. trans., 1891).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] _Frederick the Great_, iv. iii. 1407.

GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN, COMTESSE DE (1746-1830), French writer and educator, was born of a noble but impoverished Burgundian family, at Champcéry, near Autun, on the 25th of January 1746. When six years of age she was received as a canoness into the noble chapter of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la Comtesse de Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris, her skill as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted admiration. In her sixteenth year she was married to Charles Brûlart de Genlis, a colonel of grenadiers, who afterwards became marquis de Sillery, but this was not allowed to interfere with her determination to remedy her incomplete education, and to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge. Some years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of Orleans, she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the duchess of Chartres (1770). She acted with great energy and zeal as governess to the daughters of the family, and was in 1781 appointed by the duke of Chartres to the responsible office of _gouverneur_ of his sons, a bold step which led to the resignation of all the tutors as well as to much social scandal, though there is no reason to suppose that the intellectual interests of her pupils suffered on that account. The better to carry out her ingenious theories of education, she wrote several works for their use, the best known of which are the _Théâtre d'éducation_ (4 vols., 1779-1780), a collection of short comedies for young people, _Les Annales de la vertu_ (2 vols., 1781) and _Adèle et Théodore_ (3 vols., 1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many modern methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical botanist during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed herself favourable to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins in 1793 compelled her to take refuge in Switzerland along with her pupil Mademoiselle d'Orléans. In this year her husband, the marquis de Sillery, from whom she had been separated since 1782, was guillotined. An "adopted" daughter, Pamela,[1] had been married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) in the preceding December.

In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but, having been expelled by the orders of King Frederick William, she afterwards settled in Hamburg, where she supported herself for some years by writing and painting. After the revolution of 18th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted to return to France, and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave her apartments at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of 6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and produced, in addition to some historical novels, her best romance, _Mademoiselle de Clermont_ (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost her influence over her old pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her but seldom, although he allowed her a small pension. Her government pension was discontinued by Louis XVIII., and she supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years were occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which arose out of the publication of the _Dîners du Baron d'Holbach_ (1822), a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of sarcastic cleverness the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the eccentricities of the "philosophes" of the 18th century. She survived until the 31st of December 1830, and saw her former pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the throne of France.

The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably exceed
eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a vast variety
of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much of their
success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to operate. They
are useful, however (especially the voluminous _Mémoires inédits sur
le XVIII^e siècle_, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing material for
history. Most of her writings were translated into English almost as
soon as they were published. A list of her writings with useful notes
is given by Quérard in _La France littéraire_. Startling light was
thrown on her relations with the duc de Chartres by the publication
(1904) of her correspondence with him in _L'Idylle d'un "gouverneur"_
by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii.;
H. Austin Dobson, _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); L. Chabaud, _Les
Précurseurs du féminisme_ (1901); W. de Chabreul, _Gouverneur de
princes, 1737-1830_ (1900); and _Lettres inédites à ... Casimir
Baecker, 1802-1830_ (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See Gerald Campbell, _Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald_ (1905).

GENNA, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese, and used technically by anthropologists to describe a class of social and religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive their validity from a vague sense of mysterious danger which results from disobedience to them. These prohibitions--or system of things forbidden--affect the relations, permanent and temporary, of individuals (either as members of a tribe, village, clan or household, or as occupying an official position in the village or clan) towards other persons or groups of persons and towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity. The term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village, clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophylactics on special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal and alimentary relations of the group affected are subjected to temporary modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed among the hill tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on the north to the Lusheis on the south, all linguistically members of the Tibeto-Burman group, and among the Khasis, members of the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo (q.v.) are products of an identical level of culture and similar psychological processes, and provide the mechanism of the social and religious systems.

_Permanent Gennas._--The only universal _genna_ is that which forbids the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some cases in Manipur animals are _genna_ to the tribe--i.e. they must not be killed or eaten--but tribal differentiation is, in practice, based on dialectical distinctions rather than on tribal _gennas_. The village as such possesses no permanent _gennas_, but the clans, as the units of marriage under the law of exogamy, have distinct elementary _gennas_, especially the clan to which the priest-chief belongs. The most important individual _gennas_ are those which protect the priest-chief from impurity or contact with "sacred" substances such as the flesh of animals used in sacrifices. He may neither eat in a strange house, nor utter words of abuse, nor take an oath in a dispute, except in his representative capacity on behalf of his village. The first-fruits are _genna_ to the village until he eats, thus establishing an opposition between him and his co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are subject to alimentary _gennas_; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the flesh of any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.