Chapter XVI: Part 16

_Ritual Gennas._--Ritual _gennas_ are held annually to foster the rice crops, all other industries and activities being _genna_ (forbidden) during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to avert sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay finally to rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year. The village gates are closed, men and women eat apart, and conjugal relations are suspended. Special village _gennas_ are held when rain is needed, when a villager dies in any manner out of the ordinary, as women in childbirth, when an animal gives birth to still-born offspring, and when any permanent genna has been violated. Clan _gennas_ are held for all ordinary cases of death. Household _gennas_ are held on the occasions of birth (when the aliment and conduct of the father are specially regulated), naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and, in certain areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary _gennas_ as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant women, married persons at the beginning of their married life, the wives of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or pride of wealth seek to perpetuate their names by erecting a stone monument, an act which confers the right to wear the distinctive clothes of the priest-chief which otherwise are _genna_ to the whole village. Ritual _gennas_ are of varying duration. Some last for a month while others are complete in two days. As religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish and restore normal relations with powers which are potentially harmful or require placation.

AUTHORITIES.--Official records of the government of India, Nos. 23
(1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T.H. Lewin, _Hill Tracts of
Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam_ (1891), vol. i. Report,
note by A.W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R.T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_
(1907); T.C. Hodson, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_,
vol. xxxvi. (1906). (T. C. H.)

GENNADIUS II. [as layman GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS] (d. c. 1468), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine learning. Extremely little is known of his life, but he appears to have been born at Constantinople about 1400 and to have entered the service of the emperor John VII. Paleologus as imperial judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears conspicuously in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union between the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council was present the celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most powerful opponent of the then dominant Aristotelianism, and consequently the special object of reprobation to Georgios. In church matters, as in philosophy, the two were opposed,--Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek Church, and being unwilling to accept union through compromise, while Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity for union and was instrumental in drawing up a form which from its vagueness and ambiguity might be accepted by both parties. He was at a disadvantage because, being a layman, he could not directly take part in the discussions of the council. But on his return to Greece his views changed, and he violently and obstinately opposed the union he had previously urged. In 1448 he became a monk at Pantokrator and took the name Gennadius. In 1453, after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Mahommed II., finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant for some time, resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice fell on Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew up, apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or exposition of the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish by Ahmed, judge of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus at Vienna in 1530. After a couple of years Gennadius found the position of patriarch under a Turkish sultan so irksome that he retired to the monastery of John the Baptist near Serrae in Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one hundred of his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of doubtful authenticity.

The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, _Gennadius and
Pletho_ (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho's
_Contra Gennadium_. See also F. Schultze, _Gesch. der Phil. d.
Renaissance_, i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is
given in Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and
what has been printed is to be found in Migne, _Patrol. Gr._ vol. clx.

GENOA (anc. _Genua_, Ital. _Genova_, Fr. _Gênes_), the chief port of Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m. N.W. of Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248 (commune). The town is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is the chief port and commercial town of Italy, the seat of an archbishop and a university, the headquarters of the IV. Italian army corps, and a strong fortress. The city, as seen from the sea, is "built nobly," and deserves the title it has acquired or assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of level ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage for the effective display of its architectural magnificence. The original nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east of the port in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio). In the 10th century it began to feel a lack of room within the limits of its fortifications; and accordingly, in the middle of the 12th century, it was found necessary to extend the line of circumvallation. Even this second circuit, however, was of small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330 that a third line took in the greater part of the modern site of the city proper. This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side, and can still be easily traced from point to point through the city, though large portions, especially towards the east, have been dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates from 1626-1632, the period when the independence of Genoa was threatened by the dukes of Savoy. From the mouth of the Bisagno in the east, and from the lighthouse point in the west, it stretches inland over hill and dale to the great fort of Sperone, i.e. the Spur, on the summits of Monte Peraldo at a height of 1650 ft.,--the circuit being little less than 12 m., and all the important points along the line being defended by forts or batteries.

A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here and there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the more important being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the east, and the Porta Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The main architectural features of Genoa are its medieval churches, with striped façades of black and white marble, and its magnificent 16th-century palaces. The earlier churches of Genoa show a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan style--they are mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small dome; the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes formed of alternate layers of black and white marble. The façades are simple, without galleries, having only pilasters projecting from the wall, and are also alternately black and white. This style continued in Gothic times also. The oldest is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the columns and capitals of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. Donato (with remains of the 10th-century building) and others belong to the 12th century, and S. Giovanni di Prè, S. Agostino (with a fine campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The famous painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio Romano, carried off by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S. Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the church of the D'Oria or Doria family, was founded in 1126 by Martino Doria. The façade dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates in the main from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented to the doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an exquisite cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number of inscriptions relating to the Doria family and also the statue of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli are preserved. The little square in front of the church is surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria family. Of the churches the principal is the comparatively small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition makes its first foundation contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a document of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church. Reconstructed about the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II. on the 18th of October 1118; and since then it has undergone a large number of extensive though partial renovations. The façade, with its three elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th century and is a copy of French models of the 13th. The two side portals with Romanesque sculptures belong to the 12th-14th centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the tower. The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used. The belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected about 1520 by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the cupola was erected after the designs of the architect Galeazzo Alessi in 1567. The fine Early Renaissance (1448) sculptural decorations of the chapel of S. John the Baptist were due to Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano, who later transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women to enter the chapel except on one day in the year. In the treasury of the cathedral is a magnificent silver monstrance dating from 1553, and an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino, brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds to the descriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris, whither it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remarkable piece of ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine work of the 15th century and later, with intarsias. Near the cathedral is a small 12th-century (?) cloister.

Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose and S. Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to the Milanese bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the present edifice is due to the Society of Jesus, who obtained possession of the church in 1587. The interior is richly decorated and contains the "Circumcision" and "St Ignatius" by Rubens, and the "Assumption" of Guido Reni. The Annunziata del Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in 1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central nave is supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white marble. To the otherwise unfinished brick façade a portal borne by marble columns was added in 1843. The interior is covered with gilding and frescoes of the 17th century, and is somewhat overloaded with rich decoration, while a range of white marble columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne probably dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was erected in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the 13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the 11th century. San Siro, originally the "Church of the Apostles" and the cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in the 11th century, and restored and enlarged by the Theatines in 1576, the façade being added in 1830; in this church in 1339 Simone Boccanera was elected first doge of Genoa. Santa Maria di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria Assunta e SS. Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the 16th century, and was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante's plan for S. Peter's at Rome, as it was then being executed by Michelangelo. The interior is fine, harmonious and restrained, painted in white and grey, while the colouring of the exterior is less pleasing. From the highest gallery of the dome--368 ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the ground--a magnificent view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring coast.

Buildings of the 15th century do not occupy an important place in Genoa, but there are some small private houses and remains of sculptural decoration of the Early Renaissance to be seen in the older portions of the town. The palaces of the Genoese patricians, famous for their sumptuous architecture, their general effectiveness (though the architectural details are often faulty if closely examined), and their artistic collections, were many of them built in the latter part of the 16th century by Galeazzo Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is of an imposing and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity in using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage. Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work. The Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent palaces, chief among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from its red colour. Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family, it was presented by the duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874, along with its valuable contents, its library and picture gallery, which includes fine examples of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone. The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco Lurago at the end of the 16th century, once the property of the dukes of Turin, has a beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden fronting a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet dating from 117 B.C. (see below), two autograph letters of Columbus, and the violin of Paganini, also a native of Genoa. Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the Palazzo Bianco, a palace full of art treasures bequeathed to the city by the duchess of Galliera upon her death in 1889, and subsequently converted into a museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to other places--Luna, Libarna, &c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria (both containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and Serra and other palaces in this street are worthy of mention. The Via Balbi again contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo Pallavicini palace has a noble façade and staircase and a rich picture-gallery. The street takes its name, however, from the Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric colonnades and a fine orangery. The Palazzo dell' Università has an extremely fine court and staircase of the early 17th century. The Palazzo Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo Doria in the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria by the Genoese in 1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was remodelled in 1529 by Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes by Perino del Vaga. The old palace of the doges, originally a building of the 13th century, to which the tower alone belongs, the rest of the building having been remodelled in the 16th century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the Piazza Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the telegraph and other government offices. Another very fine building is the Gothic Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour, dating from about 1260, occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted into a produce exchange. The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about 1½ m. from the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief features of Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is remarkable for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The university, founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with faculties in law, medicine, natural science, engineering and philosophy. Attached to it are a library, an observatory, a botanical garden, and a physical and natural history museum. Genoa is also well supplied with technical schools and other institutions for higher education, while ample provision is made for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum for the poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy. Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the municipal library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi Institute of Music.

The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within the limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both contributed to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow streets, lanes and alleys, varied with stairways climbing the steeper slopes and bridges spanning the deeper valleys. Large portions of the town are inaccessible to ordinary carriages, and many of the important streets have very little room for traffic. In modern times, however, a number of fine streets and squares with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The Piazza Ferrari, a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic and the centre of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a fine equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands in front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza is the Via Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out since 1887, leading south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central bridge over the Bisagno. The street is itself spanned by an elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea Podesta, a modern avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of the Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of no little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of traffic which gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza Ferrari, leads to the Piazza Corvetto, in the centre of which stands the colossal equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a beautiful park belonging to the city, decorated with cascades and a number of statues and busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the right is another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of the old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered in palm trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels the figure of America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana, with scenes from the life of Columbus in relief on its marble pediment. Among other modern thoroughfares, the Via di Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876 on the hills at the back of the town, leads by many curves from the Piazza Manin along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the Piazza Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric tramway, and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar road, the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-1895 on the site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-front from the Piazza Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno, thence ascending the right bank to the Ponte Pila. Genoa is remarkably well served with electric tramways, which are found in all the wider streets, and run, often through tunnels, into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as far as Nervi and to Pegli oh the west. Three funicular railways from different points of the city give access to the highest parts of the hills behind the town.

Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to its
port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniences
necessary for the modern development of its trade, the duke of
Galliera's gift of £800,000 to the city in 1875 being devoted to this
purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was necessitated upon
the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882, which extended the
commercial range of the port through Switzerland into Germany. The old
harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232 acres in area, with numerous
quays, and protected by moles from southern and south-westerly winds.
An outer harbour, 247 acres in area, has been constructed in front of
this by extending the Molo Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and
another basin, the Vittorio Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an
area of 96 acres, is in course of construction to the west of this,
between it and the lofty lighthouse which rises on the promontory at
the south-west extremity of the harbour. This basin is to be entered
from both the east and the west, and allows for a future extension in
front of San Pier d'Arena as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera.
The port administration was placed under an autonomous harbour board
(_consorzio_) in 1903. The largest ships can enter the harbour, which
has a minimum depth of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock
and a floating dry dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed.
The exports are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats,
cheese, steel, velvets, gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while
the main imports are coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &c. Genoa has a
large emigrant traffic with America, and a large general passenger
steamer traffic both for America and for the East.

The development of industry has kept pace with that of the harbour.
The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured cruisers both for
the Italian navy and for foreign governments, The Odero yards, for
the construction of merchant and passenger steamers, have been
similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also important. A number of
foundries and metallurgical works supply material for repairs and
shipbuilding. The sugar-refining industry has been introduced by two
important companies, and most of the capital employed in
sugar-refining in other parts of Italy has been subscribed at Genoa,
where the administrative offices of the principal companies and
individual refiners are situated. The old industries of macaroni and
cognate products maintain their superiority. Tanneries and
cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably extended
throughout the province. Cement works have acquired an extension
previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now engaged in that
branch of industry. The manufactures of crystallized fruits and of
filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The trade of the port
increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876 to 6,164,873 metric
tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes home trade in a
proportion of about 12%). Of this large total 5,365,544 tons are
imports and only 799,319 tons are exports, and, comparing 1906 with
1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on the exports, and an
increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The effect upon the railway
problem is of course very great, inasmuch as, while the supply of
trucks required per day in 1906 was from 1000 to 1200, about 80% of
these had to be sent down empty to the harbour. Of the four main lines
which centre on Genoa--(1) to Novi, which is the junction for
Alessandria, where lines diverge to Turin and France via the Mont
Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland and France via the Simplon, and
for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont; (3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and
the French Riviera, along the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa--the first
line has to take no less than 78% of the traffic. It has indeed two
alternative double lines for the passage over the Apennines, but one
of them has a maximum gradient of 1 : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long,
and the other has a maximum gradient of 1 : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m.
long. A marshalling station costing some £800,000, connected directly
with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking
2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1906 north of San Pier
d'Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines,
representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that some
40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa; it is indeed
the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean, with the
exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen rivalry.
Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in the race by the
insufficiency of railway communication, which, owing to the mountains
which encircle it, is difficult to secure, many tunnels being
necessary. The general condition of the Italian railways has also
affected it, and the increased traffic has not always found the
necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks to
receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance of
the port and consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade
elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the
coal supply of northern Italy.

The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes: about 50% of
the total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about 6%, and
miscellaneous about 34%. Of the coal imports the great bulk is from
British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and Barry, one-tenth from
other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne ports. The amount shows an
almost continued increase from 617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in
1906. The total of shipping entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a
tonnage of 6,867,442, while that cleared was 6611 vessels with a
tonnage of 6,682,104.

_History._--Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank, must have been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began in the Tyrrhenian Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities of its having been visited or occupied by the Greeks, but the discovery of a Greek cemetery of the 4th century B.C.[1] proves it. The construction of the Via Venti Settembre gave occasion for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in all, the bulk of which dated from the end of the 5th and the 4th centuries B.C. The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were buried in small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a slab of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and were mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while the bronze objects came from Etruria, and the brooches (_fibulae_) from Gaul. This illustrates the early importance of Genoa as a trading port, and the penetration of Greek customs, inhumation being the usual practice of the Ligurians. Genoa is believed to derive its name from the fact that the shape of this portion of the coast resembles that of a knee (_genu_).

We hear of the Romans touching here in 216 B.C., and of its destruction by the Carthaginians in 209 B.C. and immediate restoration by the Romans, who made it and Placentia their headquarters against the Ligurians. It was reached from Rome by the Via Aurelia, which ran along the north-west coast, and its prolongation, which later acquired the name of the Via Aemilia (Scauri); for the latter was only constructed in 109 B.C., and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least as early as 148 B.C., when the Via Postumia was built from Genua through Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an amphitheatre and inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria, Placentia, Cremona, and thence eastwards. We also have an inscription of 117 B.C. (now preserved in the Palazzo Municipale at Genoa) giving the text of the decision given by the _patroni_, Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with a decree of the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of Genua and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included in the territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions found in Genoa or existing there at the present day, which are practically all sepulchral, can be demonstrated to have belonged to the ancient city; it is equally easy to suppose that they were brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other places that we know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at what period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins and honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks of the wine of the district as the best of Liguria (_H.N._ xiv. 67.)

The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the Lombard and Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the general history of the Italian communes, which succeeded in snatching from contending princes and barons the first charters of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and naval prowess of the Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against the Saracens, led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to the rapid growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with Pisa early in the 11th century in expelling the Moslems from the island of Sardinia, but the Sardinian territory thus acquired soon furnished occasions of jealousy to the conquering allies, and there commenced between the two republics the long naval wars destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa. With not less adroitness than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the advantages of the great carrying trade which the crusades created between Western Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same period from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of the Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected Genoese fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these conquests generated in the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans fresh jealousy against Genoa, and provoked fresh wars; but the struggle between Genoa and Pisa was brought to a disastrous conclusion for the latter state by the battle of Meloria in 1284.

The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the middle ages were the more remarkable because, unlike their rivals, the Venetians, they were the unceasing prey to intestine discord--the Genoese commons and nobles fighting against each other, rival factions amongst the nobles themselves striving to grasp the supreme power in the state, nobles and commons alike invoking the arbitration and rule of some foreign captain as the sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From these contests of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria stand forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition of foreign authority--successively German, Neapolitan and Milanese--gave way to a state of greater independence in 1339, when the government assumed a more permanent form with the appointment of the first doge, an office held at Genoa for life, in the person of Simone Boccanera. Alternate victories and defeats of the Venetians and Genoese--the most terrible being the defeat sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1380--ended by establishing the great relative inferiority of the Genoese rulers, who fell under the power now of France, now of the Visconti of Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions, mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable element in the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to regain its ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in throwing off the French domination and restoring the old form of government. It was at this very period--the close of the 15th and commencement of the 16th century--that the genius and daring of a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave to Spain that new world, which might have become the possession of his native state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and seamen which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The government as restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications tending to impart to it a more conservative character, remained unchanged until the outbreak of the French Revolution and the creation of the Ligurian republic. During this long period of nearly three centuries, in which the most dramatic incident is the conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese found no small compensation for their lost traffic in the East in the vast profits which they made as the bankers of the Spanish crown and outfitters of the Spanish armies and fleets both in the old world and the new, and Genoa, more fortunate than many of the other cities of Italy, was comparatively immune from foreign domination.

At the end of the 17th century the city was bombarded by the French, and in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to the Austrians, who were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in Corsica, which began in 1729, was suppressed with the help of the French, who in 1768 took possession of the island for themselves (see CORSICA: _History_).

The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the French empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to experience, by the terrible privations of the siege when Masséna held the city against the Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a participation in the vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In 1814 Genoa rose against the French, on the assurance given by Lord William Bentinck that the allies would restore to the republic its independence. It had, however, been determined by a secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should be incorporated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The discontent created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris as confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share in keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed forms of permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy but to all the established governments of the peninsula. Even the material benefits accruing from the union with Sardinia and the constitutional liberty accorded to all his subjects by King Charles Albert were unable to prevent the republican outbreak of 1848, when, after a short and sharp struggle, the city, momentarily seized by the republican party, was recovered by General Alfonzo La Marmora.

Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are
Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century, and
Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and Agostino
Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical history of
the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material for the
ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and artists
were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general works are
Bréquigny, _Histoire des révolutions de Gênes jusqu'en 1748_; Serra,
_La Storia dell' antica Liguria e di Genova_ (Turin, 1834); Varesi,
_Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814_ (Genoa, 1835-1839);
Canale, _Storia dei Genovesi_ (Genoa, 1844-1854), _Nuova istoria della
repubblica di Genova_ (Florence, 1858), and _Storia della rep. di
Genova dall' anno 1528 al 1550_ (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal, _Zur
Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua's im 12ten Jahrhundert_
(Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, _Studies from Genoese History_
(London, 1875). The _Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis_ was edited by
Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and 9th volumes of the _Monumenta historiae
patriae_ (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of interesting matter
will be found in the _Atti della Società Ligure di storia patria_
(1861 sqq.), and in the _Giornale Ligustico di archeologia, storia, e
belle arti_. The history of the university has been written by Lorenzo
Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa). (T. As.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1898), 395 (A. d'Andrade), 464 (G.
Ghirardini).

GENOVESI, ANTONIO (1712-1769), Italian writer on philosophy and political economy, was born at Castiglione, near Salerno, on the 1st of November 1712. He was educated for the church, and, after some hesitation, took orders in 1736 at Salerno, where he was appointed professor of eloquence at the theological seminary. During this period of his life he began the study of philosophy, being especially attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post, and qualified as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful as theology, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples. His first works were _Elementa Metaphysicae_ (1743 et seq.) and _Logica_ (1745). The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy, Cosmosophy, Theosophy, Psychosophy, supplemented by a treatise on ethics and a dissertation on first causes. The _Logic_, an eminently practical work, written from the point of view of Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of the human mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; (3) the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4) reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of our thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy, he deserves the credit of having introduced the new order of ideas into Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean between the two extremes of sensualism and idealism. Although bitterly opposed by the partisans of scholastic routine, Genovesi found influential patrons, amongst them Bartolomeo Intieri, a Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian or European chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on condition that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi's professorial labours was the _Lezioni di Commercio_, the first complete and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the whole he belongs to the "Mercantile" school, though he does not regard money as the only form of wealth. Specially noteworthy in the _Lezioni_ are the sections on human wants as the foundation of economical theory, on labour as the source of wealth, on personal services as economic factors, and on the united working of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom of the corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of his age he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as entails and tenures in mortmain. Gioja's more important treatise owes much to Genovesi's lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of September 1769.

See C. Ugoni, _Della letteratura italiana nella seconda metà del
secolo XVIII_ (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, _Vitae Italorum doctrina
excellentium_ (1778-1799); R. Bobba, _Commemorazione di A. Genovesi_
(Benevento, 1867).

GENSONNÉ, ARMAND (1758-1793), French politician, the son of a military surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of August 1758. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution was an advocate of the parlement of Bordeaux. In 1790 he became _procureur_ of the Commune, and in July 1791 was elected by the newly created department of the Gironde a member of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy for the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot, he proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by the Assembly: the decree of accusation against the king's brothers (January 1, 1792), and the declaration of war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary (April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his denunciations of the intrigues of the court and of the "Austrian committee"; but the violence of the extreme democrats, culminating in the events of the 10th of August, alarmed him; and when he was returned to the National Convention, he attacked the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the death sentence. As a member of the Committee of General Defence, and as president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793), he shared in the bitter attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain; and on the fatal day of the 2nd of June his name was among the first of those inscribed on the prosecution list. He was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th of October 1793, condemned to death and guillotined on the 31st of the month, displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonné was accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat cold and he always read his speeches.

GENTIAN, botanically _Gentiana_, a large genus of herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus comprises about 300 species,--most of them perennial plants with tufted growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts, chiefly in the northern hemisphere, some of the blue-flowered species ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in the Himalaya Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-lobed calyx and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens are equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one-celled, with two stigmas, either separate and rolled back or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The fruit when ripe separates into two valves, and contains numerous small seeds. The majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or brilliant blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having yellow, white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost exclusively found in the Andes.

Only a few species occur in Britain. _G. amarella_ (felwort) and _G. campestris_ are small annual species growing on chalky or calcareous hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale purple flowers; the latter is most easily distinguished by having two of the lobes of the calyx larger than the other two, while the former has the parts of the calyx in fives, and equal in size. Some intermediate forms between these two species occur, although rarely, in England; one of these, _G. germanica_, has larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and a stouter stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. _G. pneumonanthe_, the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing in moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its average height is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a bright blue corolla 1½ in. long, marked externally with five greenish bands, is without hairs in its throat, and is found in perfection about the end of August. It is the handsomest of the British species; two varieties of it are known in cultivation, one with spotted and the other with white flowers. _G. verna_ and _G. nivalis_ are small species with brilliant blue flowers and small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring, however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in tolerable abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem bears only one flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging for flower borders. _G. nivalis_ in Britain occurs only on a few of the loftiest Scottish mountains. It differs from the last in being an annual, and having a more isolated habit of growth, and in the stem bearing several flowers. On the Swiss mountains these beautiful little plants are very abundant; and the splendid blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight which, when once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing them successfully renders them, however, less common than would otherwise be the case; although very hardy when once established, they are very impatient of removal, and rarely flower well until the third year after planting. Of the ornamental species found in British gardens some of the prettiest are _G. acaulis_, _G. verna_, _G. pyrenaica_, _G. bavarica_, _G. septemfida_ and _G. gelida_. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily grown is the first named, often called _Gentianella_, which produces its large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.

All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an intense but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty species are used in medicine in different parts of the world. The name of felwort given to _G. amarella_, but occasionally applied to the whole genus, is stated by Dr Prior to be given in allusion to these properties--_fel_ meaning gall, and _wort_ a plant. In the same way the Chinese call _G. asclepiadea_, and the Japanese _G. Buergeri_, "dragon's gall plants," in common with several other very bitter plants whose roots they use in medicine. _G. campestris_ is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern countries as a substitute for hops.

By far the most important of the species used in medicine is _G. lutea_, a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany, extending as far east as Bosnia and the Danubian principalities. It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and dense whorls of conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of very ancient date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was noticed by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from whom the name _Gentiana_ is supposed to be derived. During the middle ages it was much employed in the cure of disease, and as an ingredient in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a German priest, physician and botanist, mentions the use of the root as a means of dilating wounds.

The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and flexible, scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy texture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. The bitter principle, known as _gentianin_, is a glucoside, soluble in water and alcohol. It can be decomposed into glucose and gentiopicrin by the action of dilute mineral acids. It is not precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A solution of caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow solution, and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis has been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also contains _gentianic acid_ (C14H10O5), which is inert and tasteless. It forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water or ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline solutions. This substance is also called _gentianin_, _gentisin_ and _gentisic acid_.

The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable sugar called gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been taken in Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter cordial spirit called _Enzianbranntwein_. The use of this spirit, especially in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by poisonous symptoms, which have been doubtfully attributed to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some species of gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to the contamination of the root with that of _Veratrum album_, a poisonous plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves extremely similar in appearance and size to those of _G. lutea_.

Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances which act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and thereby increase the general nutrition, without exerting any direct influence upon any other portion of the body than the alimentary canal. Having a pleasant taste and being non-astringent (owing to the absence of tannic acid), it is the most widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound infusion with orange and lemon peel (dose, ½-1 ounce), and a compound tincture with orange peel and cardamoms (dose ½-1 drachm). It is used in dyspepsia, chlorosis, anaemia and various other diseases, in which the tone of the stomach and alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to purgative medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known compound called _diapente_ as a chief ingredient.

GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, an order of Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamopetalae, and containing about 750 species in 64 genera. It has a world-wide distribution, and representatives adapted to very various conditions, including, for instance, alpine plants, like the true gentians (_Gentiana_), meadow plants such as the British _Chlora perfoliata_ (yellow-wort) or _Erythraea Centaurium_ (centaury), marsh plants such as _Menyanthes trifoliata_ (bog-bean), floating water plants such as _Limnanthemum_, or steppe and sea-coast plants such as _Cicendia_. They are annual or perennial herbs, rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect, with a characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus _Crawfurdia_ has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing and caespitose, as in the alpine gentians.

The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a plane
at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in
_Menyanthes_ and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are
alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are
saprophytes, forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or
no chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are _Voyria_
and _Leiphaimos_, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is
generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae,
the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes
reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The flowers
are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4's and 5's, with
reduction to 2 in the pistil; in _Chlora_ there are 6 to 8 members in
each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or segments
which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great variety in
form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in _Chlora_,
funnel-shaped in _Erythraea_, and cylindrical, bell-shaped,
funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in _Gentiana_; the segments are
generally twisted to the right in the bud; the throat is often
fimbriate or bears scales. The stamens, as many as, and alternating
with, the corolla-segments, are inserted at very different heights on
the corolla-tube; the filaments are slender, the anthers are usually
attached dorsally, are versatile, and dehisce by two longitudinal
slits; after escape of the pollen they sometimes become spirally
twisted as in _Erythraea_. Dimorphic flowers are frequent, as in the
bog-bean (_Menyanthes_). There is considerable variation in the size,
shape and external markings of the pollen grains, and a division of
the order into tribes and subtribes based primarily on pollen
characters has been proposed. The form of the honey-secreting
developments of the disk at the base of the ovary also shows
considerable variety. The superior ovary is generally one-chambered,
with two variously developed parietal placentas, which occasionally
meet, forming two chambers; the ovules are generally very numerous and
anatropous or half-anatropous in form. The style, which varies much in
length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite stigma.
The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule, splitting
septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and numerous, and
contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm.

_Gentiana Amarella._

1, A small form, natural size.
2, Calyx and protruding style.
3, Corolla, laid open.
4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and showing the seeds attached
to their margins.
5, Floral diagram.]

The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers
(as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the
frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for pollination
by insect visitors. In the true gentians (_Gentiana_) the flowers of
different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect
visitors. Thus _Gentiana lutea_, with a rotate yellow corolla and
freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors; _G.
Pneumonanthe_, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited by
bumble bees; and _G. verna_, with a still longer narrower tube, is
visited by Lepidoptera.

_Gentiana_, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species,
distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the
mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the whole of
North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it does not occur in
Africa. Bitter principles are general in the vegetative parts,
especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have given a medicinal value
to many species, e.g. _Gentiana lutea_ and others.

GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied to those who were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation of the Lat. _gentilis_, of or belonging to the same _gens_, the clan or family; as defined in Paulus ex Festo "gentilis dicitur et ex eodem genere ortus et is qui simili nomine; ut ait Cincius, gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine appellantur." In post-Augustan Latin _gentilis_ became wider in meaning, following the usage of _gens_, in the sense of race, nation, and meant "national," belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to mean "foreign," i.e. other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate, with _gentes_, to translate the Hebrew _goyyim_, nations, LXX. [Greek: ethnê], the non-Israelitish peoples (see further JEWS).