Chapter II: Sphere of Government (12)

Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in Saxony, India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured basic granulites ("trap granulites"). These are fine-grained rocks, not usually banded, nearly black in colour with small red spots of garnet. Their essential minerals are pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet: chemically they resemble the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form a considerable part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, hornblende and quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial grouping of small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of felspar: these "centric" structures are frequent in granulites. The rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine, but the exact conditions under which they are formed and the significance of their structures is not very clearly understood. (J. S. F.)

GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT, CARDINAL DE (1517-1586), one of the ablest and most influential of the princes of the church during the great political and ecclesiastical movements which immediately followed the appearance of Protestantism in Europe, was born on the 20th of August 1517 at Besancon, where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella (1484-1550), who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under Charles V., was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an influential position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death he was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany. On the completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity at Louvain, Antoine held a canonry at Besancon, but he was promoted to the bishopric of Arras when barely twenty-three (1540). In his episcopal capacity he attended several diets of the empire, as well as the opening meetings of the council of Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, led to his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare talent for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate acquaintance with most of the currents of European politics. One of his specially noteworthy performances was the settlement of the terms of peace after the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden at Muhlberg in 1547, a settlement in which, to say the least, some particularly sharp practice was exhibited. In 1550 he succeeded his father in the office of secretary of state; in this capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice, elector of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck, and afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In the following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage of Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, on the abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, and by whom he was employed in the Netherlands. In April 1559 Granvella was one of the Spanish commissioners who arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on Philip's withdrawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. The policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued during the next five years secured for him many tangible rewards, in 1560 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, and in 1561 he received the cardinal's hat; but the growing hostility of a people whose religious convictions he had set himself to trample under foot ultimately made it impossible for him to continue in the Low Countries, and by the advice of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to Franche Comte. Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary character, but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in 1565; but in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed public life by accepting another mission to Rome. Here he helped to arrange the alliance between the Papacy, Venice and Spain against the Turks, an alliance which was responsible for the victory of Lepanto. In the same year he became viceroy of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, which for five years he occupied with ability and success. He was summoned to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of his later years were those of 1580, which had for their object the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and those of 1584, which resulted in a check to France by the marriage of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop of Besancon, but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering disease; he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of September 1586. His body was removed to Besancon, where his father had been buried. Granvella was a man of great learning, which was equalled by his industry, and these qualities made him almost indispensable both to Charles V. and to Philip II.

Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the
archives of Besancon. These were to some extent made use of by Prosper
Leveque in his _Memoires pour servir_ (1753), as well as by the Abbe
Boisot in the _Tresor de Granvella_. A commission for publishing the
whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by Guizot in 1834, and
the result has been the issue of nine volumes of the _Papiers d'Etat
du cardinal de Granvelle_, edited by C. Weiss (Paris, 1841-1852). They
form a part of the _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de
France_, and were supplemented by the _Correspondance du cardinal
Granvelle, 1565-1586_, edited by M. E. Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12
vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also the anonymous _Histoire du
cardinal de Granville_, attributed to Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris,
1761); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; M. Philippson, _Ein
Ministerium unter Philipp II._ (Berlin, 1895); and the _Cambridge
Modern History_ (vol. iii. 1904).

GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, 2ND EARL (1815-1891), English statesman, eldest son of the 1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his marriage with Lady Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born in London on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower, was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess of Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the second wife (a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became the 2nd marquess of Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter and heiress of the 17th earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland in her own right) led to the merging of the Gower and Stafford titles in that of the dukes of Sutherland (created 1833), who represent the elder branch of the family. As Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created viscount in 1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and was ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841). He was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of Canning. The title of Earl Granville had been previously held in the Carteret family.

After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord Leveson went to Paris for a short time under his father, and in 1836 was returned to parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. For a short time he was under-secretary for foreign affairs in Lord Melbourne's ministry. In 1840 he married Lady Acton (Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of Sir Richard Acton; see ACTON and DALBERG). From 1841 till his father's death in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. In the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, and Lord John Russell made him master of the buckhounds (1846). He proved a useful member of the party, and his influence and amiable character were valuable in all matters needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became vice-president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent part in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter year, having already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded Palmerston at the foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat in 1852; and when Lord Aberdeen formed his government at the end of the year, he became first president of the council, and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854). Under Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. His interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led to his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, a post he held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent champion of the movement for the admission of women, and also of the teaching of modern languages. From 1855 Lord Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, both in office, and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in opposition. He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed by the rival ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him to form a ministry, but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston again became prime minister, with Lord John as foreign secretary and Granville as president of the council. In 1860 his wife died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added that of his great friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother (1862); but he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his office when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer) became prime minister and took over the leadership in the House of Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, and in the same year married again, his second wife being Miss Castalia Campbell. From 1866 to 1868 he was in opposition, but in December 1868 he became colonial secretary in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was invaluable to the government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills through the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office. Lord Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as foreign secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal foreign policy of that period was not distinguished by enterprise or "backbone." Lord Granville personally was patient and polite, but his courteous and pacific methods were somewhat inadequate in dealing with the new situation then arising in Europe and outside it; and foreign governments had little scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and relying on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within a few days of Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords (11th of July) the curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent under-secretary (Mr Hammond) that "he had never known so great a lull in foreign affairs." Russia took advantage of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In 1871 an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan was agreed on between him and Shuvalov; but in 1873 Russia took possession of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord Granville had to accept the aggression. When the Conservatives came into power in 1874, his part for the next six years was to criticize Disraeli's "spirited" foreign policy, and to defend his own more pliant methods. He returned to the foreign office in 1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing in German policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed to realize in time the importance of the Angra Pequena question in 1883-1884, and he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to yield to Bismarck over it. Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan or equatorial and south-west Africa, British foreign policy was dominated by suavity rather than by the strength which commands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home Rule for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive to new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave way to Lord Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign office; the Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground in the country by Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He went to the Colonial Office for six months, and in July 1886 retired from public life. He died in London on the 31st of March 1891, being succeeded in the title by his son, born in 1872. Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many friendships, and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no place in history as a constructive statesman.

The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of
interesting material for the history of the period, but being written
by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it
explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that
department. (H. Ch.)

GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763), English statesman, commonly known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, born on the 22nd of April 1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord Carteret, by his marriage with Grace Granville, daughter of Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and great grandson of the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous for his death in the "Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled in the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John Carteret was educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford. Swift says that "with a singularity scarce to be justified he carried away more Greek, Latin and philosophy than properly became a person of his rank." Throughout life Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, but a taste for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures. He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew German. Harte, the author of the _Life of Gustavus Adolphus_, acknowledged the aid which Carteret had given him. On the 17th of October 1710 he married at Longleat Lady Frances Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount Weymouth. He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of Stuart, Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian dynasty. He was a friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and Sunderland, took a share in defeating the Jacobite conspiracy of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen Anne, and supported the passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's interests were however in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His serious work in public life began with his appointment, early in 1719, as ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year he was employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter the Great, and in arranging the pacification of the north. His efforts were finally successful. During this period of diplomatic work he acquired an exceptional knowledge of the affairs of Europe, and in particular of Germany, and displayed great tact and temper in dealing with the Swedish senate, with Queen Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick William I. of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary of state for the southern department on his return home, he soon became helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend and Sir Robert Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every able colleague, or subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, Carteret was exceptionally odious. His capacity to speak German with the king would alone have made Sir Robert detest him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland against Wood's halfpence (see SWIFT, JONATHAN) made it necessary to replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was sent to Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October 1724, and remained there till 1730. In the first months of his tenure of office he had to deal with the furious opposition to Wood's halfpence, and to counteract the effect of Swift's _Draper's Letters_. The lord lieutenant had a strong personal liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady Carteret's family. It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have reconciled his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if government had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn, and Ireland settled down. Carteret was a profuse and popular lord lieutenant who pleased both the "English interest" and the native Irish. He was at all times addicted to lavish hospitality, and according to the testimony of contemporaries was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in 1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of Commons, and as the trusted minister of King George II. He had the full confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced against Carteret. Till the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret could take no share in public affairs except as a leader of opposition of the Lords. His brilliant parts were somewhat obscured by his rather erratic conduct, and a certain contempt, partly aristocratic and partly intellectual, for commonplace men and ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who loved literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having paid the expenses of the first handsome edition of _Don Quixote_ to please her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed himself to be entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between Frederick, prince of Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline was provoked into classing him and Bolingbroke, as "the two most worthless men of parts in the country." Carteret took the popular side in the outcry against Walpole for not making war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession approached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa--mainly on the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would dangerously increase the power of France, even if she gained no accession of territory. These views made him welcome to George II., who gladly accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. In 1743 he accompanied the king of Germany, and was present at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th of June. He held the secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in promoting an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He understood the relations of the European states, and the interests of Great Britain among them. But the defects which had rendered him unable to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him equally unable to contend with the Pelhams. His support of the king's policy was denounced as subservience to Hanover. Pitt called him "an execrable, a sole minister who had renounced the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an identical policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt from Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became Earl Granville on the death of his mother. His first wife died in June 1743 at Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter of Lord Pomfret--a fashionable beauty and "reigning toast" of London society, who was younger than his daughters. "The nuptials of our great Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious performance of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace Walpole. The countess Granville died on the 7th of October 1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, who married Lord Shelburne, 1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may have done something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity. In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the intrigues of the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but resigned in forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president of the council, and was still liked and trusted by the king, but his share in government did not go beyond giving advice, and endeavouring to forward ministerial arrangements. In 1756 he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister as the alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood why the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When in October 1761 Pitt, who had information of the signing of the "Family Compact" wished to declare war on Spain, and declared his intention to resign unless his advice was accepted, Granville replied that "the opinion of the majority (of the Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of Pitt, but resisted his claim to be considered as a "sole minister" or, in the modern phrase, "a prime minister." Whether he used the words attributed to him in the Annual Register for 1761 is more than doubtful, but the minutes of council show that they express his meaning. Granville remained in office as president till his death. His last act was to listen while on his death-bed to the reading of the preliminaries of the treaty of Paris. He was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood, author of an essay on _The Original Genius of Homer_, would have postponed the business, but Granville said that it "could not prolong his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of Sarpedon from _Iliad_ xii. 322-328, repeating the last word ([Greek: iomen]) "with a calm and determined resignation." He died in his house in Arlington Street, London, on the 22nd of January 1763. The title of Granville descended to his son Robert, who died without issue in 1776, when the earldom of this creation became extinct.

A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by
Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of _Lord Carteret, a Political
Biography_.

GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, 13 m. by rail W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is an important railway junction and manufacturing town, producing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks; there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat export works. It became a municipality in 1885.

GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,530. Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it. The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. The principal exports are eggs, vegetables and fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal-founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical manures. Among the public institutions are a tribunal and a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the Iles Chausey about 7-1/2 m. N.W. of Granville (see Channel Islands). Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 1441, bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by the English in 1803.

GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1910) 1394; of the township (1910) 2442. Granville is served by the Toledo & Ohio Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways), Columbus, Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called the Granville Literary and Theological Institution. It was renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name in 1854 in honour of William S. Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, who had given $10,000 to the college. The university comprised in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College (229 students), the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College (246 students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the collegiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies' Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the university, though legally it is still a distinct institution; Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in 1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music (137 students); and a school of art (38 students).

In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land in Ohio, including the site of Granville; the town was laid out, and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass., began to arrive. By January 1806 the colony numbered 234 persons; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village was incorporated in 1831. There are several remarkable Indian mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator.

See Henry Bushnell, _History of Granville, Ohio_ (Columbus, O., 1889).

GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted from the O. Fr. _grape_, mod. _grappe_, bunch or cluster of flowers or fruit, _grappes de raisin_, bunch of grapes. The French word meant properly a hook; cf. M.H.G. _krapfe_, Eng. "grapnel," and "cramp." The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook, cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single grape of a cluster. The projectile called "grape" or "grape-shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered the bullets in a shower somewhat after the fashion of case-shot.

GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometrical figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in statistics. Such tables are usually of single entry, i.e. to a certain value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, value of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it is called, of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually employed. Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, intersecting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates distances are taken corresponding to the related values of the other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the graph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world's production of corn over a number of years be plotted, a poor yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on. Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned. For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph, seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is the representation of photometric data, i.e. the value of the intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a luminous source (see LIGHTING).

The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems is
usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems in
mechanics is treated in MECHANICS, S 5, _Graphic Statics_, and
DIAGRAM. A special phase is presented in VECTOR ANALYSIS.

GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element carbon crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, it is thus indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between the two there are very wide differences in physical characters. Graphite is black and opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and transparent; it is one of the softest (H = 1) of minerals, and diamond the hardest of all; it is a good conductor of electricity, whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The specific gravity is 2.2, that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike diamond, it never occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as imperfect six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are flexible but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is bright and metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus strikingly similar to molybdenite (q.v.).

The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from the Greek [Greek: graphein], "to write," because the mineral is used for making pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago and black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these names are singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. _plumbum_, lead) was originally used for an artificial product obtained from lead ore, and afterwards for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused both with graphite and with molybdenite. The true chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. W. Scheele in 1779.

Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks--gneiss, granulite, schist and crystalline limestone--and also sometimes in granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, or as large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been observed as a product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous clay-slates near their contact with granite, and where igneous rocks have been intruded into beds of coal; in these cases the mineral has clearly been derived from organic matter. The graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as well as that contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an origin. As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark lustrous scales in grey pig-iron, and in the "kish" of iron furnaces: it is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite veins in the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous veins and the material derived from deep-seated sources; the decomposition of metallic carbides by water and the reduction of hydrocarbon vapours have been suggested as possible modes of origin. Such veins often attain a thickness of several feet, and sometimes possess a columnar structure perpendicular to the enclosing walls; they are met with in the crystalline limestones and other Laurentian rocks of New York and Canada, in the gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of Ceylon. Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale mine in Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, probably the richest deposits in the world, supply the American lead pencil manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania and Alabama is "flake" and unsuitable for this purpose.

Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, grate polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The material as mined usually does not contain more than 20 to 50% of graphite: the ore has therefore to be crushed and the graphite floated off in water from the heavier impurities. Even the purest forms contain a small percentage of volatile matter and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially suitable for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities. (L. J. S.)

_Artificial Manufacture._--The alteration of carbon at high temperatures into a material resembling graphite has long been known. In 1893 Girard and Street patented a furnace and a process by which this transformation could be effected. Carbon powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed through a tube in which it was subjected to the action of one or more electric arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 the International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing electric current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are adopted: (1) graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization of anthracite _en masse_. The former includes electrodes, lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some other form of amorphous carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the required article moulded in a press or by a die. The articles are stacked transversely in a furnace, each being packed in granular coke and covered with carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at 220 volts, increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In graphitizing _en masse_ large lumps of anthracite are treated in the electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating carbon with ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the so-called "deflocculated" variety when treated with gallotannic acid. These two modifications are valuable lubricants. The massive graphite is very easily machined and is widely used for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead pencils and the like.

See "Graphite and its Uses," _Bull. Imperial Institute_, (1906) P.
353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, _Graphite_ (Ottawa, 1907). (W. G. M.)

GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose skeletal remains are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally in great abundance. They are usually preserved as branching or unbranching carbonized bodies, tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in shape, their edges regularly toothed or denticulated. Most frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes of black shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their original relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.

Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous investment or supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each tooth-like projection marking the position of the sheath or _theca_ of an individual zooid. Some of the branching forms have a distinct outward resemblance to the polyparies of _Sertularia_ and _Plumularia_ among the recent Hydroida (_Calyptoblastea_); in none of the unbranching forms, however, is the similarity by any means close.

The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the majority range from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples have been met with having a length or more than 30 in.

Very different views have been held as to the systematic place and rank of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them in his group of false fossils (_Graptolithus_ = written stone). At one time they were referred by some to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), and later, by almost general consent, to the Hydroida (Calyptoblastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late years an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own (_Graptolithina_).

There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the _Graptoloidea_ or Graptolites proper, and the _Dendroidea_ or tree-like Graptolites; the former is typified by the unbranched genus _Monograptus_ and the latter by the many-branched genus _Dendrograptus_.

A _Monograptus_ makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like
body (the _sicula_), which represents the flattened covering of the
primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had
originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or
regions--an upper and smaller (_apical_ or embryonic) portion, marked
by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread (the
_nema_) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or _apertural_)
portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the
direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms the
broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with a
perpendicular spine (_virgella_) and occasionally with two shorter
lateral spines or lobes.

A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its
length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial
theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of
the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the
mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial
theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180 deg.
with the direction of that of the sicula.

From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same
direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous
linear series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the
one immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is
effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of
the sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to
grow soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains
permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it
forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third or
fourth theca.

A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or _virgula_) becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall of the polypary, and is sometimes continued distally as a naked rod. It was formerly supposed that a virgula was present in all the Graptoloidea; hence the term _Rhabdophora_ sometimes employed for the Graptoloidea in general, and _rhabdosome_ for the individual polypary; but while the virgula is present in many (Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).

The GRAPTOLOIDEA are arranged in eight families, each named after a characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae; (3) Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) Glossograptidae (sub-family, Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae; (7) Dimorphograptidae; (8) Monograptidae.

In all these families the polypary originates as in _Monograptus_ from a nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards and gives off only a single bud, such branching as may take place occurring at subsequent stages in the growth of the polypary. In some species young examples have been met with in which the nema ends above in a small membranous disk, which has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the underside of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young polypary hung suspended.

Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance in time in the order given above, and show a progressive morphological evolution along certain special lines. There is a tendency for the branches to become reduced in number, and for the serial thecae to become directed more and more upwards towards the line of the nema. In the oldest family--Dichograptidae--in which the branching polypary is bilaterally symmetrical and the thecae uniserial (_monoprionidian_)--there is a gradation from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with only two; and from species in which all the branches and their thecae are directed downwards, through species in which the branches become bent back more and more outwards and upwards, until in some the terminal thecae open almost vertically. In the genus _Phyllograptus_ the branches have become reduced to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls along the line of the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base of the polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal walls, and the polypary thus becomes biserial (_diprionidian_), and the line of the nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, the _nemacaulus_ or virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, the Monograptidae, the branches are theoretically reduced to one, the polypary is uniserial throughout, and all the thecae are directed outwards and upwards.

1, _Diptograptus_, young sicula.
2, _Monograptus dubius_, sicula and first serial theca (partly
restored).
3, Young form (all above after Wiman).
4a, Older form.
4b, Showing virgula (after Holm).
5, _Rastrites distans._
6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman).
7, D. calcaratus.
8, Dimorphograptus.
9, Base of _Didymograptus minulus_ (after Holm).
10, Young _Dictyograptus_, with primary disk.
11, Ibid. _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).
12 a-b, Base and transverse section, _Retiolites Geinitzianus_ (after
Holm).
13, _Bryograptus Kjerulfi_.
14, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_, with central disk.
15, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_.
16, _D. gibberulus_.
17 a-b, _Phyllograptus_ and transverse section.
18, _Nemagraptus gracilis_.
19, _Dicranograptus ramosus_.
20, _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_.
21, _Glossograptus Hincksii_.
22, _Lasiograptus costatus_ (after Elles and Wood).
23, _Dictyonema (-graptus) flabelliforme (-is)_.
24, _Dictyonema (-dendron) peltatum_ with base of attachment.
25, _D. cervicorne_, branches (after Holm).
26, _D. rarum_ (section after Wiman).
27, _Dendrograptus Hallianus_.
28, Synrhabdosome of _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).
S, Sicula.
u, Upper or apical portion.
l, Lower or apertural.
m, Mouth.
N, Nema.
nn, Nemacaulus or virgular tube.
V, Virgula.
vv, Virgella.
zz, Septal strands.
T, Theca.
C, Common canal (in Retiolites).
G, Gonangium.
g, Gonotheca.
b, Budding theca.]

The thecae in the earliest family--Dichograptidae--are so similar in
form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a
colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in those
of the latest family--Monograptidae--in some species of which the
terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (_Rastrites_) and in
some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the families
are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: the spines
are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial forms: in the
Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a marginal meshwork
surrounding the polypary.

_Histologically_, the perisarc or _test_ in the Graptoloidea appears
to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,
and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. The
central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; but in
_Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_ it is thinned down to a fine
membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, and
in _Retiolites_ this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. The
groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,
collectively, as the _Retioloidea_, and the structure as _retioloid_.

It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each graptolite polypary (_rhabdosome_) developed from a single sicula as an individual of the highest order. Certain American forms, however, which are preserved as stellate groups, have been interpreted as complex umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals of a still higher order (_synrhabdosomes_), composed of a number of biserial polyparies (each having a sicula at its outer extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a common centre of origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming bladder and a ring of capsules.

In the DENDROIDEA, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical in shape and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous branches irregularly disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or short basal portion ending below in root-like fibres or in a membranous disk or sheet of attachment. An exception, however, is constituted by the comprehensive genus _Dictyonema_, which embraces species composed of a large number of divergent and sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments into a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes some forms (_Dictyograptus_) which originate from a nema-bearing sicula and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.

Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea little is known, but the more mature stages have been fully worked out. In _Dictyonema_ the branches show thecae of two kinds: (1) the ordinary tubular thecae answering to those of the Graptoloidea and occupied by the nourishing zooids; and (2) the so-called _bithecae_, birdnest-like cups (regarded by their discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately right and left of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third set of thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals. In the genus _Dendrograptus_ the gonothecae open within the walls of the ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward resemblance to those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in striking contrast to what obtains among the Graptoloidea in general, the budding orifices in the Dendroidea become closed, and all the various cells shut off from each other.

The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: the families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera _Dendrograptus_, _Dictyonema_, _Inocaulis_ and _Thamnograptus_.

As regards the _modes of reproduction among the Graptolites_ little is
known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae were
possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some as
nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular
appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked upon
as connected with the reproductive system; and in the umbrella-shaped
_synrhabdosomes_ already referred to, the common centre is surrounded
by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian capsules. The theory
of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies in the Graptoloidea
is, however, disputed by some authorities, and it has been suggested
that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the product of the normal
or sexual mode of propagation in the group, but owes its origin to a
peculiar type of budding or non-sexual reproduction, in which, as
temporary resting or protecting structures, the vesicular bodies may
have had a share.

As respects the _mode of life of the Graptolites_ there can be little doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, sessile or benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the recent Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining attached to the sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The Graptoloidea have also been regarded by some as benthonic organisms. A more prevalent view, however, is that the majority were pseudo-planktonic or drifting colonies, hanging from the underside of floating seaweeds; their polyparies being each suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of growth, and, in later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others became adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may have become broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, at the mercy of the winds and currents, carrying the attached Graptolites into all latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped colonies of colonies (synrhabdosomes) described as provided with a common swimming bladder (pneumatophore?) may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming mode of existence.

The _range of the Graptolites in time_ extends from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have this extended range, the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the close of Silurian time. Both groups make their first appearance together near the end of the Cambrian; but while in the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian the Dendroidea are comparatively rare, the Graptoloidea become the most characteristic and, locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.

The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably short range in geological time; but the geographical distribution of the group as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost world-wide. This combination of circumstances has given the Graptoloidea a paramount stratigraphical importance as palaeontological indices of the detailed sequence and correlation of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many _Graptolite zones_, showing a constant uniformity of succession, paralleled in this respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of the Jurassic, have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, each marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding horizons to those on which they are found in Britain, have been met with in the graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations of other parts of Europe, in America, Australia, New Zealand and elsewhere.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Linnaeus, _Systema naturae_ (12th ed. 1768); Hall,
_Graptolites of the Quebec Group_ (1865); Barrande, _Graptolites de
Boheme_ (1850); Carruthers, _Revision of the British Graptolites_
(1868); H. A. Nicholson, _Monograph of British Graptolites_, pt. 1
(1872); id. and J. E. Marr, _Phylogeny of the Graptolites_ (1895);
Hopkinson, _On British Graptolites_ (1869); Allman, _Monograph of
Gymnoblastic Hydroids_ (1872); Lapworth, _An Improved Classification
of the Rhabdophora_ (1873); _The Geological Distribution of the
Rhabdophora_ (1879, 1880); Walther, _Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere_
(1897); Tullberg, _Skanes Grapioliter_ (1882, 1883); Tornquist,
_Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds_ (1899); Wiman, _Die Graptolithen_
(1895); Holm, _Gotlands Graptoliter_ (1890); Perner, _Graptolites de
Boheme_ (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, _Development and Mode of Growth of
Diplograptus_ (1895-1896); _Graptolites of New York_, vol. i. (1904),
vol. ii. (1908); Frech, _Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden_ (1897);
Elles and Wood, _Monograph of British Graptolites_ (1901-1909).
(C. L.*)

GRASLITZ (Czech, _Kraslice_), a town of Bohemia, on the Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, exclusively German. Graslitz is one of the most important industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manufacture of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in importance are cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing, and the mother-of-pearl industry.

GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district in 1901, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river Rothay and the Keswick-Ambleside road, 12-1/2 m. from Keswick and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful; the valley about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal, and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth's tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the octave of St Oswald's day (August 5th), when a holiday is observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by some from the Roman _Floralia_, but appears also to have been made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, _A Rambler's Note-Book at the English Lakes_, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for an athletic meeting in August.

The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from north to south, and rises so high as to form an island about the middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east of this ridge.

GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural vegetable covering of the soil in most countries is "grass" (for derivation see GRASSES) of various kinds. Even where dense forest or other growth exists, if a little daylight penetrates to the ground grass of some sort or another will grow. On ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried out, the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either be in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, after having been cultivated.

Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, but since the "era of cheap corn" set in its importance has been increased, and much more attention has been given to the study of the different species of grass, their characteristics, the improvement of a pasture generally, and the "laying down" of arable land into grass where tillage farming has not paid. Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their farms--from a third to a half of the area--and even on wholly arable farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops devoted to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation is corn, roots, corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots, corn, grass, grass; the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, flax, grass, grass, grass; and so on, to the point where the grass remains down for 5 years, or is left indefinitely.

Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed as pasture pure and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the latter case it is usually classed as "meadow" land, and often forms an alluvial tract alongside a stream, but as grass is often grazed and hayed in alternate years, the distinction is not a hard and fast one.