Chapter V: Front Matter (5)

Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible of Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments (see GOTHIC LANGUAGE below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F. Bluhme in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_; and the books of _Variae_ of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the West Goths written laws had already been put forth by Euric. The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a _Breviarium_ of Roman law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West Gothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being put forth by King Recceswinth about 654. This code gave occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny (_Geschichte des romischen Rechts_, ii. 65) and various other writers. They are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae, leges_, tome i. (1902). Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, a special source of the history of the West Gothic kings down to Svinthala (621-631). But all the Latin and Greek writers contemporary with the days of Gothic predominance make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work _De Gubernatione Dei_ is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In all such pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways, but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues which the Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, notwithstanding their heresy. All this must have had some groundwork of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful if the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from the doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian. (E. A. F.)

There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the
principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_
(Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, _Geschichte der Westgoten_
(Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, _Die Konige der Germanen_ (1861-1899); E.
von Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (1880-1881); R.
Pallmann, _Die Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864); B.
Rappaport, _Die Einfalle der Goten in das romische Reich_ (Leipzig,
1899), and K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_ (Munich,
1837). Other works which may be consulted are: E. Gibbon, _Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire_, edited by J. B. Bury (1896-1900); H. H.
Milman, _History of Latin Christianity_ (1867); J. B. Bury, _History
of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889); P. Villari, _Le Invasioni
barbariche in Italia_ (Milan, 1901); and F. Martroye, _L'Occident a
l'epoque byzantine: Goths et Vandales_ (Paris, 1903). There is a
popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the "Story of the
Nations" series (London, 1888). For the laws see the _Leges_ in Band
I. of the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges_ (1902). A.
Helfferich, _Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts_ (Berlin,
1858); F. Bluhme, _Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts_ (1872); F.
Dahn, _Lex Visigothorum_. _Westgotische Studien_ (Wurzburg, 1874); C.
Rinaudo, _Leggi dei Visigote, studio_ (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer,
"Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung" in the _Neues Archiv der
Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_. See also the
article on THEODORIC.

_Gothic Language._--Our knowledge of the Gothic language is derived almost entirely from the fragments of a translation of the Bible which is believed to have been made by the Arian bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d. 383) for the Goths who dwelt on the lower Danube. The MSS. which have come down to us and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in Italy (489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete, together with more or less considerable fragments of the four Gospels and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains of the Old Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and Nehemiah. There is also an incomplete commentary (_skeireins_) on St John's Gospel, a fragment of a calendar, and two charters (from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now lost) which contain some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written in a special character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. It is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which indeed most of the letters are obviously derived, and several orthographical peculiarities, e.g. the use of _ai_ for _e_ and _ei_ for _i_ reflect the Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters, however, have been taken over from the Runic and Latin alphabets. Apart from the texts mentioned above, the only remains of the Gothic language are the proper names and occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings, together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a Salzburg MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions on a torque and a spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia) and Kovel (Volhynia) respectively. The language itself, as might be expected from the date of Wulfila's translation, is of a much more archaic type than that of any other Teutonic writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest Northern inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual and the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite erroneous, however, to regard the Gothic fragments as representing a type of language common to all Teutonic nations in the 4th century. Indeed the distinctive characteristics of the language are very marked, and there is good reason for believing that it differed considerably from the various northern and western languages, whereas the differences among the latter at this time were probably comparatively slight (see TEUTONIC LANGUAGES). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that the language of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius (_Vand._ i. 2) states distinctly that the Gothic language was spoken not only by the Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the Vandals and the Gepidae; and in the former case there is sufficient evidence, chiefly from proper names, to prove that his statement is not far from the truth. With regard to the Gepidae we have less information; but since the Goths, according to Jordanes (cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages were at least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (_Vand._ i. 3; _Goth._ i. 1, iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as Gothic nations. The fact that the two former were sprung from the north-east of Germany renders it probable that they had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though non-Teutonic in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the migration period. Some modern writers have included in the same class the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently come from the basin of the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal on the whole hardly justifies the supposition that their language retained a close affinity with Gothic.

In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language--using the term in its widest sense--must have spread over the greater part of Europe together with the north coast of Africa. It disappeared, however, with surprising rapidity. There is no evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is doubtful whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat longer in view of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned above. Possibly the information there given was derived from southern Hungary or Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae were to be found shortly before the Magyar invasion (889). According to Walafridus Strabo (_de Reb. Eccles._ cap. 7) also Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th century) in some churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth the language seems to have survived only among the Goths (_Goti Tetraxitae_) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time by Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constantinople about the middle of the 16th century. He collected a number of words and phrases in use among them which show clearly that their language, though not unaffected by Iranian influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.

See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, _Ulfilas_ (Altenburg and
Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, _Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel_
(Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright,
_A Primer of the Gothic Language_ (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the
references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck,
_Etymologisches Worterbuch d. got. Sprache_ (Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901);
F. Kluge, "Geschichte d. got. Sprache" in H. Paul's _Grundriss d.
germ. Philologie_ (2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg,
_Gotisches Elementarbuch_ (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienberger,
_Beitrage zur Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur_, xxi. 185
ff.; L. F. A. Wimmer, _Die Runenschrift_ (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G.
Stephens, _Handbook to the Runic Monuments_ (London, 1884), p. 203; F.
Wrede, _Uber die Sprache der Wandalen_ (Strassburg, 1886). For further
references see K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen_, p. 432 f. (where earlier
references to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, _op. cit._,
p. 515 ff.; and O. Bremer, _ib._ vol. iii., p. 822. (H. M. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864).

GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, lying between 57 deg. and 58 deg. N., and having a length from S.S.W. to N.N.E. of 75 m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area of 1142 sq. m. The nearest point on the mainland is 50 m. from the westernmost point of the island. With the island Faro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe, off the west coast, and Gotska Sando, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the administrative district (_lan_) of Gotland. The island is a level plateau of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering, free-standing columns of limestone (_raukar_). A few low isolated hills rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although in parts dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors have been largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive sand-dunes in the north. As usual in a limestone formation, some of the streams have their courses partly below the surface, and caverns are not infrequent. Less than half the total area is under forest, the extent of which was formerly much greater. Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially the first, which is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The sugar-beet is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government sheep farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging principally to an old native breed, yellow and horned. Some lime-burning, cement-making and sea-fishing are carried on. The capital of the island is Visby, on the west coast. There are over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby N.E. to Tingstade and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to Klintehamn, a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn on the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no villages remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one of the richest commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to the 14th century, and its prosperity was shared by the whole island. It retains ten churches besides the cathedral. The massive towers of the village churches are often detached, and doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches of Roma, Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Larbo may be specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at Dalhem near Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect distinguished from that of any part of the Swedish mainland. Pop. of _lan_ (1900) 52,781.

Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was christianized by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from his exile at Kiev. He dedicated the first church in the island to St Peter at Visby. At that time Visby had long been one of the most important trading towns in the Baltic, and the chief distributing centre of the oriental commerce which came to Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century, it became the chief depot for the produce of the eastern Baltic countries, including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony (11th century or earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although Visby was an independent member of the Hanseatic League, the influence of Lubeck was paramount in the city, and half its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed, Bjorkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German (Hanseatic) foundation, dating principally from the middle of the 12th century. However that may be, the importance of Visby in the sea trade of the North is conclusively attested by the famous code of maritime law which bears its name. This _Waterrecht dat de Kooplude en de Schippers gemakt hebben to Visby_ ("sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made at Visby") was a compilation based upon the Lubeck code, the Oleron code and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed in Low German in 1505, but in all probability had its origin about 1240, or not much later (see SEA LAWS). By the middle of the the city was so great that, according to an old ballad, "the Gotlanders weighed out gold with stone weights and played with the choicest jewels. The swine ate out of silver troughs, and the women spun with distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too strong a temptation for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In 1361 he invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the city walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the islanders who fell) and plundered the city. From this blow it never recovered, its decay being, however, materially helped by the fact that for the greater part of the next 150 years it was the stronghold of successive freebooters or sea-rovers--first, of the Hanseatic privateers called Vitalienbrodre or Viktualienbruder, who made it their stronghold during the last eight years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights, whose Grand Master drove out the "Victuals Brothers," and kept the island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too Erik XIII. (the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark by his own subjects, established himself in 1437, and for a dozen years waged piracy upon Danes and Swedes alike. After him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish lords, who down to the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates' stronghold of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Soren Norrby, the last supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause was lost, waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships and others from the same convenient base. But this led to an expedition by the men of Lubeck, who partly destroyed Visby in 1525. By the peace of Stettin (1570) Gotland was confirmed to the Danish crown, to which it had been given by Queen Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at length restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the Danes, and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.

The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a spirit of independence, and their relations with Sweden were curious. The island at one period paid an annual tribute of 60 marks of silver to Sweden, but it was clearly recognized that it was paid by the desire of the Gotlanders, and not enforced by Sweden. The pope recognized their independence, and it was by their own free will that they came under the spiritual charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the written _Gotland Law_, which dates not later than the middle of the 13th century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the measures adopted by this body, and there was no Swedish judge or other official in the island. Visby had a system of government and rights independent of, and in some measure opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems clear that there were at one time two separate corporations, for the native Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that these were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native Gotlanders were not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole--even intermarriage was illegal--but Germans, on account of their commercial pre-eminence in the island, were excepted.

See C. H. Bergman, _Gotland's geografi och historia_ (Stockholm, 1898)
and _Gotlandska skildringar och minnen_ (Visby, 1902); A. T. Snobohm,
_Gotlands land och folk_ (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler, _Bidrag till
en Gotlandsk bibliografi_ (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand, _Visby
och dess Minnesmarken_ (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); A. Bjorkander, _Till
Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia_ (1898), where most of the literature
dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of the author's
arguments require criticism. For local government and rights see K.
Hegel, _Stadter und Gilden im Mittelalter_ (book iii. ch. iii.,
Leipzig, 1891).

GOTO ISLANDS [GOTO RETTO, GOTTO], a group of islands belonging to Japan, lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 deg. N., 129 deg. E. The southern of the two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures 17 m. by 13-1/2; the northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by 7-1/2. These islands lie almost in the direct route of steamers plying between Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command the old castle-town of Fukae. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.

GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet and dramatist, was born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. After the completion of his university career at Gottingen, he was appointed second director of the Archive of his native town, and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In 1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous _Gottinger Musenalmanach_. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where he belonged to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years later he took up his permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on the 18th of March 1797. Gotter was the chief representative of French taste in the German literary life of his time. His own poetry is elegant and polished, and in great measure free from the trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of imitators of French literature; but he was lacking in the imaginative depth that characterizes the German poetic temperament. His plays, of which _Merope_ (1774), an adaptation in admirable blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and _Medea_ (1775), a _melodrame_, are best known, were mostly based on French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting the formlessness and irregularity of the _Sturm und Drang_ drama.

Gutter's collected _Gedichte_ appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; a
third volume (1802) contains his _Literarischer Nachlass_. See B.
Litzmann, _Schroder und Gotter_ (1887), and R. Schlosser, _F. W.
Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1894).

GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von der Vogelweide, and his epic _Tristan_ was written about the year 1210. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as he is entitled _Meister_, never _Herr_, by his contemporaries; his poem--the only work that can with any certainty be attributed to him--bears witness to a learned education. The story of _Tristan_ had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the French _trouveres_ of the early 12th century, and had already found its way into Germany before the close of that century, in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version is based not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a _trouvere_ Thomas, who seems to have been more popular with contemporaries. A comparison of the German epic with the French original is, however, impossible, as Chretien's _Tristan_ is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few fragments have come down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage which Tristan, a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal (Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's bride. On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other. The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which the two lovers ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where he marries another Isolde--"Isolde with the white hands"--without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. At this point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close of the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, Ulrich von Turheim and Heinrich von Freiberg--the latter much the superior--who have supplied the conclusion. After further love adventures Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned spear in Normandy; the "blond Isolde," as the only person who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, a black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concerning the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side in Kurnewal.

It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence of his French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French; he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing and seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never for a moment disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from moralizing which was easier to attain in the 13th than in later centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and rhythms than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, and indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent that proved fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression is concerned, Gottfried's _Tristan_ is the masterpiece of the German court epic.

Gottfried's _Tristan_ has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman
(Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed.,
Leipzig,1890-1891); by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K.
Marold (1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H.
Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best of
all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The
continuation of Ulrich von Turheim will be found in Massman's edition;
that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited by R.
Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, "Gottfrieds von
Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle" in the _Zeit. fur deut. Alt._
xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, _Die Sage von Tristan und
Isolde_ (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, _L'Originalite de Gottfried de
Strasbourg dans son poeme de Tristan et Isolde_ (Lille, 1905). K.
Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840),
R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, _Tristan
und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877).

GOTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg (1200 ft.), in the broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. from Hanover, on the railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, (1905) 34,030. It is traversed by the Leine canal, which separates the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from Masch, and is surrounded by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees and form an agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the town are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant churches of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a high tower (290 ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th century and restored in 1880, and the numerous university buildings, Gottingen possesses few structures of any public importance. There are several thriving industries, including, besides the various branches of the publishing trade, the manufacture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and other scientific instruments.

The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by George II. in 1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading position, and in 1823 its students numbered 1547. Political disturbances, in which both professors and students were implicated, lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the famous seven professors--_Die Gottinger Sieben_--viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876); the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860); the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); the historian, Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),--for protesting against the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in 1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government. In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529. The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz, and, adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols, and 5300 MSS., the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. There is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological, ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable being Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory, long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals, all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences (_Konigliche Sozietat der Wissenschaften_) founded by Albrecht von Haller, which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members and publishes the well-known _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_. There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger.

The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs in documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal rights from the German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 1286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick-Gottingen. During the 14th century it held a high place among the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly in 1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought into importance by the establishment of its university; and a marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the 18th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of young poets of the _Sturm und Drang_ period of German literature, known as the _Gottingen Dichterbund_ or _Hainbund_ (see GERMANY: _Literature_).

See Freusdorff, _Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Gottingen,
1887); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen_, edited by G. Schmidt,
A. Hasselblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, _Gottingen und die Georgia
Augusta_ (1861); and _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha, 1872); and O.
Mejer, _Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Gottingen_ (1889).

GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical scholar, was born at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part in the war against France in 1814, and finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of January 1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: _Uber das Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _Nibelungen und Gibelinen_ (1817). The greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucidation of Greek authors. The contents of his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassischen Altertum_ (1851-1863) and _Opuscula Academica_ (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. He edited the [Greek: Techne] (grammatical manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's _Politics_ (1824), and _Economics_ (1830) and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his _Allgemeine Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache_ (1835), enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) as the _Elements of Greek Accentuation_; and of his _Correspondence with Goethe_ (published 1880).

See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. Lothholz
(Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the _Opuscula Academica_),
and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, ix.

GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), German theologian, was born near Mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his parents,--his father was a Saxon, Count Bern,--to the monastic life. He was trained at the monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrieres. In June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his master--Gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of election. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, _chorepiscopus_ of Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy, preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two violent letters to Notting and Eberhard, he travelled through Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted, however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over to Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at Quierzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of France and Germany. A great controversy resulted. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of Lyons wrote in his favour. Hincmar wrote _De praedestinatione_ and _De una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of Valence (855) and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope Nicolas I. took up the case, and summoned Hincmar to the council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could not or would not appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when Hincmar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 30th of October between 866 and 870.

Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by L. Traube in _Monumenta Germaniae historica: Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_ (t. iii. 707-738). Some fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferrieres.

From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, much
has been written on him. Mention may be made of two recent studies, F.
Picavet, "Les Discussions sur la liberte au temps de Gottschalk, de
Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in _Comptes rendus de l'acad.
des sciences morales et politiques_ (Paris, 1896); and A. Freystedt,
"Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und Lehre," in _Zeitschrift fur
Kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii.

GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of letters, was born at Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early education at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During this period of unrest he issued _Lieder der Gegenwart_ (1842) and _Zensurfluchtlinge_ (1843)--the poetical fruits of his political enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree of _doctor juris_ in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the _venia legendi_. His political views again stood in the way, and forsaking the legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as dramaturge in Konigsberg with _Der Blinde von Alcala_ (1846) and _Lord Byron in Italien_ (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years lived in Silesia. In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in 1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in 1877, by the king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix "von," having been previously made a _Geheimer Hofrat_ by the grand duke of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the _Brockhaus'sche Blatter fur litterarische Unterhaltung_ and the monthly periodical _Unsere Zeit_. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.

Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of poetry, novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes of lyric poetry are _Sebastopol_ (1856), _Janus_ (1873), _Bunte Bluten_ (1891). Among his epics, _Carlo Zeno_ (1854), _Maja_ (1864), dealing with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and _Merlins Wanderungen_ (1887). The comedy _Pitt und Fox_ (1854), first produced on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned _Die Welt des Schwindels_ and _Der Spion von Rheinsberg_. The tragedies, _Mazeppa_, _Catharine Howard_, _Amy Robsart_ and _Der Gotze von Venedig_, were very successful; and the historical novels, _Im Banne des schwarzen Adlers_ (1875; 4th ed., 1884), _Die Erbschaft des Blutes_ (1881), _Die Tochter Rubezahls_ (1889), and _Verkummerte Existenzen_ (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent work. His _Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and _Poetik_ (1858; 6th ed., 1903) command the respect of all students of literature.

Gottschall's collected _Dramatische Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. in
1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography,
_Aus meiner Jugend_ (1898).

GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German author and critic, was born on the 2nd of February 1700, at Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the son of a Lutheran clergyman. He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native town, but immediately on taking the degree of _Magister_ in 1723, fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde," was a well-known poet and also president of the _Deutschubende poetische Gesellschaft_ in Leipzig. Of this society Gottsched was elected "Senior" in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the _Deutsche Gesellschaft_. In 1730 he was appointed extraordinary professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of December 1766.

Gottsched's chief work was his _Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst fur die Deutschen_ (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His _Ausfuhrliche Redekunst_ (1728) and his _Grundlegung einer_ _deutschen Sprachkunst_ (1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which _Der sterbende Cato_ (1732), an adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. In his _Deutsche Schaubuhne_ (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, _Notiger Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst_ (1757-1765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws of French classicism; he enunciated rules by which the playwright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded a healthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste which were rampant in the German literature of the time, Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules; they pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton. Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he was inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly.

His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762), in some respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, of which _Das Testament_ is the best, and translated the _Spectator_ (9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's _Rape of the Lock_ (1744) and other English and French works. After her death her husband edited her _Samtliche kleinere Gedichte_ with a memoir (1763).

See T. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.
Cruger, Gottsched, _Bodmer, und Breitinger_ (with selections from
their writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, _Die Poetik Gottscheds
und der Schweizer_ (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, _Gottscheds Stellung
im deutschen Bildungsleben_ (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek,
_Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1897). On
Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, _Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche
Komodie_ (Berlin, 1886).

GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was born at Worms on the 9th of July 1721. He studied theology at Halle (1739-1742), where he became intimate with the poets Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, acted for some years as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesiastical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of November 1781. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of Anacreon. His original compositions are light, lively and sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than by German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is _Die Madcheninsel_, an elegy which met with the warm approval of Frederick the Great.

Gotz's _Vermischte Gedichte_ were published with biography by K. W.
Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of his poems,
dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by C. Schuddekopf in
the _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1893).
See also _Briefe von und an J. N. Gotz_, edited by C. Schuddekopf
(1893).

GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. _guazzo_ (probably in origin connected with "wash"), meaning literally a "ford," but used also for a method of painting in opaque water-colour. The colours are mixed with or painted in a vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true water-colours the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through a translucent wash in "gouache," these are obtained by white or other light colour. "Gouache" is frequently used in miniature painting.

GOUDA (or TER GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence with the Ysel, and a junction station 12-1/2 m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1900) 22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven (5-1/2m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on the Ysel; and there is a regular steamboat service in various directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe; Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out in a fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must be given to the Groote Kerk of St John. It was founded in 1485, but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, and is remarkable for its dimensions (345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ, and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists, including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1577) and Wouter (d. c. 1590) Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see _Explanation of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c._, Gouda, 1876, reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy buildings are the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem (1608-1669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers (d. c. 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda, 1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women and a music hall.

In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly derived from brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured. In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the Ysel furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a yarn factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the subsequent sack and massacre.

GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century, was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besancon, for in his edition of the songs of Arcadelt, as well as in the mass of 1554, he calls himself "natif de Besancon" and "Claudius Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances the theory of Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that, in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris, where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 1555, a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved to have originated in popular tunes found in the collections of this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the Psalms in the same metres having been published at an early date. Although the French version of the Psalms was at first used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet's Biographie (_Annales franc-cuntoises_, Besancon, 1898, P. Jacquin) it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, Goudimel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to "les ennemis de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants envieux de l'honneur qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to his Roman period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus the work entitled _Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo musico auctore, nunc primum in lucem editae_, contains one mass by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection, _La Fleur des chansons des deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre temps_, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso. Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's _Domine quid multiplicati sunt_.

GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned the estate of Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. _Guillaume Gouffier_, chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate enemy of Jacques Coeur, obtaining his condemnation and afterwards receiving his property (1491). He had a great number of children, several of whom played a part in history. Artus, seigneur de Boisy (c. 1475-1520) was entrusted with the education of the young count of Angouleme (Francis I.), and on the accession of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand master of the royal household, playing an important part in the government; to him was given the task of negotiating the treaty of Noyon in 1516; and shortly before his death the king raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy to the rank of a duchy, that of Roannais, in his favour. ADRIEN GOUFFIER (d. 1523) was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France. GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral. of France (see BONNIVET). CLAUDE GOUFFIER, son of Artus, was created comte de Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy (1564).

There were many branches of this family, the chief of them being the dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of Crevecoeur and of Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, and of Espagny. The name of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th century by a branch of the house of Choiseul. (M. P.*)

GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), surnamed DE CHARPAIGNE, French chancellor, was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon of Bourges, in 1402 he became treasurer to John, duke of Berri, and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was arrested by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean de Montaigu (1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then banished. Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a member of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415, he was transferred from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand. In May 1418, when the Burgundians re-entered Paris, he only escaped death at their hands by taking refuge in the Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall into the hands of his enemy, the duke de la Tremoille, who imprisoned him in the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. He endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party to the selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but had to resign his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; first from March 25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La Tremoille had supplanted Richmond. After the fall of La Tremoille in 1433 he returned to court, and exercised a powerful influence over affairs of state almost till his death, which took place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dome) on the 25th or 26th of November 1444.

See Hiver's account in the _Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires du
Centre_, p. 267 (1869); and the _Nouvelle Biographie generale_, vol.
xxi.

GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. _gouge_, derived from the Late Lat. _gubia_ or _gulbia_, in Ducange _gulbium_, an implement _ad hortum excolendum_, and also _instrumentum ferreum in usu fabrorum_; according to the _New English Dictionary_ the word is probably of Celtic origin, _gylf_, a beak, appearing in Welsh, and _gilb_, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool of the chisel type with a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or channel in wood, stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in surgery for operations involving the excision of portions of bone. "Gouge" is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for impressing a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed. In mining, a "gouge" is the layer of soft rock or earth sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more easily from the side. The verb "to gouge" is used in the sense of scooping or forcing out.