Chapter VIII: Part 8

A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of building the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical sections. Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and those working independently are formed on the sectional principle, which has many good points. The parts are easy of transport and can be handled without difficulty through narrow doorways and in confined situations. The size of the boiler may be increased or diminished by the addition or subtraction of one or more sections; these, being simple in design, are easily fitted together, and should a section become defective it is a simple matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose of repair to disconnect and remove the whole apparatus, the heating system of which it forms a part being in the meantime useless. In a type built with vertical sections each division is complete in itself, and is not directly connected with the next section, but communicates with flow and return drums. A defective section may thus be left in position and stopped off by means of plugs from the drums until it is convenient to fit a new one in its place. A boiler with horizontal sections is shown in fig. 15; it will be seen that each of the upper sections has a number of cross waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box and intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great economy of fuel.

Safety valves.

In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion pipe already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure occurring in the boiler; should, however, the pipes become blocked in any way while the apparatus is in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting of the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet it would in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a safety valve should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected thereto with a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve may be of the dead weight (fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) or diaphragm variety. The three first named are largely used. In the diaphragm valve a thin piece of metal is fixed to an outlet from the boiler, and when a moderate pressure is exceeded this gives way, allowing the water and steam to escape.

Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer metal inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the heat of the water rise above a certain temperature.

Geysers.

A "Geyser" is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating a quantity of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper or wrought iron is passed through a cylinder in which gas or oil heating burners are placed. The piping takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the outlet is reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature. By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, greater or smaller in proportion to the size and power of the apparatus. The improved types of gas geysers are provided with a single control to both gas and water supplies, with a small "pilot" burner to ignite the gas. A flue should in all cases be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.

Incrustation.

In districts where the water is of a "hard nature," that is, contains bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the boiler, cylinders, tanks and pipes of a hot water system will become incrusted with a deposit of lime which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated to boiling point. With "very hard" water this deposit may require removal every three months; in London it is usual to clean out the boiler every six months and the cylinders and tanks at longer intervals. For this purpose manlids must be provided (figs. 13 and 14), and pipes should be fitted with removable caps at the bends to allow for periodical cleaning. The lime deposit or "fur" is a poor conductor of heat, and it is therefore most detrimental to the efficiency of the system to allow the interior of the boiler or any other portion to become furred up. Further, if not removed, the fur will in a short time bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails a disadvantage of another character--that of corroding iron and lead work, soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action upon these metals. In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as large an extent as possible.

The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent required when the external air is at freezing point (32 deg. Fahr.):--

+-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
| | | Cubic Feet of Air heated by |
| | | 1 sq. ft. of Radiator or |
| Description of Building | Temperature | Pipe Surface. |
| to be heated. | required. +-----------------------------+
| | | Low Pressure | Low Pressure |
| | | Water. | Steam. |
+-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
| Dwelling rooms | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 85-90 | 115-125 |
| Schools | 60 deg. | 90-100 | 120-130 |
| Churches and chapels | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 100-120 | 135-160 |
| Offices and shops | 55 deg.-60 deg. | 120-125 | 160-170 |
| Public halls, workshops,| | | |
| waiting-rooms | 55 deg. | 130-150 | 175-200 |
| Warehouses, stores | 50 deg.-55 deg. | 140-160 | 190-220 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+

Steam supply at Lockport.

In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in New York state, America, an interesting example of the direct application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a pressure of 35 lb. to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in. in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 1(1/2) in. in diameter, and 3/4-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators, for heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for an installation from L30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to L100 or more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.

The principal publications on heating are: Hood, _Practical Treatise
on Warming Buildings by Hot Water_; Baldwin, _Hot Water Heating and
Fittings_; Baldwin, _Steam Heating for Buildings_; Billings,
_Ventilation and Heating_; Carpenter, _Heating and Ventilating
Buildings_; Jones, _Heating by Hot Water_, _Ventilation and Hot Water
Supply_; Dye, _Hot Water Supply_. (J. Bt.)

HEAVEN (O. Eng. _hefen_, _heofon_, _heofone_; this word appears in O.S. _hevan_; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. _Himmel_, Dutch _hemel_; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the suggestion that it is connected with "to heave," in the sense of something "lifted up," is erroneous), properly the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault above the earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be placed, the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region of winds, rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven and the earth together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, and still in poetical language, make up the universe. In the cosmogonies of many ancient peoples there was a plurality of heavens, probably among the earlier Hebrews, the idea being elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the Babylonians and in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the higher transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven. Heaven, as in the Hebrew _shamayim_, the Greek [Greek: ouranos], the Latin _caelum_, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see ESCHATOLOGY and PARADISE).

HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813-1863), German poet and dramatist, was born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813. Though only the son of a poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for poetry, which was first displayed to the world by the publication, in the Hamburg _Modezeitung_, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe (1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery tales. Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several of her friends on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg and there prepare himself for the university. A year later he went to Heidelberg to study law, but finding this uncongenial he passed on to the university of Munich, where he devoted himself to philosophy, history and literature. In 1839 Hebbel left Munich and wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where he resumed his relations with Elsie Lensing, whose self-sacrificing assistance had helped him over the darkest days in Munich. In the same year he wrote his first tragedy _Judith_ (published 1841), which in the following year was performed in Hamburg and Berlin and made his name known throughout Germany. In 1840 he wrote the tragedy _Genoveva_, and the following year finished a comedy, _Der Diamant_, which he had begun at Munich. In 1842 he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the king of Denmark a small travelling studentship, which enabled him to spend some time in Paris and two years (1844-1846) in Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine "tragedy of common life," _Maria Magdalene_ (1844). On his return from Italy Hebbel met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to remain, and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best intellectual society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted life of ease had its effect. The old precarious existence became a horror to him, he made a deliberate breach with it by marrying (in 1846) the beautiful and wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who had given up all for him and who remained faithful till her death, on the ground that "a man's first duty is to the most powerful force within him, that which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the world": in his case the poetical faculty, which would have perished "in the miserable struggle for existence." This "deadly sin," which, "if peace of conscience be the test of action," was, he considered, the best act of his life, established his fortunes. Elise, however, still provided useful inspiration for his art. As late as 1855, shortly after her death, he wrote the little epic _Mutter und Kind_, intended to show that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal. Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German sovereigns bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he was feted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation to take up his residence at Weimar, where several of his plays were first performed. He remained, however, at Vienna until his death on the 13th of December 1863.

Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel's principal tragedies are _Herodes und Mariamne_ (1850); _Julia_ (1851); _Michel Angelo_ (1851); _Agnes Bernauer_ (1855); _Gyges und sein Ring_ (1856), and the magnificently conceived trilogy _Die Nibelungen_ (1862), his last work (consisting of a prologue, _Der gehornte Siegfried_, and the tragedies, _Siegfrieds Tod_ and _Kriemhilds Rache_), which won for the author the Schiller prize. Of his comedies _Der Diamant_ (1847), _Der Rubin_ (1850), and the tragi-comedy _Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien_ (1845), are the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity. All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of his lyric poems, and especially in _Mutter und Kind_, published in 1859, Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.

His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols., Hamburg,
1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best
critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to
which have been added Hebbel's Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6
vols.). Hebbel's _Briefwechsel mit Freunden und beruhmten
Zeitgenossen_ was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief
biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner
(1905). See also L. A. Frankl, _Zur Biographie F. Hebbels_ (1884); T.
Poppe, _F. Hebbel und sein Drama_ (1900); A. Scheunert, _Der
Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Asthetik Hebbels_
(1903); E. A. Georgy, _Die Tragodie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt_
(1904).

HEBBURN, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 4(1/2) m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881), 11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive shipbuilding and engineering works, rope and sail factories, chemical, colour and cement works, and collieries.

HEBDEN BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Calder and Hebden rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. The town has cotton factories, dye-works, foundries and manufactories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley, between Halifax and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of which consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated, but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate surroundings is remarkable.

HEBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the goddess of youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female counterpart of Ganymede, and acts as cupbearer to the gods (_Iliad_, iv. 2). She was the special attendant of her mother, whose horses she harnessed (_Iliad_, v. 722). When Heracles was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him in marriage (_Odyssey_, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic age, which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe was replaced by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To account for her retirement from her office, it was said that she fell down in the presence of the gods while handing the wine, and was so ashamed that she refused to appear before them again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance with the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus and Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera are often identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of Aphrodite; at Phlius, a festival called [Greek: Kissotomoi] (the days of ivy-cutting) was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, ii. 13); and ivy was sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis of Heracles and his marriage with Hebe became a favourite subject with poets and painters, and many instances occur on vases. In later art she is often represented, like Ganymede, caressing the eagle.

See R. Kekule, _Hebe_ (1867), mainly dealing with the representations
of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's
_Dictionnaire des antiquites_.

The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the goddess into a mere personification of the eternal youth that belongs to the gods, and this conception is frequently met with. Then she becomes identical with the Roman Juventas, who is simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter Juventus, the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel was dedicated in very early times in the _cella_ of Minerva in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected the legend of Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods refused to give way when it was being built--an indication of the eternal solidity and youth of Rome. The cult of Juventas did not, however, become firmly established until the time of the second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline books ordered a lectisternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in honour of Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the personification, not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, who assumed the attributes of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G. Wissowa in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_).

HEBEL, JOHANN PETER (1760-1826), German poet and popular writer, was born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. The father dying when the child was little over a year old, he was brought up amidst poverty-stricken conditions in the village of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received his earliest education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who enabled him to complete his school education and to study theology (1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university course he was for a time a private tutor, then became teacher at the Gymnasium in Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director of the school. He was subsequently appointed member of the Consistory and "evangelical prelate." He died at Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of September 1826. Hebel is one of the most widely read of all German popular poets and writers. His poetical narratives and lyric poems, written in the "Alemanic" dialect, are "popular" in the best sense. His _Allemannische Gedichte_ (1803) "bucolicize," in the words of Goethe, "the whole world in the most attractive manner" (_verbauert das ganze Universum auf die anmutigste Weise_). Indeed, few modern German poets surpass him in fidelity, _naivete_, humour, and in the freshness and vigour of his descriptions. His poem, _Die Wiese_, has been described by Johannes Scherr as the "pearl of German idyllic poetry"; while his prose writings, especially the narratives and essays contained in the _Schatzkastlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes_ (Tubingen, 1811; new edition, Stuttg. 1869, 1888), belong to the best class of German stories, and according to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868) in his _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ are "worth more than a cartload of novels" (_wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf_). Memorials have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.

A complete edition of Hebel's works--_Samtliche Werke_--was first
published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions
appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt,
2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited
by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel's
correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Langin,
_J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild_ (1894), and the introduction to
Behaghel's edition.

HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, was born at Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April 1783. His father, who belonged to an old Yorkshire family, held a moiety of the living of Malpas. Reginald Heber early showed remarkable promise, and was entered in November 1800 at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a distinguished student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled _Carmen seculare_, an English poem on _Palestine_, and a prose essay on _The Sense of Honour_. In November 1804 he was elected a fellow of All Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished university career, he made a long tour in Europe. He was admitted to holy orders in 1807, and was then presented to the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1809 Heber married Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He was made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton lecturer for 1815, preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and bishop of Calcutta in January 1823. Before sailing for India he received the degree of D.D. from the university of Oxford. In India Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the spread of Christianity throughout the East. He undertook numerous tours in India, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told severely on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A statue of him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.

Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste and great practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his hymns, which rank among the best in the English language. The following may be instanced: "Lord of mercy and of might"; "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning"; "By cool Siloam's shady rill"; "God, that madest earth and heaven"; "The Lord of might from Sinai's brow"; "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty"; "From Greenland's icy mountains"; "The Lord will come, the earth shall quake"; "The Son of God goes forth to war." Heber's hymns and other poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical than poetical in the strict sense.

Among Heber's works are: _Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the
Passage of the Red Sea_ (1809); _Europe: Lines on the Present War_
(1809); a volume of poems in 1812; _The Personality and Office of the
Christian Comforter asserted and explained_ (being the Bampton
Lectures for 1815); _The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a
Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings_
(1822); _Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the
Year, principally by Bishop Heber_ (1827); _A Journey through India_
(1828); _Sermons preached in England_, and _Sermons preached in India_
(1829); _Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every
Sunday in the Year_ (1837). _The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber_
were collected in 1841.

See the _Life of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..._, by his widow, Amelia Heber
(1830), which also contains a number of Heber's miscellaneous
writings; _The Last Days of Bishop Heber_, by Thomas Robinson, A.M.,
archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious
Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, by
Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).

HEBER, RICHARD (1773-1833), English book-collector, the half-brother of Reginald Heber, was born in London on the 5th of January 1773. As an undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely classical library, but his taste broadening, he became interested in early English drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection of rare books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales, purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and who dedicated to him the sixth canto of _Marmion_, classed Heber's library as "superior to all others in the world"; Campbell described him as "the fiercest and strongest of all the bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. "No gentleman," he remarked, "can be without three copies of a book, one for show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did his library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, some on the Continent. It is estimated to have cost over L100,000, and after his death the sale of that part of his collection stored in England realized more than L56,000. He is known to have owned 150,000 volumes, and probably many more. He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire and Yorkshire, and was sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member of Parliament for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of October 1833.

HEBERDEN, WILLIAM (1710-1801), English physician, was born in London in 1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship about 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge nearly ten years longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course of lectures on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled in London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1749, and enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. At the age of seventy-two he partially retired, spending his summers at a house which he had taken at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London during the winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in London on the 17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good classical scholar, published several papers in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, and among his noteworthy contributions to the _Medical Transactions_ (issued, largely at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians) were papers on chicken-pox (1767) and angina pectoris (1768). His _Commentarii de morborum historia et curatione_, the result of careful notes made in his pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in 1802; in the following year an English translation appeared, believed to be from the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), also a distinguished scholar and physician, who attended King George III. in his last illness.

HEBERT, EDMOND (1812-1890), French geologist, was born at Villefargau, Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was educated at the College de Meaux, Auxerre, and at the Ecole Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became professor at Meaux, in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the Ecole Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. es Sc. was conferred upon him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the Sorbonne. There he was eminently successful as a teacher, and worked with great zeal in the field, adding much to the knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He devoted, however, special attention to the subdivisions of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation with the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe the first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological zones (see Table in _Geol. Mag._, 1869, p. 200). During his later years he was regarded as the leading geologist in France. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1877, Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he was three times president of the Geological Society of France. He died in Paris on the 4th of April 1890.

HEBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794), French Revolutionist, called "Pere Duchesne," from the newspaper he edited, was born at Alencon, on the 15th of November 1757, where his father, who kept a goldsmith's shop, had held some municipal office. His family was ruined, however, by a lawsuit while he was still young, and Hebert came to Paris, where in his struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the accusations of theft directed against him later by Camille Desmoulins were, however, without foundation. In 1790 he attracted attention by some pamphlets, and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On the 10th of August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune of Paris, and became second substitute of the _procureur_ of the Commune on the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks on the Girondists led to his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but he was released owing to the threatening attitude of the mob. Henceforth very popular, Hebert organized with P. G. Chaumette (q.v.) the "worship of Reason," in opposition to the theistic cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom he tried to excite a popular movement. The failure of this brought about the arrest of the Hebertists, or _enrages_, as his partisans were called. Hebert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, who had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hebert's influence was mainly due to his articles in his journal _Le Pere Duchesne_,[1] which appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, while not lacking in a certain cleverness, were violent and abusive, and purposely couched in foul language in order to appeal to the mob.

See Louis Duval, "Hebert chez lui," in _La Revolution Francaise, revue
d'histoire moderne et contemporaine_, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,
_J. R. Hebert, l'auteur du Pere Duchesne avant la journee du 10 aout
1792_ (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, _Le Culte de
la raison et de l'etre supreme_ (Paris, 1892).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] There were several journals of this name, the best known of the
others being that edited by Lemaire.

HEBREW LANGUAGE. The name "Hebrew" is derived, through the Greek [Greek: Hebraios], from _'ibhray_, the Aramaic equivalent of the Old Testament word _'ibhri_, denoting the people who commonly spoke of themselves as Israel or Children of Israel from the name of their common ancestor (see JEWS). The later derivative _Yisra'eli_, Israelite, from Yisra'el, is not found in the Old Testament.[1] Other names used for the language of Israel are _speech of Canaan_ (Isa. xix. 18) and _Yehudhith_, Jewish, (2 Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the _holy tongue_. The real meaning of the word _'ibhri_ must ultimately be sought in the root _'abhar_, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is derived the noun _'ebher_, meaning the "farther bank" of a river. The usual explanation of the term is that of Jewish tradition that _'ibhri_ means the man "from the other side," i.e. either of the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence the Septuagint in Gen. xiv. 13 render Abram _ha-'ibhri_ by [Greek: ho perates], the "crosser," and Aquila, following the same tradition, has [Greek: ho peraites], the man "from beyond." This view of course implies that the term was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a people living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has been suggested that the root _'abhar_ is to be taken in the sense of "travelling," and that Abram the wandering Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5) was called _ha-'ibhri_ because he travelled about for trading purposes, his language, _'ibhri_, being the _lingua franca_ of Eastern trade. The use of the term [Greek: hebraisti] for biblical Hebrew is first found in the Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 130 B.C.). In the New Testament it denotes the native language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being popularly confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name Hebrew is applied to that branch of the northern part of the Semitic family of languages which was used by the Israelites during most of the time of their national existence in Palestine, and in which nearly all their sacred writings are composed. As to its characteristics and relation to other languages of the same stock, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES. It also includes the later forms of the same language as used by Jewish writers after the close of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical Hebrew) and to the present day (New Hebrew).

Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular opinion that Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from which all others were descended. This belief, derived from the Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. 1), was supported by the etymologies and other data supplied by the early chapters of Genesis. But though Hebrew possesses a very old literature, it is not, as we know it, structurally as early as, e.g. Arabic, or, in other words, it does not come so near to that primitive Semitic speech which may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the Semitic languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet, which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of expressing vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the development of the language. In its earliest form it was no doubt most closely allied to the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, to the language of Moab, as revealed by the stele of Mesha (c. 850 B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of Canaanite, as far as it is known to us, e.g. from glosses in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets (15th century B.C.)[2] and much later from the Punic passages in the _Poenulus_ of Plautus, differs in many respects from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, however, of the Old Testament text is due to the labours of successive schools of grammarians who elaborated the Massorah (see HEBREW LITERATURE), thereby obliterating local or dialectic differences, which undoubtedly existed, and establishing the pronunciation current in the synagogues about the 7th century A.D. The only mention of such differences in the Old Testament is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites pronounced [Hebrew: sh] (sh) as [Hebrew: s] or [Hebrew: s] (s). In Neh. xiii. 24, the "speech of Ashdod" is more probably a distinct (Philistine) language. Certain peculiarities in the language of the Pentateuch ([Hebrew: hu] for [Hebrew: hi], [Hebrew: naar] for [Hebrew: naara]), which used to be regarded as archaisms, are to be explained as purely orthographical.[3] In a series of writings, however, extending over so long a period as those of the Old Testament, some variation or development in language is to be expected apart from the natural differences between the poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The consonantal text sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In general, the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, a greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency to Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people of Palestine must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for ordinary purposes, but still at least understanding Hebrew. Not that they forgot their own tongue in the Captivity and learnt Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be supposed. In the western provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the official language, spoken not only in Palestine but in all the surrounding countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even of the Old Testament eventually appear in it (TARGUMS). Meanwhile Hebrew did not become a dead language--indeed it can hardly be said ever to have died, since it has continued in use till the present day for the purposes of ordinary life among educated Jews in all parts of the world. It gradually became a literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears from the style of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan., Eccles.), and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (c. 170 B.C.). During the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. we have no direct evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living Hebrew, although mainly confined to the schools, with very clear differences from the biblical language. In the Old Testament the range of subjects was limited. In the Mishna it was very much extended. Matters relating to daily life had to be discussed, and words and phrases were adopted from what was no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A great many foreign words were also introduced. The language being no longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness of expression became necessary in the written style. In order to avoid the uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels to distinguish forms consisting of the same consonants (for the vowel-points were not yet invented), the aramaising use of the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa'el, Nithpa'el) for the internal passives (Pu'al, Hoph'al) became common; particles were used to express the genitive and other relations, and in general there was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely consonantal writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both Talmuds, which, roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously with Midrash, is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western in the Jerusalem Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. As the popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread of Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), while the dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew again came to be the natural standard both of East and West. The cultivation of it is shown and was no doubt promoted by the many philological works (grammars, lexicons and masorah) which are extant from the 10th century onward. In Spain, under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of that period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic writers both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous Hebrew compositions. No other vernacular (except, of course, Aramaic) ever had the same influence upon Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close a relation to it. At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews elsewhere, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is widely used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds of subjects are produced in various countries, periodicals flourish, and Hebrew is the vehicle of correspondence between Jews in all parts of the world. Naturally its quality varies with the ability and education of the writer. In the modern _pronunciation_ the principal differences are between the Ashkenazim (German and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also certain consonants, and in some cases probably go back to early times. As regards _writing_, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet (see WRITING) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form on the stele of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, by the Samaritans. According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced the Assyrian character ([Hebrew: ktav ashuri]), a much-debated statement which no doubt means that the Aramaic hand in use in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about the 5th century B.C. Another form of the same hand, allowing for differences of material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. From this were developed (a) the _square_ character used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most printed books, (b) the _Rabbinic_ (or Rashi) character, used in commentaries and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed books, (c) the _Cursive_ character, used in letters and for informal purposes, not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew palaeography it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written. The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, French, German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including Egyptian), Yemenite, Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the Rabbinic and Cursive characters that the differences are most noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also used, generally with the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to write other languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar (by Qaraites) and in later times German.

The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described below, under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral part. Among Christian scholars there was no independent school of Hebraists before the revival of learning. In the Greek and Latin Church the few fathers who, like Origen and Jerome, knew something of the language, were wholly dependent on their Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as depositaries of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac version of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the synagogue, and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic lore. In the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved in the Church by converted Jews and even by non-Jewish scholars, of whom the most notable were the Dominican controversialist Raymundus Martini (in his _Pugio fidei_) and the Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely in his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of Hebrew study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century when an interest in the subject was awakened, only the most ardent zeal could conquer the obstacles that lay in the way. Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who were not of their faith, and on the other hand many churchmen conscientiously believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish learning. Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty, at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat better. Jews expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. Study was facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some of the earliest books printed were in Hebrew. The father of Hebrew study among Christians was the humanist Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of the _Rudimenta Hebraica_ (Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the converted Jew Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the claim of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin's own pupils were Melanchthon, Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian Munster in Heidelberg (afterwards professor at Basel), and Buchlein (Fagius) at Isny, Strasburg and Cambridge, were pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias Levita. France drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with Vatablus and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, Giustiniani, bishop of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter of 1516. In Rome the converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught under the patronage of Leo X., and did useful work in connexion with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain Hebrew learning was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the Complutensian Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and Etienne at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time Christian scholars still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more independent spirit soon arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, and Drusius early in the 17th century, may be taken as representatives. In the 17th century too the cognate languages were studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott lexicon) and E. Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in Holland, S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger (Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar and lexicon. Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at Basel by the elder Buxtorf who was the author of grammatical works and a lexicon. With the rise of criticism Hebrew philology soon became a necessary department of theology. Cappellus (d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against Buxtorf, the late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in which the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th century in Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the comparative method, with great success, relying mainly on Arabic. In Germany there was the meritorious J. D. Michaelis and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In the 19th century the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, at Halle, whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in 1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which his pupil E. Rodiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised and enlarged it. Important work was also done by G. H. A. Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A. de Lagarde, not to mention later scholars who have utilized the valuable results of Assyriological research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the numerous works dealing with the study of
Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically useful.

Grammars, Introductory.--Davidson, _Introductory Hebrew Grammar_ (9th
ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and _Syntax_ (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced:
Gesenius's _Hebraische Grammatik_, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed., Leipzig,
1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, _Treatise on the Use of
the Tenses in Hebrew_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-biblical
Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, _Lehrbuch d. neuhebraischen Sprache_
(Leipzig, 1884).

Comparative Grammar.--Wright, _Lectures on the Comp. Grammar of the
Sem. Lang._ (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, _Grundriss der
vergleichenden Grammatik_ (Berlin, 1907, &c.).

Lexicons.--Gesenius's _Thesaurus philologicus_ (Leipzig, 1829-1858),
and his _Hebraisches Handworterbuch_ (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl,
Leipzig, 1910); Brown, Briggs and Driver, _Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon_
(Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, _Neuhebraisches
Worterbuch_ (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumi,
&c. (New York, 1886, &c.); Dalman, _Aramaisches neuhebraisches
Worterbuch_ (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, _Aruch completum_ (Vienna,
1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the Talmud.
(A. Cy.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 _Israelite_ should be _Ishmaelite_, as in the
parallel passage 1 Chron. ii. 17.

[2] See Zimmern, in _Ztsch. fur Assyriol._ (1891), p. 154.

[3] See Gesenius-Kautzsch, _Hebr. Gram._ S 17 c.

HEBREW LITERATURE. Properly speaking, "Hebrew Literature" denotes all works written in the Hebrew language. In catalogues and bibliographies, however, the expression is now generally used, conveniently if incorrectly, as synonymous with Jewish literature, including all works written by Jews in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew.

Old Testament-Scriptures.

The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times popular songs orally transmitted and perhaps books of annals and laws, but except in so far as remnants of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of the Lord is mentioned in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the Song of the Well is quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon and Moab, ib. 27-30; of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As in other literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on which greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of literary criticism to show the way in which the component parts were welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would make this the earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern inquiry, however, has arrived at other conclusions (see BIBLE, _Old Testament_), which may be briefly summarized as follows: the Pentateuch is compiled from various documents, the earliest of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii. 4) from the fact that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah (Yahweh). Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.C.[1] In the next century the document E was composed, so called from its using Elohim (God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are considered to have originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel, where also in the 8th century appeared the prophets Amos and Hosea. To the same period belong the book of Micah, the earlier parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah and of Proverbs, and perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. Samaria was taken and the Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is not until a century later that any important literary activity is again manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy was "found" shortly before 621 B.C. and about the same time appeared the prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah, and perhaps the book of Ruth. A few years later (about 600) the two Pentateuchal documents J and E were woven together, the books of Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was among the exiles with Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the combined document JE was edited by a writer under the influence of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the books of Samuel were written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but probably after 500 B.C., an important section of the Hexateuch, usually called the Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the same century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic parts of Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song of Songs. The Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed in its present form at some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts of the Old Testament are the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), Ecclesiastes and Esther (3rd century) and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or according to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (c. 168 B.C.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence, from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are convincing. The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection was formed gradually and that the process was going on during most of the period sketched above.

Apocryphal literature.

Targum.

It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testament were immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were ever all regarded as being on the same level. The Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held among the Jews of the 4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre-eminent position. The inclusion of other books in the Canon was gradual, and was effected only after centuries of debate. The Jews have always been, however, an intensely literary people, and the books ultimately accepted as canonical were only a selection from the literature in existence at the beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving little attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have survived only in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. Hence from the composition of the latest canonical books to the redaction of the Mishna (see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the remains of Hebrew literature are very scanty. Of books of this period which are known to have existed in Hebrew or Aramaic up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now possess most of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in a somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a recension of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, both discovered within recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there was also being formed during this period a large body of exegetical and legal material, for the most part orally transmitted, which only received its literary form much later. As Hebrew became less familiar to the people, a system of translating the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by verse, was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt originally extemporary, and varied with the individual translators, but its form gradually became fixed and was ultimately written down. It was called _Targum_, from the Aramaic _targem_, to translate. The earliest to be thus edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelos), the proselyte, on the Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the 3rd century A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same date, clearly rests on the same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos was another Targum on the Law, generally called pseudo-Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in Palestine, and is based on the same system of interpretation but is fuller and closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is obscure. It may be only a series of disconnected glosses on Onkelos. For the other books, the recognized Targum on the Prophets is that ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century?), which originated in Palestine, but was edited in Babylonia, so that it has the same history and linguistic character as Onkelos. Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law parallel to the Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum (called _Yerushalmi_) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel, but of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being alone used in the services of the synagogue, there was no authorized version of the rest of the Canon. There are, however, Targumim on the Psalms and Job, composed in the 5th century, on Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta version, on the five Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in character, and on Chronicles--all Palestinian. There is also a second Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.

Halakhah.