Chapter IV: CYSTOPHORIDA (Cystonectae, Haeckel). With a very large (5)

The works of the writers of the former period were collected in _Tropologia_, or church hymn-books, which were held in high esteem till the 10th century, when they ceased to be regarded as church-books, and so fell into neglect. They are now preserved only in a very small number of manuscripts. From three of these, belonging to public libraries at Moscow, Turin and Rome, Cardinal Pitra has printed, in his _Analecta_, a number of interesting examples, the existence of which appears to have been unknown to Dr Neale, and which, in the cardinal's estimation, are in many respects superior to the "canons," &c., of the modern Greek service-books, from which all Neale's translations (except some from Anatolius) are taken. Cardinal Pitra's selections include twenty-nine works by Romanos, and some by Sergius, and nine other known, as well as some unknown, authors. He describes them as having generally a more dramatic character than the "melodies" of the later period, and a much more animated style; and he supposes that they may have been originally sung with dramatic accompaniments, by way of substitution for the theatrical performances of Pagan times. As an instance of their peculiar character, he mentions a Christmas or Epiphany hymn by Romanos, in twenty-five long strophes, in which there is, first, an account of the Nativity and its accompanying wonders, and then a dialogue between the wise men, the Virgin mother and Joseph. The magi arrive, are admitted, describe the moral and religious condition of Persia and the East, and the cause and adventures of their journey, and then offer their gifts. The Virgin intercedes for them with her Son, instructs them in some parts of Jewish history, and ends with a prayer for the salvation of the world.

Melodists.

The controversies and persecutions of the 8th and succeeding centuries turned the thoughts of the "melodists" of the great monasteries of the Studium at Constantinople and St Saba in Palestine and their followers, and those of the adherents of the Greek rite in Sicily and South Italy (who suffered much from the Saracens and the Normans), into a less picturesque but more strictly theological course; and the influence of those controversies, in which the final success of the cause of "Icons" was largely due to the hymns, as well as to the courage and sufferings, of these confessors, was probably the cause of their supplanting, as they did, the works of the older school. Cardinal Pitra gives them the praise of having discovered a graver and more solemn style of chant, and of having done much to fix the dogmatic theology of their church upon its present lines of near approach to the Roman.

Among the "melodists" of this latter Greek school there were many saints of the Greek church, several patriarchs and two emperors--Leo the Philosopher, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, his son. Their greatest poets were Theodore and Joseph of the Studium, and Cosmas and John (called Damascene) of St Saba. Neale translated into English verse several selected portions, or centoes, from the works of these and others, together with four selections from earlier works by Anatolius. Some of his translations--particularly "The day is past and over," from Anatolius, and "Christian, dost thou see them," from Andrew of Crete--have been adopted into hymn-books used in many English churches; and the hymn "Art thou weary," which is rather founded upon than translated from one by Stephen the Sabaite, has obtained still more general popularity.

4. _Western Church Hymnody._--It was not till the 4th century that Greek hymnody was imitated in the West, where its introduction was due to two great lights of the Latin Church--St Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose of Milan.

Hilary was banished from his see of Poitiers in 356, and was absent from it for about four years, which he spent in Asia Minor, taking part during that time in one of the councils of the Eastern Church. He thus had full opportunity of becoming acquainted with the Greek church music of that day; and he wrote (as St Jerome, who was thirty years old when Hilary died, and who was well acquainted with his acts and writings, and spent some time in or near his diocese, informs us) a "book of hymns," to one of which Jerome particularly refers, in the preface to the second book of his own commentary on the epistle to the Galatians. Isidore, archbishop of Seville, who presided over the fourth council of Toledo, in his book on the offices of the church, speaks of Hilary as the first Latin hymn-writer; that council itself, in its 13th canon, and the prologue to the Mozarabic hymnary (which is little more than a versification of the canon), associate his name, in this respect, with that of Ambrose. A tradition, ancient and widely spread, ascribed to him the authorship of the remarkable "Hymnum dicat turba fratrum, hymnum cantus personet" ("Band of brethren, raise the hymn, let your song the hymn resound"), which is a succinct narrative, in hymnal form, of the whole gospel history; and is perhaps the earliest example of a strictly didactic hymn. Both Bede and Hincmar much admired this composition, though the former does not mention, in connexion with it, the name of Hilary. The private use of hymns of such a character by Christians in the West may probably have preceded their ecclesiastical use; for Jerome says that in his day those who went into the fields might hear "the ploughman at his hallelujahs, the mower at his hymns, and the vine-dresser singing David's psalms." Besides this, seven shorter metrical hymns attributed to Hilary are still extant.

Ambrose.

Of the part taken by Ambrose, not long after Hilary's death, in bringing the use of hymns into the church of Milan, we have a contemporary account from his convert, St Augustine. Justina, mother of the emperor Valentinian, favoured the Arians, and desired to remove Ambrose from his see. The "devout people," of whom Augustine's mother, Monica, was one, combined to protect him, and kept guard in the church. "Then," says Augustine, "it was first appointed that, after the manner of the Eastern churches, hymns and psalms should be sung, lest the people should grow weary and faint through sorrow; which custom has ever since been retained, and has been followed by almost all congregations in other parts of the world." He describes himself as moved to tears by the sweetness of these "hymns and canticles":--"The voices flowed into my ears; the truth distilled into my heart; I overflowed with devout affections, and was happy." To this time, according to an uncertain but not improbable tradition which ascribed the composition of the "Te Deum" to Ambrose, and connected it with the conversion of Augustine, is to be referred the commencement of the use in the church of that sublime unmetrical hymn.

It is not, however, to be assumed that the hymnody thus introduced by Ambrose was from the first used according to the precise order and method of the later Western ritual. To bring it into (substantially) that order and method appears to have been the work of St Benedict. Walafrid Strabo, the earliest ecclesiastical writer on this subject (who lived at the beginning of the 9th century), says that Benedict, on the constitution of the religious order known by his name (about 530), appointed the Ambrosian hymns to be regularly sung in his offices for the canonical hours. Hence probably originated the practice of the Italian churches, and of others which followed their example, to sing certain hymns (Ambrosian, or by the early successors of the Ambrosian school) daily throughout the week, at "Vespers," "Lauds" and "Nocturns," and on some days at "Compline" also--varying them with the different ecclesiastical seasons and festivals, commemorations of saints and martyrs and other special offices. Different dioceses and religious houses had their own peculiarities of ritual, including such hymns as were approved by their several bishops or ecclesiastical superiors, varying in detail, but all following the same general method. The national rituals, which were first reduced into a form substantially like that which has since prevailed, were probably those of Lombardy and of Spain, now known as the "Ambrosian" and the "Mozarabic." The age and origin of the Spanish ritual are uncertain, but it is mentioned in the 7th century by Isidore, bishop of Seville. It contained a copious hymnary, the original form of which may be regarded as canonically approved by the fourth council of Toledo (633). By the 13th canon of that council, an opinion (which even then found advocates) against the use in churches of any hymns not taken from the Scriptures--apparently the same opinion which had been held by Paul of Samosata--was censured; and it was ordered that such hymns should be used in the Spanish as well as in the Gallican churches, the penalty of excommunication being denounced against all who might presume to reject them.

The hymns of which the use was thus established and authorized were those which entered into the daily and other offices of the church, afterwards collected in the "Breviaries"; in which the hymns "proper" for "the week," and for "the season," continued for many centuries, with very few exceptions, to be derived from the earliest epoch of Latin Church poetry--reckoning that epoch as extending from Hilary and Ambrose to the end of the pontificate of Gregory the Great. The "Ambrosian" music, to which those hymns were generally sung down to the time of Gregory, was more popular and congregational than the "Gregorian," which then came into use, and afterwards prevailed. In the service of the mass it was not the general practice, before the invention of sequences in the 9th century, to sing any hymns, except some from the Scriptures esteemed canonical, such as the "Song of the Three Children" ("Benedicite omnia opera"). But to this rule there were, according to Walafrid Strabo, some occasional exceptions; particularly in the case of Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia under Charlemagne, himself a hymn-writer, who frequently used hymns, composed by himself or others, in the eucharistic office, especially in private masses.

Some of the hymns called "Ambrosian" (nearly 100 in number) are beyond all question by Ambrose himself, and the rest probably belong to his time or to the following century. Four, those beginning "Aeterne rerum conditor" ("Dread Framer of the earth and sky"), "Deus Creator omnium" ("Maker of all things, glorious God"), "Veni Redemptor Gentium" ("Redeemer of the nations, come") and "Jam surgit hora tertia" ("Christ at this hour was crucified"), are quoted as works of Ambrose by Augustine. These, and others by the hand of the same master, have the qualities most valuable in hymns intended for congregational use. They are short and complete in themselves; easy, and at the same time elevated in their expression and rhythm; terse and masculine in thought and language; and (though sometimes criticized as deficient in theological precision) simple, pure and not technical in their rendering of the great facts and doctrines of Christianity, which they present in an objective and not a subjective manner. They have exercised a powerful influence, direct or indirect, upon many of the best works of the same kind in all succeeding generations. With the Ambrosian hymns are properly classed those of Hilary, and the contemporary works of Pope Damasus I. (who wrote two hymns in commemoration of saints), and of Prudentius, from whose _Cathemerina_ ("Daily Devotions") and _Peristephana_ ("Crown-songs for Martyrs"), all poems of considerable, some of great length--about twenty-eight hymns, found in various Breviaries, were derived. Prudentius was a layman, a native of Saragossa, and it was in the Spanish ritual that his hymns were most largely used. In the Mozarabic Breviary almost the whole of one of his finest poems (from which most churches took one part only, beginning "Corde natus ex parentis") was appointed to be sung between Easter and Ascension-Day, being divided into eight or nine hymns; and on some of the commemorations of Spanish saints long poems from his _Peristephana_ were recited or sung at large. He is entitled to a high rank among Christian poets, many of the hymns taken from his works being full of fervour and sweetness, and by no means deficient in dignity or strength.

5th and 6th centuries.

These writers were followed in the 5th and early in the 6th century by the priest Sedulius, whose reputation perhaps exceeded his merit; Elpis, a noble Roman lady (considered, by an erroneous tradition, to have been the wife of the philosophic statesman Boetius); Pope Gelasius I.; and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia. Sedulius and Elpis wrote very little from which hymns could be extracted; but the small number taken from their compositions obtained wide popularity, and have since held their ground. Gelasius was of no great account as a hymn-writer; and the works of Ennodius appear to have been known only in Italy and Spain. The latter part of the 6th century produced Pope Gregory the Great and Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian poet, the friend of Gregory, and the favourite of Radegunda, queen of the Franks, who died (609) bishop of Poitiers. Eleven hymns of Gregory, and twelve or thirteen (mostly taken from longer poems) by Fortunatus, came into general use in the Italian, Gallican and British churches. Those of Gregory are in a style hardly distinguishable from the Ambrosian; those of Fortunatus are graceful, and sometimes vigorous. He does not, however, deserve the praise given to him by Dr Neale, of having struck out a new path in Latin hymnody. On the contrary, he may more justly be described as a disciple of the school of Prudentius, and as having affected the classical style, at least as much as any of his predecessors.

The poets of this primitive epoch, which closed with the 6th century,
wrote in the old classical metres, and made use of a considerable
variety of them--anapaestic, anacreontic, hendecasyllabic, asclepiad,
hexameters and pentameters and others. Gregory and some of the
Ambrosian authors occasionally wrote in sapphics; but the most
frequent measure was the iambic dimeter, and, next to that, the
trochaic. The full alcaic stanza does not appear to have been used for
church purposes before the 16th century, though some of its elements
were. In the greater number of these works, a general intention to
conform to the rules of Roman prosody is manifest; but even those
writers (like Prudentius) in whom that conformity was most decided
allowed themselves much liberty of deviation from it. Other works,
including some of the very earliest, and some of conspicuous merit,
were of the kind described by Bede as not metrical but
"rhythmical"--i.e. (as he explains the term "rhythm"), "modulated to
the ear in imitation of different metres." It would be more correct to
call them metrical--(e.g. still trochaic or iambic, &c., but,
according to new laws of syllabic quantity, depending entirely on
accent, and not on the power of vowels or the position of
consonants)--laws by which the future prosody of all modern European
nations was to be governed. There are also, in the hymns of the
primitive period (even in those of Ambrose), anticipations--irregular
indeed and inconstant, but certainly not accidental--of another great
innovation, destined to receive important developments, that of
assonance or rhyme, in the final letters or syllables of verses.
Archbishop Trench, in the introduction to his _Sacred Latin Poetry_,
has traced the whole course of the transition from the ancient to the
modern forms of versification, ascribing it to natural and necessary
causes, which made such changes needful for the due development of the
new forms of spiritual and intellectual life, consequent upon the
conversion of the Latin-speaking nations to Christianity.

6th century downwards.

From the 6th century downwards we see this transformation making continual progress, each nation of Western Christendom adding, from time to time, to the earlier hymns in its service-books others of more recent and frequently of local origin. For these additions, the commemorations of saints, &c., as to which the devotion of one place often differed from that of another, offered especial opportunities. This process, while it promoted the development of a medieval as distinct from the primitive style, led also to much deterioration in the quality of hymns, of which, perhaps, some of the strongest examples may be found in a volume published in 1865 by the Irish Archaeological Society from a manuscript in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. It contains a number of hymns by Irish saints of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries--in several instances fully rhymed, and in one mixing Erse and Latin barbarously together, as was not uncommon, at a much later date, in semi-vernacular hymns of other countries. The Mozarabic Breviary, and the collection of hymns used in the Anglo-Saxon churches, published in 1851 by the Surtees Society (chiefly from a Benedictine MS. In the college library of Durham, supplemented by other MSS. in the British Museum), supply many further illustrations of the same decline of taste:--such Sapphics, e.g., as the "Festum insigne prodiit coruscum" of Isidore, and the "O veneranda Trinitas laudanda" of the Anglo-Saxon books. The early medieval period, however, from the time of Gregory the Great to that of Hildebrand, was far from deficient in the production of good hymns, wherever learning flourished. Bede in England, and Paul "the Deacon"--the author of a fairly classical sapphic ode on St John the Baptist--in Italy, were successful followers of the Ambrosian and Gregorian styles. Eleven metrical hymns are attributed to Bede by Cassander; and there are also in one of Bede's works (_Collectanea et flores_) two rhythmical hymns of considerable length on the Day of Judgment, with the refrains "In tremendo die" and "Attende homo," both irregularly rhymed, and, in parts, not unworthy of comparison with the "Dies Irae." Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia, contemporary with Paul, wrote rhythmical trimeter iambics in a manner peculiar to himself. Theodulph, bishop of Orleans (793-835), author of the famous processional hymn for Palm Sunday in hexameters and pentameters, "Gloria, laus, et honor tibi sit, Rex Christe Redemptor" ("Glory and honour and laud be to Thee, King Christ the Redeemer"), and Hrabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mainz, the pupil of Alcuin, and the most learned theologian of his day, enriched the church with some excellent works. Among the anonymous hymns of the same period there are three of great beauty, of which the influence may be traced in most, if not all, of the "New Jerusalem" hymns of later generations, including those of Germany and Great Britain:--"Urbs beata Hierusalem" ("Blessed city, heavenly Salem"); "Alleluia piis edite laudibus" ("Alleluias sound ye in strains of holy praise"--called, from its burden, "Alleluia perenne"); and "Alleluia dulce carmen" ("Alleluia, song of sweetness"), which, being found in Anglo-Saxon hymnaries certainly older than the Conquest, cannot be of the late date assigned to it, in his _Mediaeval Hymns and Sequences_, by Neale. These were followed by the "Chorus novae Hierusalem" ("Ye Choirs of New Jerusalem") of Fulbert, bishop of Chartres. This group of hymns is remarkable for an attractive union of melody, imagination, poetical colouring and faith. It represents, perhaps, the best and highest type of the middle school, between the severe Ambrosian simplicity and the florid luxuriance of later times.

Veni Creator.

Notker.

Another celebrated hymn, which belongs to the first medieval period, is the "Veni Creator Spiritus" ("Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire"). The earliest recorded occasion of its use is that of a translation (898) of the relics of St Marcellus, mentioned in the _Annals_ of the Benedictine order. It has since been constantly sung throughout Western Christendom (as versions of it still are in the Church of England), as part of the appointed offices for the coronation of kings, the consecration and ordination of bishops and priests, the assembling of synods and other great ecclesiastical solemnities. It has been attributed--probably in consequence of certain corruptions in the text of Ekkehard's _Life of Notker_ (a work of the 13th century)--to Charlemagne. Ekkehard wrote in the Benedictine monastery of St Gall, to which Notker belonged, with full access to its records; and an ignorant interpolator, regardless of chronology, added, at some later date, the word "Great" to the name of "the emperor Charles," wherever it was mentioned in that work. The biographer relates that Notker--a man of a gentle, contemplative nature, observant of all around him, and accustomed to find spiritual and poetical suggestions in common sights and sounds--was moved by the sound of a mill-wheel to compose his "sequence" on the Holy Spirit, "Sancti Spiritus adsit nobis gratia" ("Present with us ever be the Holy Spirit's grace"); and that, when finished, he sent it as a present to "the emperor Charles," who in return sent him back, "by the same messenger," the hymn "Veni Creator," which (says Ekkehard) the same "Spirit had inspired him to write" ("Sibi idem Spiritus inspiraverat"). If this story is to be credited--and, from its circumstantial and almost dramatic character, it has an air of truth--the author of "Veni Creator" was not Charlemagne, but his grandson the emperor Charles the Bald. Notker himself long survived that emperor, and died in 912.

Sequences.

The invention of "sequences" by Notker may be regarded as the beginning of the later medieval epoch of Latin hymnody. In the eucharistic service, in which (as has been stated) hymns were not generally used, it had been the practice, except at certain seasons, to sing "laud," or "Alleluia," between the epistle and the gospel, and to fill up what would otherwise have been a long pause, by extending the cadence upon the two final vowels of the "Alleluia" into a protracted strain of music. It occurred to Notker that, while preserving the spirit of that part of the service, the monotony of the interval might be relieved by introducing at that point a chant of praise specially composed for the purpose. With that view he produced the peculiar species of rhythmical composition which obtained the name of "sequentia" (probably from following after the close of the "Alleluia"), and also that of "prosa," because its structure was originally irregular and unmetrical, resembling in this respect the Greek "troparia," and the "Te Deum," "Benedicite" and canticles. That it was in some measure suggested by the forms of the later Greek hymnody seems probable, both from the intercourse (at that time frequent) between the Eastern and Western churches, and from the application by Ekkehard, in his biography and elsewhere (e.g. in Lyndwood's _Provinciale_), of some technical terms, borrowed from the Greek terminology, to works of Notker and his school and to books containing them.

Dr Neale, in a learned dissertation prefixed to his collection of
sequences from medieval Missals, and enlarged in a Latin letter to H.
A. Daniel (printed in the fifth volume of Daniel's _Thesaurus
hymnologicus_), investigated the laws of caesura and modulation which
are discoverable in these works. Those first brought into use were
sent by their author to Pope Nicholas I., who authorized their use,
and that of others composed after the same model by other brethren of
St Gall, in all churches of the West.

Although the sequences of Notker and his school, which then rapidly
passed into most German, French and British Missals, were not
metrical, the art of "assonance" was much practised in them. Many of
those in the Sarum and French Missals have every verse, and even every
clause or division of a verse, ending with the same vowel "a"--perhaps
with some reference to the terminal letter of "Alleluia." Artifices
such as these naturally led the way to the adaptation of the same kind
of composition to regular metre and fully developed rhyme. Neale's
full and large collection, and the second volume of Daniel's
_Thesaurus_, contain numerous examples, both of the "proses," properly
so called, of the Notkerian type, and of those of the later school,
which (from the religious house to which its chief writer belonged)
has been called "Victorine." Most Missals appear to have contained
some of both kinds. In the majority of those from which Neale's
specimens are taken, the metrical kind largely prevailed; but in some
(e.g. those of Sarum and Liége) the greater number were Notkerian.

Of the sequence on the Holy Ghost, sent by Notker (according to Ekkehard) to Charles the Bald, Neale says that it "was in use all over Europe, even in those countries, like Italy and Spain, which usually rejected sequences"; and that, "in the Missal of Palencia, the priest was ordered to hold a white dove in his hands, while intoning the first syllables, and then to let it go." Another of the most remarkable of Notker's sequences, beginning "Media in vita" ("In the midst of life we are in death"), is said to have been suggested to him while observing some workmen engaged in the construction of a bridge over a torrent near his monastery. Catherine Winkworth (_Christian Singers of Germany_, 1869) states that this was long used as a battle-song, until the custom was forbidden, on account of its being supposed to exercise a magical influence. A translation of it ("Mitten wir im Leben sind") is one of Luther's funeral hymns; and all but the opening sentence of that part of the burial service of the Church of England which is directed to be "said or sung" at the grave, "while the corpse is made ready to be laid into the earth," is taken from it.

The "Golden Sequence," "Veni, sancte Spiritus" ("Holy Spirit, Lord of Light"), is an early example of the transition of sequences from a simply rhythmical to a metrical form. Archbishop Trench, who esteemed it "the loveliest of all the hymns in the whole circle of Latin sacred poetry," inclined to give credit to a tradition which ascribes its authorship to Robert II., king of France, son of Hugh Capet. Others have assigned to it a later date--some attributing it to Pope Innocent III., and some to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Many translations, in German, English and other languages, attest its merit. Berengarius of Tours, St Bernard of Clairvaux and Abelard, in the 11th century and early in the 12th, followed in the same track; and the art of the Victorine school was carried to its greatest perfection by Adam of St Victor (who died between 1173 and 1194)--"the most fertile, and" (in the concurrent judgment of Archbishop Trench and Neale) "the greatest of the Latin hymnographers of the Middle Ages." The archbishop's selection contains many excellent specimens of his works.

Dies Irae.

Stabat Mater.

Aquinas.

But the two most widely celebrated of all this class of compositions--works which have exercised the talents of the greatest musical composers, and of innumerable translators in almost all languages--are the "Dies Irae" ("That day of wrath, that dreadful day"), by Thomas of Celano, the companion and biographer of St Francis of Assisi, and the "Stabat Mater dolorosa" ("By the cross sad vigil keeping") of Jacopone, or Jacobus de Benedictis, a Franciscan humorist and reformer, who was persecuted by Pope Boniface VIII. for his satires on the prelacy of the time, and died in 1306. Besides these, the 13th century produced the famous sequence "Lauda Sion salvatorem" ("Sion, lift thy voice and sing"), and the four other well-known sacramental hymns of St Thomas Aquinas, viz. "Pange lingua gloriosi corporis mysterium" ("Sing, my tongue, the Saviour's glory"), "Verbum supernum prodiens" ("The Word, descending from above"--not to be confounded with the Ambrosian hymn from which it borrowed the first line), "Sacris solemniis juncta sint gaudia" ("Let us with hearts renewed our grateful homage pay"), and "Adoro Te devote, latens Deitas" ("O Godhead hid, devoutly I adore Thee")--a group of remarkable compositions, written by him for the then new festival of Corpus Christi, of which he induced Pope Urban IV. (1261-1265) to decree the observance. In these (of which all but "Adoro Te devote" passed rapidly into breviaries and missals) the doctrine of transubstantiation is set forth with a wonderful degree of scholastic precision; and they exercised, probably, a not unimportant influence upon the general reception of that dogma. They are undoubtedly works of genius, powerful in thought, feeling and expression.

Medieval hymns.

These and other medieval hymn-writers of the 12th and 13th centuries may be described, generally, as poet-schoolmen. Their tone is contemplative, didactic, theological; they are especially fertile and ingenious in the field of mystical interpretation. Two great monasteries in the East had, in the 8th and 9th centuries, been the principal centres of Greek hymnology; and, in the West, three monasteries--St Gall, near Constance (which was long the especial seat of German religious literature), Cluny in Burgundy and St Victor, near Paris--obtained a similar distinction. St Gall produced, besides Notker, several distinguished sequence writers, probably his pupils--Hartmann, Hermann and Gottschalk--to the last of whom Neale ascribes the "Alleluiatic Sequence" ("Cantemus cuncti melodum nunc Alleluia"), well known in England through his translation, "The strain upraise of joy and praise." The chief poets of Cluny were two of its abbots, Odo and Peter the Venerable (1122-1156), and one of Peter's monks, Bernard of Morlaix, who wrote the remarkable poem on "Contempt of the World" in about 3000 long rolling "leonine-dactylic" verses, from parts of which Neale's popular hymns, "Jerusalem the golden," &c., are taken. The abbey of St Victor, besides Adam and his follower Pistor, was destined afterwards to produce the most popular church poet of the 17th century.

Bernard of Clairvaux.

There were other distinguished Latin hymn-writers of the later medieval period besides those already mentioned. The name of St Bernard of Clairvaux cannot be passed over with the mere mention of the fact that he was the author of some metrical sequences. He was, in truth, the father, in Latin hymnody, of that warm and passionate form of devotion which some may consider to apply too freely to Divine Objects the language of human affection, but which has, nevertheless, been popular with many devout persons, in Protestant as well as Roman Catholic churches. F. von Spee, "Angelus Silesius," Madame Guyon, Bishop Ken, Count Zinzendorf and Frederick William Faber may be regarded as disciples in this school. Many hymns, in various languages, have been founded upon St Bernard's "Jesu dulcis memoria" ("Jesu, the very thought of Thee"), "Jesu dulcedo cordium" ("Jesu, Thou joy of loving hearts") and "Jesu Rex admirabilis" ("O Jesu, King most wonderful")--three portions of one poem, nearly 200 lines long. Pietro Damiani, the friend of Pope Gregory VII, Marbode, bishop of Rennes, in the 11th, Hildebert, archbishop of Tours, in the 12th, and St Bonaventura in the 13th centuries, are other eminent men who added poetical fame as hymnographers to high public distinction.

Before the time of the Reformation, the multiplication of sequences (often as unedifying in matter as unpoetical in style) had done much to degrade the common conception of hymnody. In some parts of France, Portugal, Sardinia and Bohemia, their use in the vernacular language had been allowed. In Germany also there were vernacular sequences as early as the 12th century, specimens of which may be seen in the third chapter of C. Winkworth's _Christian Singers of Germany_. Scoffing parodies upon sequences are said to have been among the means used in Scotland to discredit the old church services. After the 15th century they were discouraged at Rome. They retained for a time some of their old popularity among German Protestants, and were only gradually relinquished in France. A new "prose," in honour of St Maxentia, is among the compositions of Jean Baptiste Santeul; and Dr Daniel's second volume closes with one written in 1855 upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.

Roman revision of hymns.

The taste of the Renaissance was offended by all deviations from
classical prosody and Latinity. Pope Leo X. directed the whole body of
the hymns in use at Rome to be reformed; and the _Hymni novi
ecclesiastici juxta veram metri et Latinitatis normam_, prepared by
Zacharie Ferreri (1479-1530), a Benedictine of Monte Cassino,
afterwards a Carthusian and bishop of Guardia, to whom Leo had
committed that task, appeared at Rome in 1525, with the sanction of a
later pope, Clement VII. The next step was to revise the whole Roman
Breviary. That undertaking, after passing through several stages under
different popes (particularly Pius V. and Clement VIII.), was at last
brought to a conclusion by Urban VIII., in 1631. From this revised
Breviary a large number of medieval hymns, both of the earlier and the
later periods, were excluded; and in their places many new hymns,
including some by Pope Urban himself, and some by Cardinal Bellarmine
and another cardinal (Silvius Antonianus) were introduced. The hymns
of the primitive epoch, from Hilary to Gregory the Great, for the most
part retained their places (especially in the offices for every day of
the week); and there remained altogether from seventy to eighty of
earlier date than the 11th century. Those, however, which were so
retained were freely altered, and by no means generally improved. The
revisers appointed by Pope Urban (three learned Jesuits--Strada,
Gallucci and Petrucci) professed to have made "as few changes as
possible" in the works of Ambrose, Gregory, Prudentius, Sedulius,
Fortunatus and other "poets of great name." But some changes, even in
those works, were made with considerable boldness; and the pope, in
the "constitution" by which his new book was promulgated, boasted
that, "with the exception of a very small number ('perpaucis'), which
were either prose or merely rhythmical, all the hymns had been made
conformable to the laws of prosody and Latinity, those which could not
be corrected by any milder method being entirely rewritten." The
latter fate befel, among others, the beautiful "Urbs beata
Hierusalem," which now assumed the form (to many, perhaps, better
known), of "Caelestis urbs Jerusalem." Of the "very few" which were
spared, the chief were "Ave maris stella" ("Gentle star of ocean"),
"Dies Irae," "Stabat Mater dolorosa," the hymns of Thomas Aquinas,
two of St Bernard and one Ambrosian hymn, "Jesu nostra Redemptio" ("O
Jesu, our Redemption"), which approaches nearer than others to the
tone of St Bernard. A then recent hymn of St Francis Xavier, with
scarcely enough merit of any kind to atone for its neglect of prosody,
"O Deus, ego amo Te" ("O God, I love Thee, not because"), was at the
same time introduced without change. This hymnary of Pope Urban VIII.
is now in general use throughout the Roman Communion.

Parisian revisions.

The Parisian hymnary underwent three revisions--the first in 1527,
when a new "Psaltery with hymns" was issued. In this such changes only
were made as the revisers thought justifiable upon the principle of
correcting supposed corruptions of the original text. Of these, the
transposition, "Urbs Jerusalem beata," instead of "Urbs beata
Hierusalem," may be taken as a typical example. The next revision was
in 1670-1680, under Cardinal Péréfixe, preceptor of Louis XIV., and
Francis Harlay, successively archbishops of Paris, who employed for
this purpose Claude Santeul, of the monastery of St Magloire, and,
through him, obtained the assistance of other French scholars,
including his more celebrated brother, Jean Baptiste Santeul, of the
abbey of St Victor--better known as "Santolius Victorinus." The third
and final revision was completed in 1735, under the primacy of
Cardinal Archbishop de Vintimille, who engaged for it the services of
Charles Coffin, then rector of the university of Paris. Many old hymns
were omitted in Archbishop Harlay's Breviary, and a large number of
new compositions, by the Santeuls and others, was introduced. It
still, however, retained in their old places (without further changes
than had been made in 1527) about seventy of earlier date than the
11th century--including thirty-one Ambrosian, one by Hilary, eight by
Prudentius, seven by Fortunatus, three by Paul the Deacon, two each by
Sedulius, Elpis, Gregory and Hrabanus Maurus, "Veni Creator" and "Urbs
Jerusalem beata." Most of these disappeared in 1735, although Cardinal
Vintimille, in his preface, professed to have still admitted the old
hymns, except when the new were better--("veteribus hymnis locus datus
est, nisi quibus, ob sententiarum vim, elegantiam verborum, et
teneriores pietatis sensus, recentiores anteponi satius visum est").
The number of the new was, at the same time, very largely increased.
Only twenty-one more ancient than the 16th century remained, of which
those belonging to the primitive epoch were but eight, viz. four
Ambrosian, two by Fortunatus and one each by Prudentius and Gregory.
The number of Jean Baptiste Santeul's hymns rose to eighty-nine; those
by Coffin--including some old hymns, e.g. "Jam lucis orto sidere"
("Once more the sun is beaming bright"), which he substantially
re-wrote--were eighty-three; those of other modern French writers,
ninety-seven. Whatever opinion may be entertained of the principles on
which these Roman and Parisian revisions proceeded, it would be unjust
to deny very high praise as hymn-writers to several of their poets,
especially to Coffin and Jean Baptiste Santeul. The noble hymn by
Coffin, beginning--

"O luce qui mortalibus "O Thou who in the light dost dwell,
Lates inaccessa, Deus, To mortals unapproachable,
Praesente quo sancti tremunt Where angels veil them from Thy rays,
Nubuntque vultus angeli," And tremble as they gaze,"

and several others of his works, breathe the true Ambrosian spirit;
and though Santeul (generally esteemed the better poet of the two)
delighted in alcaics, and did not greatly affect the primitive manner,
there can be no question as to the excellence of such hymns as his
"Fumant Sabaeis templa vaporibus" ("Sweet incense breathes around"),
"Stupete gentes, fit Deus hostia" ("Tremble, ye Gentile lands"),
"Hymnis dum resonat curia caelitum" ("Ye in the house of heavenly
morn"), and "Templi sacratas pande, Sion, fores" ("O Sion, open wide
thy gates"). It is a striking testimony to the merits of those writers
that such accomplished translators as the Rev. Isaac Williams and the
Rev. John Chandler appear (from the title-page of the latter, and the
prefaces of both) to have supposed their hymns to be "ancient" and
"primitive." Among the other authors associated with them, perhaps the
first place is due to the Abbé Besnault, of Sens, who contributed to
the book of 1735 the "Urbs beata vera pacis Visio Jerusalem," in the
opinion of Neale "much superior" to the "Caelestis urbs Jerusalem" of
the Roman Breviary. This stood side by side with the "Urbs Jerusalem
beata" of 1527 (in the office for the dedication of churches) till
1822, when the older form was at last finally excluded by Archbishop
de Quelen.

The Parisian Breviary of 1735 remained in use till the national French
service-books were superseded (as they have lately been, generally, if
not universally) by the Roman. Almost all French dioceses followed,
not indeed the Breviary, but the example, of Paris; and before the end
of the 18th century the ancient Latin hymnody was all but banished
from France.

Modern Latin hymns.

In some parts of Germany, after the Reformation, Latin hymns continued
to be used even by Protestants. This was the case at Halberstadt until
quite a recent date. In England, a few are still occasionally used in
the older universities and colleges. Some, also, have been composed in
both countries since the Reformation. The "Carmina lyrica" of Johann
Jakob Balde, a native of Alsace, and a Jesuit priest in Bavaria, have
received high commendation from very eminent German critics,
particularly Herder and Augustus Schlegel. Some of the Latin hymns of
William Alard (1572-1645), a Protestant refugee from Belgium, and
pastor in Holstein, have been thought worthy of a place in Archbishop
Trench's selection. Two by W. Petersen (printed at the end of
Haberkorn's supplement to Jacobi's _Psalmodia Germanica_) are good in
different ways--one, "Jesu dulcis amor meus" ("Jesus, Thee my soul
doth love"), being a gentle melody of spiritual devotion, and the
other, entitled _Spes Sionis_, violently controversial against Rome.
An English hymn of the 17th century, in the Ambrosian style, "Te Deum
Patrem colimus" ("Almighty Father, just and good"), is sung on every
May-Day morning by the choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford, from
the top of the tower of their chapel; and another in the style of the
Renaissance, of about the same date, "Te de profundis, summe Rex"
("Thee from the depths, Almighty King"), long formed part of a grace
formerly sung by the scholars of Winchester College.

Luther.

5. _German Hymnody._--Luther was a proficient in and a lover of music. He desired (as he says in the preface to his hymn-book of 1545) that this "beautiful ornament" might "in a right manner serve the great Creator and His Christian people." The persecuted Bohemian or Hussite Church, then settled on the borders of Moravia under the name of "United Brethren," had sent to him, on a mission in 1522, Michael Weiss, who not long afterwards published a number of German translations from old Bohemian hymns (known as those of the "Bohemian Brethren"), with some of his own. These Luther highly approved and recommended. He himself, in 1522, published a small volume of eight hymns, which was enlarged to 63 in 1527, and to 125 in 1545. He had formed what he called a "house choir" of musical friends, to select such old and popular tunes (whether secular or ecclesiastical) as might be found suitable, and to compose new melodies, for church use. His fellow labourers in this field (besides Weiss) were Justus Jonas, his own especial colleague; Paul Eber, the disciple and friend of Melanchthon; John Walther, choirmaster successively to several German princes, and professor of arts, &c., at Wittenberg; Nicholas Decius, who from a monk became a Protestant teacher in Brunswick, and translated the "Gloria in Excelsis," &c.; and Paul Speratus, chaplain to Duke Albert of Prussia in 1525. Some of their works are still popular in Germany. Weiss's "Funeral Hymn," "Nun lasst uns den Leib begraben" ("Now lay we calmly in the grave"); Eber's "Herr Jesu Christ, wahr Mensch und Gott" ("Lord Jesus Christ, true Man and God"), and "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöthen sein" ("When in the hour of utmost need"); Walther's "New Heavens and new Earth" ("Now fain my joyous heart would sing"); Decius's "To God on high be thanks and praise"; and Speratus's "Salvation now has come for all," are among those which at the time produced the greatest effect, and are still best remembered.

Luther's own hymns, thirty-seven in number (of which about twelve are translations or adaptations from Latin originals), are for the principal Christian seasons; on the sacraments, the church, grace, death, &c.; and paraphrases of seven psalms, of a passage in Isaiah, and of the Lord's Prayer, Ten Commandments, Creed, Litany and "Te Deum." There is also a very touching and stirring song on the martyrdom of two youths by fire at Brussels, in 1523-1524. Homely and sometimes rugged in form, and for the most part objective in tone, they are full of fire, manly simplicity and strong faith. Three rise above the rest. One for Christmas, "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her" ("From Heaven above to earth I come"), has a reverent tenderness, the influence of which may be traced in many later productions on the same subject. That on salvation through Christ, of a didactic character, "Nun freuet euch, lieben Christen g'mein" ("Dear Christian people, now rejoice"), is said to have made many conversions, and to have been once taken up by a large congregation to silence a Roman Catholic preacher in the cathedral of Frankfort. Pre-eminent above all is the celebrated paraphrase of the 46th Psalm: "Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A sure stronghold our God is He")--"the production" (as Ranke says) "of the moment in which Luther, engaged in a conflict with a world of foes, sought strength in the consciousness that he was defending a divine cause which could never perish." Carlyle compares it to "a sound of Alpine avalanches, or the first murmur of earthquakes." Heine called it "the Marseillaise of the Reformation."

Luther spent several years in teaching his people at Wittenberg to sing these hymns, which soon spread over Germany. Without adopting the hyperbolical saying of Coleridge, that "Luther did as much for the Reformation by his hymns as by his translation of the Bible," it may truly be affirmed, that, among the secondary means by which the success of the Reformation was promoted, none was more powerful. They were sung everywhere--in the streets and fields as well as the churches, in the workshop and the palace, "by children in the cottage and by martyrs on the scaffold." It was by them that a congregational character was given to the new Protestant worship. This success they owed partly to their metrical structure, which, though sometimes complex, was recommended to the people by its ease and variety; and partly to the tunes and melodies (many of them already well known and popular) to which they were set. They were used as direct instruments of teaching, and were therefore, in a large measure, didactic and theological; and it may be partly owing to this cause that German hymnody came to deviate, so soon and so generally as it did, from the simple idea expressed in the ancient Augustinian definition, and to comprehend large classes of compositions which, in most other countries, would be thought hardly suitable for church use.

Followers of Luther

The principal hymn-writers of the Lutheran school, in the latter part of the 16th century, were Nikolaus Selnecker, Herman and Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of Nuremberg, also known in other branches of literature. All these wrote some good hymns. They were succeeded by men of another sort, to whom F. A. Cunz gives the name of "master-singers," as having raised both the poetical and the musical standard of German hymnody:--Bartholomäus Ringwaldt, Ludwig Helmbold, Johannes Pappus, Martin Schalling, Rutilius and Sigismund Weingartner. The principal topics of their hymns (as if with some foretaste of the calamities which were soon to follow) were the vanity of earthly things, resignation to the Divine will, and preparation for death and judgment. The well-known English hymn, "Great God, what do I see and hear," is founded upon one by Ringwaldt. Of a quite different character were two of great beauty and universal popularity, composed by Philip Nicolai, a Westphalian pastor, during a pestilence in 1597, and published by him, with fine chorales, two years afterwards. One of these (the "Sleepers wake! a voice is calling," of Mendelssohn's oratorio, _St Paul_) belongs to the family of Advent or New Jerusalem hymns. The other, a "Song of the believing soul concerning the Heavenly Bridegroom" ("Wie schön leucht't uns der Morgenstern"--"O morning Star, how fair and bright"), became the favourite marriage hymn of Germany.

Period of Thirty Years' War.

The hymns produced during the Thirty Years' War are characteristic of that unhappy time, which (as Miss Winkworth says) "caused religious men to look away from this world," and made their songs more and more expressive of personal feelings. In point of refinement and graces of style, the hymn-writers of this period excelled their predecessors. Their taste was chiefly formed by the influence of Martin Opitz, the founder of what has been called the "first Silesian school" of German poetry, who died comparatively young in 1639, and who, though not of any great original genius, exercised much power as a critic. Some of the best of these works were by men who wrote little. In the famous battle-song of Gustavus Adolphus, published (1631) after the victory of Breitenfeld, for the use of his army, "Verzage nicht du Häuflein klein" ("Fear not, O little flock, the foe"), we have almost certainly a composition of the hero-king himself, the versification corrected by his chaplain Jakob Fabricius (1593-1654) and the music composed by Michael Altenburg, whose name has been given to the hymn. This, with Luther's paraphrase of the 67th Psalm, was sung by Gustavus and his soldiers before the battle of Lützen in 1632. Two very fine hymns, one of prayer for deliverance and peace, the other of trust in God under calamities, were written about the same time by Matthäus Löwenstern, a saddler's son, poet, musician and statesman, who was ennobled after the peace by the emperor Ferdinand III. Martin Rinckhart, in 1636, wrote the "Chorus of God's faithful children" ("Nun danket alle Gott"--"Now thank we all our God"), introduced by Mendelssohn in his "Lobgesang," which has been called the "Te Deum" of Germany, being usually sung on occasions of public thanksgiving. Weissel, in 1635, composed a beautiful Advent hymn ("Lift up your heads, ye mighty gates"), and J. M. Meyfart, professor of theology at Erfurt, in 1642, a fine adaptation of the ancient "Urbs beata Hierusalem." The hymn of trust in Providence by George Neumark, librarian to that duke of Weimar ("Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten"--"Leave God to order all thy ways"), is scarcely, if at all, inferior to that of Paul Gerhardt on the same theme. Paul Flemming, a great traveller and lover of nature, who died in 1639, also wrote excellent compositions, coloured by the same tone of feeling; and some, of great merit, were composed, soon after the close of the war, by Louisa Henrietta, electress of Brandenburg, granddaughter of the famous admiral Coligny, and mother of the first king of Prussia. With these may be classed (though of later date) a few striking hymns of faith and prayer under mental anxiety, by Anton Ulrich, duke of Brunswick.

Rist.

Dach.

The most copious, and in their day most esteemed, hymn-writers of the first half of the 17th century, were Johann Heermann and Johann Rist. Heermann, a pastor in Silesia, the theatre (in a peculiar degree) of war and persecution, experienced in his own person a very large share of the miseries of the time, and several times narrowly escaped a violent death. His _Devoti musica cordis_, published in 1630, reflects the feelings natural under such circumstances. With a correct style and good versification, his tone is subjective, and the burden of his hymns is not praise, but prayer. Among his works (which enter largely into most German hymn-books), two of the best are the "Song of Tears" and the "Song of Comfort," translated by Miss Winkworth in her _Christian Singers of Germany_. Rist published about 600 hymns, "pressed out of him," as he said, "by the cross." He was a pastor, and son of a pastor, in Holstein, and lived after the peace to enjoy many years of prosperity, being appointed poet-laureate to the emperor and finally ennobled. The bulk of his hymns, like those of other copious writers, are of inferior quality; but some, particularly those for Advent, Epiphany, Easter Eve and on Angels, are very good. They are more objective than those of Heermann, and written, upon the whole, in a more manly spirit. Next to Heermann and Rist in fertility of production, and above them in poetical genius, was Simon Dach, professor of poetry at Königsberg, who died in 1659. Miss Winkworth ranks him high among German poets, "for the sweetness of form and depth of tender contemplative emotion to be found in his verses."

Gerhardt.

Franck.

Scheffler.