Chapter IV: CYSTOPHORIDA (Cystonectae, Haeckel). With a very large (7)

The Moravian Methodists produced few hymns now available for general use. The best are Cennick's "Children of the heavenly King" and Hammond's "Awake and sing the song of Moses and the Lamb," the former of which (abridged), and the latter as varied by Madan, are found in many hymn-books, and are deservedly esteemed. John Byrom, whose name we have thought it convenient to connect with these, though he did not belong to the Moravian community, was the author of a Christmas hymn ("Christians awake, salute the happy morn") which enjoys great popularity; and also of a short subjective hymn, very fine both in feeling and in expression, "My spirit longeth for Thee within my troubled breast."

Toplady.

The contributions of the Calvinistic Methodists to English hymnody are of greater extent and value. Few writers of hymns had higher gifts than Toplady, author of "Rock of ages," by some esteemed the finest in the English language. He was a man of ardent temperament, enthusiastic zeal, strong convictions and great energy of character. "He had," says one of his biographers, "the courage of a lion, but his frame was brittle as glass." Between him and John Wesley there was a violent opposition of opinion, and much acrimonious controversy; but the same fervour and zeal which made him an intemperate theologian gave warmth, richness and spirituality to his hymns. In some of them, particularly those which, like "Deathless principle, arise," are meditations after the German manner, and not without direct obligation to German originals, the setting is somewhat too artificial; but his art is never inconsistent with a genuine flow of real feeling. Others (e.g. "When languor and disease invade" and "Your harps, ye trembling saints") fail to sustain to the end the beauty with which they began, and would have been better for abridgment. But in all these, and in most of his other works, there is great force and sweetness, both of thought and language, and an easy and harmonious versification.

Berridge, Williams and R. Hill.

Berridge, William Williams (1717-1791) and Rowland Hill, all men remarkable for eccentricity, activity and the devotion of their lives to the special work of missionary preaching, though not the authors of many good hymns, composed, or adapted from earlier compositions, some of great merit. One of Berridge, adapted from Erskine, has been already mentioned; another, adapted from Watts, is "Jesus, cast a look on me." Williams, a Welshman, who wrote "Guide me, O Thou great Jehovah," was especially an apostle of Calvinistic Methodism in his own country, and his hymns are still much used in the principality. Rowland Hill wrote the popular hymn beginning "Exalted high at God's right hand."

Cowper and Newton.

If, however, the number as well as the quality of good hymns available for general use is to be regarded, the authors of the _Olney Hymns_ are entitled to be placed at the head of all the writers of this Calvinistic school. The greater number of the _Olney Hymns_ are, no doubt, homely and didactic; but to the best of them, and they are no inconsiderable proportion, the tenderness of Cowper and the manliness of John Newton (1725-1807) give the interest of contrast, as well as that of sustained reality. If Newton carried to some excess the sound principle laid down by him, that "perspicuity, simplicity and ease should be chiefly attended to, and the imagery and colouring of poetry, if admitted at all, should be indulged very sparingly and with great judgment," if he is often dry and colloquial, he rises at other times into "soul-animating strains," such as "Glorious things of thee are spoken, Zion, city of our God"; and sometimes (as in "Approach, my soul, the mercy seat") rivals Cowper himself in depth of feeling. Cowper's hymns in this book are, almost without exception, worthy of his name. Among them are "Hark, my soul, it is the Lord," "There is a fountain filled with blood," "Far from the world, O Lord, I flee," "God moves in a mysterious way" and "Sometimes a light surprises." Some, perhaps, even of these, and others of equal excellence (such as "O for a closer walk with God"), speak the language of a special experience, which, in Cowper's case, was only too real, but which could not, without a degree of unreality not desirable in exercises of public worship, be applied to themselves by all ordinary Christians.

19th-century hymns.

R. Grant.

Bowdler.

During the first quarter of the 19th century there were not many indications of the tendency, which afterwards became manifest, to enlarge the boundaries of British hymnody. _The Remains of Henry Kirke White_, published by Southey in 1807, contained a series of hymns, some of which are still in use; and a few of Bishop Heber's hymns and those of Sir Robert Grant, which, though offending rather too much against John Newton's canon, are well known and popular, appeared between 1811 and 1816, in the _Christian Observer_. In John Bowdler's Remains, published soon after his death in 1815, there are a few more of the same, perhaps too scholarlike, character. But the chief hymn-writers of that period were two clergymen of the Established Church--one in Ireland, Thomas Kelly, and the other in England, William Hurn--who both became Nonconformists, and the Moravian poet, James Montgomery (1771-1854), a native of Scotland.

Kelly.

Kelly was the son of an Irish judge, and in 1804 published a small volume of ninety-six hymns, which grew in successive editions till, in the last before his death in 1854, they amounted to 765. There is, as might be expected, in this great number a large preponderance of the didactic and commonplace. But not a few very excellent hymns may be gathered from them. Simple and natural, without the vivacity and terseness of Watts or the severity of Newton, Kelly has some points in common with both those writers, and he is less subjective than most of the "Methodist" school. His hymns beginning "Lo! He comes, let all adore Him," and "Through the day Thy love hath spared us," have a rich, melodious movement; and another, "We sing the praise of Him who died," is distinguished by a calm, subdued power, rising gradually from a rather low to a very high key.

Hurn.

Hurn published in 1813 a volume of 370 hymns, which were afterwards increased to 420. There is little in them which deserves to be saved from oblivion; but one at least, "There is a river deep and broad," may bear comparison with the best of those which have been produced upon the same, and it is rather a favourite, theme.

Montgomery.

The _Psalms and Hymns_ of James Montgomery were published in 1822 and 1825, though written earlier. More cultivated and artistic than Kelly, he is less simple and natural. His "Hail to the Lord's Anointed," "Songs of praise the angels sang" and "Mercy alone can meet my case" are among his most successful efforts.

Collections of hymns.

During this period, the collections of miscellaneous hymns for congregational use, of which the example was set by the Wesleys, Whitfield, Toplady and Lady Huntingdon, had greatly multiplied; and with them the practice (for which, indeed, too many precedents existed in the history of Latin and German hymnody) of every collector altering the compositions of other men without scruple, to suit his own doctrine or taste; with the effect, too generally, of patching and disfiguring, spoiling and emasculating the works so altered, substituting neutral tints for natural colouring, and a dead for a living sense. In the Church of England the use of these collections had become frequent in churches and chapels, principally in cities and towns, where the sentiments of the clergy approximated to those of the Nonconformists. In rural parishes, when the clergy were not of the "Evangelical" school, they were generally held in disfavour; for which, even if doctrinal prepossessions had not entered into the question, the great want of taste and judgment often manifested in their compilation, and perhaps also the prevailing mediocrity of the bulk of the original compositions from which most of them were derived, would be enough to account. In addition to this, the idea that no hymns ought to be used in any services of the Church of England, except prose anthems after the third collect, without express royal or ecclesiastical authority, continued down to that time largely to prevail among high churchmen.

Heber, Milman, Keble.

Mant.

Newman.

Two publications, which appeared almost simultaneously in 1827--Bishop Heber's _Hymns_, with a few added by Dean Milman, and John Keble's _Christian Year_ (not a hymn-book, but one from which several admirable hymns have been taken, and the well-spring of many streams of thought and feeling by which good hymns have since been produced)--introduced a new epoch, breaking down the barrier as to hymnody which had till then existed between the different theological schools of the Church of England. In this movement Richard Mant, bishop of Down, was also one of the first to co-operate. It soon received a great additional impulse from the increased attention which, about the same time, began to be paid to ancient hymnody, and from the publication in 1833 of Bunsen's _Gesangbuch_. Among its earliest fruits was the _Lyra apostolica_, containing hymns, sonnets and other devotional poems, most of them originally contributed by some of the leading authors of the _Tracts for the Times_ to the _British Magazine_; the finest of which is the pathetic "Lead, kindly Light, amid th' encircling gloom," by Cardinal Newman--well known, and universally admired. From that time hymns and hymn-writers rapidly multiplied in the Church of England, and in Scotland also. Nearly 600 authors whose publications were later than 1827 are enumerated in Sedgwick's catalogue of 1863, and about half a million hymns are now in existence. Works, critical and historical, upon the subject of hymns, have also multiplied; and collections for church use have become innumerable--several of the various religious denominations, and many of the leading ecclesiastical and religious societies, having issued hymn-books of their own, in addition to those compiled for particular dioceses, churches and chapels, and to books (like _Hymns Ancient and Modern_, published 1861, supplemented 1889, revised edition, 1905) which have become popular without any sanction from authority. To mention all the authors of good hymns since the commencement of this new epoch would be impossible; but probably no names could be chosen more fairly representative of its characteristic merits, and perhaps also of some of its defects, than those of Josiah Conder and James Edmeston among English Nonconformists; Henry Francis Lyte and Charlotte Elliott among evangelicals in the Church of England; John Mason Neale and Christopher Wordsworth, bishop of Lincoln, among English churchmen of the higher school; Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Edward H. Plumptre, Frances Ridley Havergal; and in Scotland, Dr Horatius Bonar, Dr Norman Macleod and Dr George Matheson. American hymn-writers belong to the same schools, and have been affected by the same influences. Some of them have enjoyed a just reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. Among those best known are John Greenleaf Whittier, Bishop Doane, Dr W. A. Muhlenberg and Thomas Hastings; and it is difficult to praise too highly such works as the Christmas hymn, "It came upon the midnight clear," by Edmund H. Sears; the Ascension hymn, "Thou, who didst stoop below," by Mrs S. E. Miles; two by Dr Ray Palmer, "My faith looks up to Thee, Thou Lamb of Calvary," and "Jesus, Thou joy of loving hearts," the latter of which is the best among several good English versions of "Jesu, dulcedo, cordium"; and "Lord of all being, throned afar," by Oliver Wendell Holmes.

The more modern "Moody and Sankey" hymns (see Moody, D. L.) popularized a new Evangelical type, and the Salvation Army has carried this still farther.

7. _Conclusion._--The object aimed at in this article has been to trace the general history of the principal schools of ancient and modern hymnody, and especially the history of its use in the Christian church. For this purpose it has not been thought necessary to give any account of the hymns of Racine, Madame Guyon and others, who can hardly be classed with any school, nor of the works of Caesar Malan of Geneva (1787-1864) and other quite modern hymn-writers of the Reformed churches in Switzerland and France.

On a general view of the whole subject, hymnody is seen to have been a not inconsiderable factor in religious worship. It has been sometimes employed to disseminate and popularize particular views, but its spirit and influence has been, on the whole, catholic. It has embodied the faith, trust and hope, and no small part of the inward experience, of generation after generation of men, in many different countries and climates, of many different nations, and in many varieties of circumstances and condition. Coloured, indeed, by these differences, and also by the various modes in which the same truths have been apprehended by different minds and sometimes reflecting partial and imperfect conceptions of them, and errors with which they have been associated in particular churches, times and places, its testimony is, nevertheless, generally the same. It has upon it a stamp of genuineness which cannot be mistaken. It bears witness to the force of a central attraction more powerful than all causes of difference, which binds together times ancient and modern, nations of various race and language, churchmen and nonconformists, churches reformed and unreformed; to a true fundamental unity among good Christians; and to a substantial identity in their moral and spiritual experience. (S.)

The regular practice of hymnody in English musical history dates from
the beginning of the 16th century. Luther's verses were adapted
sometimes to ancient church melodies, sometimes to tunes of secular
songs, and sometimes had music composed for them by himself and
others. Many rhyming Latin hymns are of earlier date whose tunes are
identified with them, some of which tunes, with the subject of their
Latin text, are among the Reformer's appropriations; but it was he who
put the words of praise and prayer into the popular mouth, associated
with rhythmical music which aided to imprint the words upon the memory
and to enforce their enunciation. In conjunction with his friend
Johann Walther, Luther issued a collection of poems for choral singing
in 1524, which was followed by many others in North Germany. The
English versions of the Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins and their
predecessors, and the French version by Clement Marot and Theodore
Beza, were written with the same purpose of fitting sacred minstrelsy
to the voice of the multitude. Goudimel in 1566 and Claudin le Jeune
in 1607 printed harmonizations of tunes that had then become standard
for the Psalms, and in England several such publications appeared,
culminating in Thomas Ravenscroft's famous collection, _The Whole Book
of Psalms_ (1621); in all of these the arrangements of the tunes were
by various masters. The English practice of hymn-singing was much
strengthened on the return of the exiled reformers from Frankfort and
Geneva, when it became so general that, according to Bishop Jewell,
thousands of the populace who assembled at Paul's Cross to hear the
preaching would join in the singing of psalms before and after the
sermon.

The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of the
people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also its
great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North German
musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation, which abound
in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought upon the tunes of
established acceptance. Some of these are accompaniments to the tunes
with interludes between the several strains, and some are
compositions for the organ or for orchestral instruments that consist
of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed in accompaniments to
voices, but of far more complicated and extended character. A special
art-form that was developed to a very high degree, but has passed into
comparative disuse, was the structure of all varieties of counterpoint
extemporaneously upon the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several
masters acquired great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A.
Reinken (1623-1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the
great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North Germany
has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is unpossessed by
that of England, in that for the most part the same verses are
associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the text or the
music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other, whereas in
England tunes were always and are now often composed to metres and not
to poems; any tune in a given metre is available for every poem in the
same, and hence there are various tunes to one poem, and various poems
to one tune.[4] In England a tune is named generally after some
place--as "York," "Windsor," "Dundee,"--or by some other unsignifying
word; in North Germany a tune is mostly named by the initial words of
the verses to which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is
heard, whether with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the
hearer the whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical
moiety undivorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are,
knowledge of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of
every Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all
to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the
definition of "choral." Compositions grounded on the standard tune are
then not merely school exercises, but works of art which link the
sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at expressing the
feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Ancient.--George Cassander, _Hymni ecclesiastici_
(Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius, _Poëtarum veterum
ecclesiasticorum_ (Frankfort, 1578); Cardinal J. M. Thomasius,
_Hymnarium in Opera_, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Rambach,
_Anthologie christlicher Gesänge_ (Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel,
_Thesaurus hymnologicus_ (Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M. Neale,
_Hymni ecclesiae et sequentiae_ (London, 1851-1852); and _Hymns of the
Eastern Church_ (1863). The dissertation prefixed to the second volume
of the _Acta sanctorum_ of the Bollandists; Cardinal J. B. Pitra,
_Hymnographie de l'église grecque_ (1867), _Analecta sacra_ (1876); W.
Christ and M. Paranikas, _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_
(Leipzig, 1871); F. A. March, _Latin Hymns with English Notes_ (New
York, 1875); R. C. Trench, _Sacred Latin Poetry_ (London, 4th ed.,
1874); J. Pauly, _Hymni breviarii Romani_ (Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 vols.,
1868-1870); Pimont, _Les Hymnes du bréviaire romain_ (vols. 1-3,
1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer, _Kirchenlieder-Lexicon_
(Gotha, 1878-1879); J. Kayser, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten
Kirchenhymnen_ (1881); M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlichen
lateinischen Poesie_ (Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian, _Dictionary of
Hymnology_ (1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see also
Huemer, _Untersuchungen über die ältesten christlichen Rhythmen_
(1879); E. Bouvy, _Poètes et mélodes_ (Nîmes, 1886); C. Krumbacher,
_Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.);
J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel's _Thesaurus_, vol.
5; and D. J. Donahoe, _Early Christian Hymns_ (London, 1909).

II. Medieval.--Walafrid Strabo's treatise, ch. 25, _De hymnis, &c._;
Radulph of Tongres, _De psaltario observando_ (14th century);
Clichtavaens, _Elucidatorium ecclesiasticum_ (Paris, 1556); Faustinus
Arevalus, _Hymnodia Hispanica_ (Rome, 1786); E. du Méril, _Poésies
populaires latines antérieures au XIII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1843); J.
Stevenson, _Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (Surtees Society,
Durham, 1851); Norman, _Hymnarium Sarisburiense_ (London, 1851); J. D.
Chambers, _Psalter, &c._, according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J.
Mone, _Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 3 vols.,
1853-1855); Ph. Wackernagel, _Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der
ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts_, vol. i. (Leipzig,
1864); E. Dümmler, _Poëtae latini aevi Carolini_ (1881-1890); the
_Hymnologische Beiträge: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der
lateinischen Hymnendichtung_, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves
(Leipzig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike, _Hymnologische Forschungen_;
Klemming, _Hymni et sequentiae in regno Sueciae_ (Stockholm, 4 vols.,
1885-1887); _Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied_ (vol. i. by K.
Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the "Hymnodia
Hiberica," _Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters_, vol. xvi. (1894); the
"Hymnodia Gotica," _Mozarabische Hymnen des altspanischen Ritus_, vol.
xxvii. (1897); J. Dankó, _Vetus hymnarium ecclesiasticae Hungariae_
(Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R. Atkinson, _The Irish Liber
Hymnorum_ (2 vols., London, 1898); C. A. J. Chevalier, _Poésie
liturgique du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1893).

III. Modern.--J. C. Jacobi, _Psalmodia Germanica_ (1722-1725 and 1732,
with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765); F. A. Cunz, _Geschichte
des deutschen Kirchenliedes_ (Leipzig, 1855); Baron von Bunsen,
_Versuch eines allgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches_ (1833) and
_Allgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch_ (1846); Catherine
Winkworth, _Christian Singers of Germany_ (1869) and _Lyra Germanica_
(1855); Catherine H. Dunn, _Hymns from the German_ (1857); Frances E.
Cox, _Sacred Hymns from the German_ (London, 1841); Massie, _Lyra
domestica_ (1860); _Appendix on Scottish Psalmody_ in D. Laing's
edition of Baillie's _Letters and Journals_ (1841-1842); J. and C.
Wesley, _Collection of Psalms and Hymns_ (1741); Josiah Miller, _Our
Hymns, their Authors and Origin_ (1866); John Gadsby, _Memoirs of the
Principal Hymn-writers_ (3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations to
_Hymns Ancient and Modern_ (1867); Daniel Sedgwick, _Comprehensive
Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns_ (2nd ed., 1863); R. E.
Prothero, _The Psalms in Human Life_ (1907); C. J. Brandt and L.
Helweg, _Den danske Psalmedigtning_ (Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N.
Skaar, _Norsk Salmehistorie_ (Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schück, _Svensk
Literaturhistoria_ (Stockholm, 1890); Rudolf Wolkan, _Geschichte der
deutschen Literatur in Böhmen_, 246-256, and _Das deutsche Kirchenlied
der böhm. Brüder_ (Prague, 1891); Zahn, _Die geistlichen Lieder der
Brüder in Böhmen, Mähren u. Polen_ (Nuremberg, 1875); and J. Müller,
"Bohemian Brethren's Hymnody," in J. Julian's _Dictionary of
Hymnology_.

For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love, _Music of
the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre_ (London, 1901); and
Dickinson, _Music in the History of the Western Church_ (New York,
1902); S. Kümmerle, _Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik_ (4
vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer, _Evangelische Hymnologie_ (Stuttgart,
1865); and P. Urto Kornmüller, _Lexikon der kirchlichen Tonkunst_
(1891).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The history of the "hymn" naturally begins with Greece, but it
may be found in some form much earlier; Assyria and Egypt have left
specimens, while India has the Vedic hymns, and Confucius collected
"praise songs" in China.

[2] See GREEK LITERATURE.

[3] The authorship of this and of one other, "When all thy mercies, O
my God," has been made a subject of controversy,--being claimed for
Andrew Marvell (who died in 1678), in the preface to Captain E.
Thompson's edition (1776) of Marvell's _Works_. But this claim does
not appear to be substantiated. The editor did not give his readers
the means of judging as to the real age, character or value of a
manuscript to which he referred; he did not say that these portions
of it were in Marvell's handwriting; he did not even himself include
them among Marvell's poems, as published in the body of his edition;
and he advanced a like claim on like grounds to two other poems, in
very different styles, which had been published as their own by
Tickell and Mallet. It is certain that all the five hymns were first
made public in 1712, in papers contributed by Addison to the
_Spectator_ (Nos. 441, 453, 465, 489, 513), in which they were
introduced in a way which might have been expected if they were by
the hand which wrote those papers, but which would have been
improbable, and unworthy of Addison, if they were unpublished works
of a writer of so much genius, and such note in his day, as Marvell.
They are all printed as Addison's in Dr Johnson's _British Poets_.

[4] The old tune for the 100th Psalm and Croft's tune for the 104th
are almost the only exceptions, unless "God save the King" may be
classed under "hymnody." In Scotland also the tune for the 124th
Psalm is associated with its proper text.

HYPAETHROS (Gr. [Greek: hypaithros], beneath the sky, in the open air, [Greek: hypo], beneath, and [Greek: aithêr], air), the Greek term quoted by Vitruvius (iii. 2) for the opening in the middle of the roof of decastyle temples, of which "there was no example in Rome, but one in Athens in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which is octastyle." But at the time he wrote (c. 25 B.C.) the cella of this temple was unroofed, because the columns which had been provided to carry, at all events, part of the ceiling and roof had been taken away by Sulla in 80 B.C. The decastyle temple of Apollo Didymaeus near Miletus was, according to Strabo (c. 50 B.C.), unroofed, on account of the vastness of its cella, in which precious groves of laurel bushes were planted. Apart from these two examples, the references in various writers to an opening of some kind in the roofs of temples dedicated to particular deities, and the statement of Vitruvius, which was doubtless based on the writings of Greek authors, that in decastyle or large temples the centre was open to the sky and without a roof (_medium autem sub divo est sine tecto_), render the existence of the hypaethros probable in some cases; and therefore C. R. Cockerell's discovery in the temple at Aegina of two fragments of a coping-stone, in which there were sinkings on one side to receive the tiles and covering tiles, has been of great importance in the discussion of this subject. In the conjectural restoration of the opaion or opening in the roof shown in Cockerell's drawing, it has been made needlessly large, having an area of about one quarter of the superficial area of the cella between the columns, and since in the Pantheon at Rome the relative proportions of the central opening in the dome and the area of the Rotunda are 1: 22, and the light there is ample, in the clearer atmosphere of Greece it might have been less. The larger the opening the more conspicuous would be the notch in the roof which is so greatly objected to; in this respect T. J. Hittorff would seem to be nearer the truth when, in his conjectural restoration of Temple R. at Selinus, he shows an opaion about half the relative size shown in Cockerell's of that at Aegina, the coping on the side elevation being much less noticeable. The problem was apparently solved in another way at Bassae, where, in the excavations of the temple of Apollo by Cockerell and Baron Haller von Hallerstein, three marble tiles were found with pierced openings in them about 18 in. by 10 in.; five of these pierced tiles on either side would have amply lighted the interior of the cella, and the amount of rain passing through (a serious element to be considered in a country where torrential rains occasionally fall) would not be very great or more than could be retained to dry up in the cella sunk pavement. In favour of both these methods of lighting the interior of the cella, the sarcophagus tomb at Cyrene, about 20 ft. long, carved in imitation of a temple, has been adduced, because, on the top of the roof and in its centre, there is a raised coping, and a similar feature is found on a tomb found near Delos; an example from Crete now in the British Museum shows a pierced tile on each side of the roof, and a large number of pierced tiles have been found in Pompeii, some of them surrounded with a rim identical with that of the marble tiles at Bassae. On the other hand, there are many authorities, among them Dr W. Dörpfeld, who have adhered to their original opinion that it was only through the open doorway that light was ever admitted into the cella, and with the clear atmosphere of Greece and the reflections from the marble pavement such lighting would be quite sufficient. There remains still another source of light to be considered, that passing through the Parian marble tiles of the roof; the superior translucency of Parian to any other marble may have suggested its employment for the roofs of temples, and if, in the framed ceilings carried over the cella, openings were left, some light from the Parian tile roof might have been obtained. It is possibly to this that Plutarch refers when describing the ceiling and roof of the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where the columns in the interior of the temple carried a ceiling, probably constructed of timbers crossing one another at right angles, and one or more of the spaces was left open, which Xenocles surmounted by a roof formed of tiles.

James Fergusson put forward many years ago a conjectural restoration
in which he adopted a clerestory above the superimposed columns inside
the cella; in order to provide the light for these windows he
indicated two trenches in the roof, one on each side, and pointed out
that the great Hall of Columns at Karnak was lighted in this way with
clerestory windows; but in the first place the light in the latter was
obtained over the flat roofs covering lower portions of the hall, and
in the second place, as it rarely rains in Thebes, there could be no
difficulty about the drainage, while in Greece, with the torrential
rains and snow, these trenches would be deluged with water, and with
all the appliances of the present day it would be impossible to keep
these clerestory windows watertight. There is, however, still another
objection to Fergusson's theory; the water collecting in these
trenches on the roof would have to be discharged, for which
Fergusson's suggestions are quite inadequate, and the gargoyles shown
in the cella wall would make the peristyle insupportable just at the
time when it was required for shelter. No drainage otherwise of any
kind has ever been found in any Greek temple, which is fatal to
Fergusson's view. Nor is it in accordance with the definition "open to
the sky." English cathedrals and churches are all lighted by
clerestory windows, but no one has described them as open to the sky,
and although Vitruvius's statements are sometimes confusing, his
description is far too clear to leave any misunderstanding as to the
lighting of temples (where it was necessary on account of great
length) through an opening in the roof.

There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which can
only apply to non-peristylar temples,--that light and air was admitted
through the metopes, the apertures between the beams crossing the
cella,--and it has been assumed that because Orestes was advised in
one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through the metopes of the
temple, these were left open; but if Orestes could look in, so could
the birds, and the statue of the god would be defiled. The metopes
were probably filled in with shutters of some kind which Orestes knew
how to open. (R. P. S.)

HYPALLAGE (Gr. [Greek: hypallagê], interchange or exchange), a rhetorical figure, in which the proper relation between two words according to the rules of syntax are inverted. The stock instance is that in Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 61, where _dare classibus austros_, to give winds to the fleet, is put for _dare classes austris_, to give the fleet to the winds. The term is also loosely applied to figures of speech properly known as "metonymy" and, generally, to any striking turn of expression.

HYPATIA ([Greek: Hypatia]) (c. A.D. 370-415) mathematician and philosopher, born in Alexandria, was the daughter of Theon, also a mathematician and philosopher, author of scholia on Euclid and a commentary on the _Almagest_, in which it is suggested that he was assisted by Hypatia (on the 3rd book). After lecturing in her native city, Hypatia ultimately became the recognized head of the Neoplatonic school there (c. 400). Her great eloquence and rare modesty and beauty, combined with her remarkable intellectual gifts, attracted to her class-room a large number of pupils. Among these was Synesius, afterwards (c. 410) bishop of Ptolemaïs, several of whose letters to her, full of chivalrous admiration and reverence, are still extant. Suidas, misled by an incomplete excerpt in Photius from the life of Isidorus (the Neoplatonist) by Damascius, states that Hypatia was the wife of Isidorus; but this is chronologically impossible, since Isidorus could not have been born before 434 (see Hoche in _Philologus_). Shortly after the accession of Cyril to the patriarchate of Alexandria in 412, owing to her intimacy with Orestes, the pagan prefect of the city, Hypatia was barbarously murdered by the Nitrian monks and the fanatical Christian mob (March 415). Socrates has related how she was torn from her chariot, dragged to the Caesareum (then a Christian church), stripped naked, done to death with oyster-shells ([Greek: ostrakois aneilon,] perhaps "cut her throat") and finally burnt piecemeal. Most prominent among the actual perpetrators of the crime was one Peter, a reader; but there seems little reason to doubt Cyril's complicity (see CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA).

Hypatia, according to Suidas, was the author of commentaries on the _Arithmetica_ of Diophantus of Alexandria, on the Conics of Apollonius of Perga and on the astronomical canon (of Ptolemy). These works are lost; but their titles, combined with expressions in the letters of Synesius, who consulted her about the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope, indicate that she devoted herself specially to astronomy and mathematics. Little is known of her philosophical opinions, but she appears to have embraced the intellectual rather than the mystical side of Neoplatonism, and to have been a follower of Plotinus rather than of Porphyry and Iamblichus. Zeller, however, in his _Outlines of Greek Philosophy_ (1886, Eng. trans. p. 347), states that "she appears to have taught the Neoplatonic doctrine in the form in which Iamblichus had stated it." A Latin letter to Cyril on behalf of Nestorius, printed in the _Collectio nova conciliorum_, i. (1623), by Stephanus Baluzius (Étienne Baluze, q.v.), and sometimes attributed to her, is undoubtedly spurious. The story of Hypatia appears in a considerably disguised yet still recognizable form in the legend of St Catherine as recorded in the Roman _Breviary_ (November 25), and still more fully in the _Martyrologies_ (see A. B. Jameson, _Sacred and Legendary Art_ (1867) ii. 467.)

The chief source for the little we know about Hypatia is the account
given by Socrates (_Hist. ecclesiastica_, vii. 15). She is the subject
of an epigram by Palladas in the Greek Anthology (ix. 400). See
Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), ix. 187; John Toland,
_Tetradymus_ (1720); R. Hoche in _Philologus_ (1860), xv. 435;
monographs by Stephan Wolf (Czernowitz, 1879), H. Ligier (Dijon, 1880)
and W. A. Meyer (Heidelberg, 1885), who devotes attention to the
relation of Hypatia to the chief representatives of Neoplatonism; J.
B. Bury, _Hist. of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889), i. 208,317; A.
Güldenpenning, _Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches unter Arcadius und
Theodosius II._ (Halle, 1885), p. 230; Wetzer and Welte,
_Kirchenlexikon_, vi. (1889), from a Catholic standpoint. The story of
Hypatia also forms the basis of the well-known historical romance by
Charles Kingsley (1853).

HYPERBATON (Gr. [Greek: huperbaton], a stepping over), the name of a figure of speech, consisting of a transposition of words from their natural order, such as the placing of the object before instead of after the verb. It is a common method of securing emphasis.

HYPERBOLA, a conic section, consisting of two open branches, each extending to infinity. It may be defined in several ways. The _in solido_ definition as the section of a cone by a plane at a less inclination to the axis than the generator brings out the existence of the two infinite branches if we imagine the cone to be double and to extend to infinity. The _in plano_ definition, i.e. as the conic having an eccentricity greater than unity, is a convenient starting-point for the Euclidian investigation. In projective geometry it may be defined as the conic which intersects the line at infinity in two real points, or to which it is possible to draw two real tangents from the centre. Analytically, it is defined by an equation of the second degree, of which the highest terms have real roots (see CONIC SECTION).

While resembling the parabola in extending to infinity, the curve has
closest affinities to the ellipse. Thus it has a real centre, two
foci, two directrices and two vertices; the transverse axis, joining
the vertices, corresponds to the major axis of the ellipse, and the
line through the centre and perpendicular to this axis is called the
conjugate axis, and corresponds to the minor axis of the ellipse;
about these axes the curve is symmetrical. The curve does not appear
to intersect the conjugate axis, but the introduction of imaginaries
permits us to regard it as cutting this axis in two unreal points.
Calling the foci S, S´, the real vertices A, A´, the extremities of
the conjugate axis B, B' and the centre C, the positions of B, B´ are
given by AB = AB´ = CS. If a rectangle be constructed about AA´ and
BB´, the diagonals of this figure are the "asymptotes" of the curve;
they are the tangents from the centre, and hence touch the curve at
infinity. These two lines may be pictured in the _in solido_
definition as the section of a cone by a plane through its vertex and
parallel to the plane generating the hyperbola. If the asymptotes be
perpendicular, or, in other words, the principal axes be equal, the
curve is called the rectangular hyperbola. The hyperbola which has for
its transverse and conjugate axes the transverse and conjugate axes of
another hyperbola is said to be the conjugate hyperbola.

Some properties of the curve will be briefly stated: If PN be the
ordinate of the point P on the curve, AA' the vertices, X the meet of
the directrix and axis and C the centre, then PN²: AN·NA´: : SX²:
AX·A´X, i.e. PN² is to AN·NA´ in a constant ratio. The circle on AA'
as diameter is called the auxiliarly circle; obviously AN·NA' equals
the square of the tangent to this circle from N, and hence the ratio
of PN to the tangent to the auxiliarly circle from N equals the ratio
of the conjugate axis to the transverse. We may observe that the
asymptotes intersect this circle in the same points as the
directrices. An important property is: the difference of the focal
distances of any point on the curve equals the transverse axis. The
tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of
the point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal distances.
Also the auxiliarly circle is the locus of the feet of the
perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent. Two tangents from any
point are equally inclined to the focal distance of the point. If the
tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, and the transverse in N,
then Ct. PN = BC²; similarly if g and G be the corresponding
intersections of the normal, PG : Pg : : BC² : AC². A diameter is a
line through the centre and terminated by the curve: it bisects all
chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities; the diameter
parallel to these chords is its conjugate diameter. Any diameter is a
mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord
parallel to the diameter. Any line cuts off equal distances between
the curve and the asymptotes. If the tangent at P meets the asymptotes
in R, R', then CR·CR´ = CS². The geometry of the rectangular hyperbola
is simplified by the fact that its principal axes are equal.

Analytically the hyperbola is given by ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy +
c = 0 wherein ab > h². Referred to the centre this becomes Ax² + 2Hxy
+ By² + C = 0; and if the axes of coordinates be the principal axes of
the curve, the equation is further simplified to Ax² - By² = C, or if
the semi-transverse axis be a, and the semi-conjugate b, x²/a² - y²/b²
= 1. This is the most commonly used form. In the rectangular hyperbola
a = b; hence its equation is x² - y² = 0. The equations to the
asymptotes are x/a = ±y/b and x = ±y respectively. Referred to the
asymptotes as axes the general equation becomes xy = k²; obviously the
axes are oblique in the general hyperbola and rectangular in the
rectangular hyperbola. The values of the constant k² are ½(a² + b²)
and ½a² respectively. (See GEOMETRY: _Analytical_; _Projective_.)

HYPERBOLE (from Gr. [Greek: hyperballein], to throw beyond), a figure of rhetoric whereby the speaker expresses more than the truth, in order to produce a vivid impression; hence, an exaggeration.

HYPERBOREANS ([Greek: Hyperboreoi, Hyperboreioi]), a mythical people intimately connected with the worship of Apollo. Their name does not occur in the _Iliad_ or the _Odyssey_, but Herodotus (iv. 32) states that they were mentioned in Hesiod and in the _Epigoni_, an epic of the Theban cycle. According to Herodotus, two maidens, Opis and Arge, and later two others, Hyperoche and Laodice, escorted by five men, called by the Delians Perphereës, were sent by the Hyperboreans with certain offerings to Delos. Finding that their messengers did not return, the Hyperboreans adopted the plan of wrapping the offerings in wheat-straw and requested their neighbours to hand them on to the next nation, and so on, till they finally reached Delos. The theory of H. L. Ahrens, that Hyperboreans and Perphereës are identical, is now widely accepted. In some of the dialects of northern Greece (especially Macedonia and Delphi) [phi] had a tendency to become [beta]. The original form of [Greek: Perpherees] was [Greek: hyperpheretai] or [Greek: hyperphoroi] ("those who carry over"), which becoming [Greek: hyperboroi] gave rise to the popular derivation from [Greek: boreas] ("dwellers beyond the north wind"). The Hyperboreans were thus the bearers of the sacrificial gifts to Apollo over land and sea, irrespective of their home, the name being given to Delphians, Thessalians, Athenians and Delians. It is objected by O. Schröder that the form [Greek: Perpherees] requires a passive meaning, "those who are carried round the altar," perhaps dancers like the whirling dervishes; distinguishing them from the Hyperboreans, he explains the latter as those who live "above the mountains," that is, in heaven. Under the influence of the derivation from [Greek: boreas], the home of the Hyperboreans was placed in a region beyond the north wind, a paradise like the Elysian plains, inaccessible by land or sea, whither Apollo could remove those mortals who had lived a life of piety. It was a land of perpetual sunshine and great fertility; its inhabitants were free from disease and war. The duration of their life was 1000 years, but if any desired to shorten it, he decked himself with garlands and threw himself from a rock into the sea. The close connexion of the Hyperboreans with the cult of Apollo may be seen by comparing the Hyperborean myths, the characters of which by their names mostly recall Apollo or Artemis (Agyieus, Opis, Hecaergos, Loxo), with the ceremonial of the Apolline worship. No meat was eaten at the Pyanepsia; the Hyperboreans were vegetarians. At the festival of Apollo at Leucas a victim flung himself from a rock into the sea, like the Hyperborean who was tired of life. According to an Athenian decree (380 B.C.) asses were sacrificed to Apollo at Delphi, and Pindar (_Pythia_, x. 33) speaks of "hecatombs of asses" being offered to him by the Hyperboreans. As the latter conveyed sacrificial gifts to Delos hidden in wheat-straw, so at the Thargelia a sheaf of corn was carried round in procession, concealing a symbol of the god (for other resemblances see Crusius's article). Although the Hyperborean legends are mainly connected with Delphi and Delos, traces of them are found in Argos (the stories of Heracles, Perseus, Io), Attica, Macedonia, Thrace, Sicily and Italy (which Niebuhr indeed considers their original home). In modern times the name has been applied to a group of races, which includes the Chukchis, Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Ainus, Gilyaks and Kamchadales, inhabiting the arctic regions of Asia and America. But if ever ethnically one, the Asiatic and American branches are now as far apart from each other as they both are from the Mongolo-Tatar stock.

See O. Crusius in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; O. Schröder in
_Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_ (1904), viii. 69; W. Mannhardt,
_Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1905); L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
States_ (1907), iv. 100.

HYPEREIDES (c. 390-322 B.C.), one of the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus. Having studied under Isocrates, he began life as a writer of speeches for the courts, and in 360 he prosecuted Autocles, a general charged with treason in Thrace (frags. 55-65, Blass). At the time of the so-called "Social War" (358-355) he accused Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices (frags. 40-44, Blass), and impeached Philocrates (343) for high treason. From the peace of 346 to 324 Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Macedon; but in the affair of Harpalus he was one of the ten public prosecutors of Demosthenes, and on the exile of his former leader he became the head of the patriotic party (324). After the death of Alexander, he was the chief promoter of the Lamian war against Antipater and Craterus. After the decisive defeat at Crannon (322), Hypereides and the other orators, whose surrender was demanded by Antipater, were condemned to death by the Athenian partisans of Macedonia. Hypereides fled to Aegina, but Antipater's emissaries dragged him from the temple of Aeacus, where he had taken refuge, and put him to death; according to others, he was taken before Antipater at Athens or Cleonae. His body was afterwards removed to Athens for burial.

Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of "the beautiful," which in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. His temper was easy-going and humorous; and hence, though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias, whom he surpassed, however, in the richness of his vocabulary and in the variety of his powers. His diction was plain and forcible, though he occasionally indulged in long compound words probably borrowed from the Middle Comedy, with which, and with the everyday life of his time, he was in full sympathy. His composition was simple. He was specially distinguished for subtlety of expression, grace and wit, as well as for tact in approaching his case and handling his subject matter. Sir R. C. Jebb sums up the criticism of pseudo-Longinus (_De sublimitate_, 34) in the phrase--"Hypereides was the Sheridan of Athens."

Seventy-seven speeches were attributed to Hypereides, of which
twenty-five were regarded as spurious even by ancient critics. It is
said that a MS. of most of the speeches was in existence in the 16th
century in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, at Ofen,
but was destroyed at the capture of the city by the Turks in 1526.
Only a few fragments were known until comparatively recent times. In
1847 large fragments of his speeches Against _Demosthenes_ (see above)
and _For Lycophron_ (incidentally interesting as elucidating the order
of marriage processions and other details of Athenian life, and the
Athenian government of Lemnos), and the whole of the _For Euxenippus_
(c. 330, a _locus classicus_ on [Greek: eisangeliai] or state
prosecutions), were found in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt, and in 1856 a
considerable portion of a [Greek: logos epitaphios], a _Funeral
Oration_ over Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian
war, the best extant specimen of epideictic oratory (see BABINGTON,
CHURCHILL). Towards the end of the century further discoveries were
made of the conclusion of the speech _Against Philippides_ (dealing
with a [Greek: graphê paranomôn], or indictment for the proposal of an
unconstitutional measure, arising out of the disputes of the
Macedonian and anti-Macedonian parties at Athens), and of the whole of
the _Against Athenogenes_ (a perfumer accused of fraud in the sale of
his business). These have been edited by F. G. Kenyon (1893). An
important speech that is lost is the _Deliacus_ (frags. 67-75, Blass)
on the presidency of the Delian temple claimed by both Athens and
Delos, which was adjudged by the Amphictyons to Athens.

On Hypereides generally see pseudo-Plutarch, _Decem oratorum vitae_;
F. Blass, _Attische Beredsamkeit_, iii.; R. C. Jebb, _Attic Orators_,
ii. 381. A full list of editions and articles is given in F. Blass,
_Hyperidis orationes sex cum ceterarum fragmentis_ (1894, Teubner
series), to which may be added I. Bassi, _Le Quattro Orazioni di
Iperide_ (introduction and notes, 1888), and J. E. Sandys in
_Classical Review_ (January 1895) (a review of the editions of Kenyon
and Blass). For the discourse against Athenogenes see H. Weil, _Études
sur l'antiquité grecque_ (1900).

HYPERION, in Greek mythology, one of the Titans, son of Uranus and Gaea and father of Helios, the sun-god (Hesiod, _Theog._ 134, 371; Apollodorus i. 1. 2). In the well-known passage in Shakespeare (_Hamlet_, i. 2: "Hyperion to a satyr," where as in other poets the vowel -_i_- though really long, is shortened for metrical reasons) Hyperion is used for Apollo as expressive of the idea of beauty. The name is often used as an epithet of Helios, who is himself sometimes called simply Hyperion. It is explained as (1) he who moves above ([Greek: hyper-iôn]), but the quantity of the vowel is against this; (2) he who is above ([Greek: hyperi-ôn]). Others take it to be a patronymic in form, like [Greek: Kroniôn, Moliôn].

HYPERSTHENE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. It differs from the other members (enstatite [q.v.] and bronzite) of this group in containing a considerable amount of iron replacing magnesium: the chemical formula is (Mg, Fe)SiO3. Distinctly developed crystals are rare, the mineral being usually found as foliated masses embedded in those igneous rocks--norite, hypersthene-andesite, &c.--of which it forms an essential constituent. The coarsely grained labradorite-hypersthene-rock (norite) of the island of St Paul off the coast of Labrador has furnished the most typical material; and for this reason the mineral has been known as "Labrador hornblende" or paulite. The colour is brownish-black, and the pleochrism strong; the hardness is 6, and the specific gravity 3.4-3.5. On certain surfaces it displays a brilliant copper-red metallic sheen or schiller, which has the same origin as the bronzy sheen of bronzite (q.v.), but is even more pronounced. Like bronzite, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)

HYPERTROPHY (Gr. [Greek: hyper], over, and [Greek: trophê], nourishment), a term in medicine employed to designate an abnormal increase in bulk of one or more of the organs or component tissues of the body (see PATHOLOGY). In its strict sense this term can only be applied where the increase affects the natural textures of a part, and is not applicable where the enlargement is due to the presence of some extraneous morbid formation. Hypertrophy of a part may manifest itself either by simply an increase in the size of its constituents, or by this combined with an increase in their number (hyperplasia). In many instances both are associated.

The conditions giving rise to hypertrophy are the reverse of those described as producing Atrophy (q.v.). They are concisely stated by Sir James Paget as being chiefly or only three, namely: (1) the increased exercise of a part in its healthy functions; (2) an increased accumulation in the blood of the particular materials which a part appropriates to its nutrition or in secretion; and (3) an increased afflux of healthy blood.

Illustrations are furnished of the first of these conditions by the high development of muscular tissue under habitual active exercise; of the second in the case of obesity, which is an hypertrophy of the fatty tissues, the elements of which are furnished by the blood; and of the third in the occasional overgrowth of hair in the neighbourhood of parts which are the seat of inflammation. Obviously therefore, in many instances, hypertrophy cannot be regarded as a deviation from health, but rather on the contrary as indicative of a high degree of nutrition and physical power. Even in those cases where it is found associated with disease, it is often produced as a salutary effort of nature to compensate for obstructions or other difficulties which have arisen in the system, and thus to ward off evil consequences. No better example of this can be seen than in the case of certain forms of heart disease, where from defect at some of the natural orifices of that organ the onward flow of the blood is interfered with, and would soon give rise to serious embarrassment to the circulation, were it not that behind the seat of obstruction the heart gradually becomes hypertrophied, and thus acquires greater propelling power to overcome the resistance in front. Again, it has been noticed, in the case of certain double organs such as the kidneys, that when one has been destroyed by disease the other has become hypertrophied to such a degree as enables it to discharge the functions of both.