Chapter III: General Observations (5)

In Diogenes of Apollonia we find a return to Anaximenes. Diogenes
(q.v.) began by insisting on the necessity of there being only one
principle of things, herein contradicting the pluralism of Heraclitus.
This principle is that of the universal homogeneity of nature; all
things are at bottom the same, or interaction would be impossible
([Greek: panta ta eonta apo tou autou heteroiousthai kai to auto
einai]). This universal substance is Air. But Diogenes went much
farther than Anaximenes by attributing to air not only infinity and
eternity but also intelligence. This Intelligence alone would have
produced the orderly arrangement which we observe in Nature, and is
the basis of human thought by the physical process of inhalation.

Another pupil of Anaxagoras was Archelaus of Miletus (q.v.). His work
was mainly the combination of previous views, except that he is said
to have introduced an ethical side into the Ionian philosophy.
"Justice and injustice," he said, "are not natural but legal." He
endeavoured to overcome the dualism of Anaxagoras, and in so doing
approached more nearly to the older Ionians.

The last of the Ionians whom we need mention is Hippo (q.v.), who,
like Archelaus, is intellectually amongst the earlier members of the
school. He thought that the source of all things was moisture ([Greek:
to hygron]), and is by Aristotle coupled with Thales (_Metaphysics_, A
3).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Ritter and Preller, ch. i.; Zeller's _History of Greek
Philosophy_; J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ (1892); Fairbanks,
_The First Philosophers of Greece_ (1898); Grote, _History of Greece_,
ch. viii.; Windelband, _History of Ancient Philosophy_ (1899); Benn,
_The Greek Philosophers_ (1883) and _The Philosophy of Greece_ (1898);
Th. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_ (Eng. trans. vol. i., L. Magnus, 1901).

IOPHON, Greek tragic poet, son of Sophocles. He gained the second prize in 428 B.C., Euripides being first, and Ion third. He must have been living in 405, the date of the production of the _Frogs_ of Aristophanes, in which he is spoken of as the only good Athenian tragic poet, although it is hinted that he owed much to his father's assistance. He wrote 50 plays, of which only a few fragments remain. It is said that Iophon accused his father before the court of the phratores of being incapable of managing his affairs, to which Sophocles replied by reading the famous chorus of the _Oedipus at Colonus_ (688 ff.), with the result that he was triumphantly acquitted.

See Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 73, 78, with scholia; Cicero, _De
senectute_, vii. 22; Plutarch, _Moralia_, 785 B; A. Nauck, _Tragicorum
Graecorum fragmenta_ (1889); O. Wolff, _De Iophonte poeta_ (Leipzig,
1884).

I.O.U. ("I owe you"), a written acknowledgment of a debt. It usually runs thus:

To----. I.O.U. ----pounds.
(Signed)----. Date----.

An I.O.U., if worded as above, or even if the words "for value received" are added, does not acquire a stamp, as it contains no terms of agreement. If any such words as "to be paid on such a day" are added, it requires a stamp. An I.O.U. should be addressed to the creditor by name, though its validity is not impaired by such omission. Being a distinct admission of a sum due, it is prima facie evidence of an account stated, but where it is the only item of evidence of account it may be rebutted by showing there was no debt and no demand which could be enforced by virtue of it. An I.O.U. is not negotiable.

IOVILAE, or JOVILAE, a latinized form of _iuvilas_, the name given by the Oscan-speaking Campanians in the 5th, 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. to an interesting class of monuments, not yet fully understood. They all bear crests or heraldic emblems proper to some family or group of families, and inscriptions directing the annual performance of certain ceremonies on fixed days. While some of them are dedicated to Jupiter (in a special capacity, which our present knowledge of Oscan is insufficient to determine), others were certainly found attached to graves.

See the articles OSCA LINGUA, CAPUA, CUMAE and MESSAPII. The text of
all those yet discovered (at Capua and Cumae), with particulars of
similar usages elsewhere in Italy and other historical and
archaeological detail, is given by R. S. Conway in _The Italic
Dialects_ (Cambridge, 1897, pp. 101 ff.). A briefer but valuable
discussion of the chief characteristics of the group will be found in
R. von Planta's _Oskisch-umbrische Grammatik_, ii. 631 ff., and a
summary description in C. D. Buck's _Osco-Umbrian Grammar_, 247.
(R. S. C.)

IOWA, a north central state of the United States, situated between latitudes 40 deg. 36' and 43 deg. 30' N. and between longitudes 89 deg. 5' and 96 deg. 31' W. It is bounded N. by Minnesota, E. by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Wisconsin and Illinois, S. by Missouri, and W. by the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers, which separate it from Nebraska and South Dakota. Its total area is 56,147 sq. m., of which 561 sq. m. are water surface.

_Physical Features._--Topographically, Iowa lies wholly in the Prairie
Plains Region, part of it having been overrun by the Great Ice Sheet
of the Glacial epoch. For the most part the surface is that of a
prairie tableland, moderately rolling, and with a general but scarcely
perceptible slope, which in the eastern two-thirds is from N.W. to
S.E., and in the western third from N.E. to S.W. Elevations above the
sea range from between 1200 to 1675 ft. in the N.W. to 500 ft. and
less in the S.E., the highest point being in the vicinity of Spirit
lake in Dickinson county, the lowest at Keokuk. In the southern half
of the state the height of the crests of the divides is very uniform.
The northern half is more broken and irregular; elevations, usually
rounded, mingle with depressions some of which are occupied by small
shallow lakes or ponds, the characteristic physical features of this
region being due to glaciation. But the most marked departures from
the prairie surface are in the N.E. and S.W. In the N.E. the whole of
Allamakee and parts of Winneshick, Fayette, Clayton, Delaware, Dubuque
and Jackson counties form the only driftless area of the state; in
that section cliffs frequently rise almost vertically from the banks
of a river to a height of from 300 to 400 ft., and from the summit of
the cliff to the crest of the divide, a few miles distant, there is
another ascent of 300 ft. or more terminating occasionally in
knob-topped hills crowned in many instances with small cedar.
Moreover, the largest streams have numerous tributaries, and nearly
all alike flow circuitously between steep if not vertical cliffs or in
deep craggy ravines overlooked by distant hills, among which the wagon
road has wound its way with difficulty. In the W., S. from the mouth
of the Big Sioux river, extends a line of mound-like bluffs usually
free from rocks, but rising abruptly from the flood plain of the
Missouri to a height varying from 100 to 300 ft. A broad water-parting
extending from Spirit lake, on the northern border, nearly S. to
within 60 m. of the southern border, and thence S.E. to Wayne county
in the south central part of Iowa, divides the state into two drainage
systems. That to the E., comprising about two-thirds of the whole
area, is drained by tributaries of the Mississippi, of which the Des
Moines, the Skunk, the Iowa with its tributary the Cedar, and the
Wapsipinicon are the largest, streams of long courses and easy fall
over beds frequently pebbly in the N. but muddy in the S., and through
valleys broad at their sources, well drained, and gently sloping in
the middle of their courses, but becoming narrower and deeper towards
their mouths; that to the W. is drained by tributaries of the
Missouri, mostly short streams taking their rise from numerous
rivulets, flowing quite rapidly over muddy beds through much of their
courses, and in the bluff belt along the Missouri having steep but
grassy banks 200 ft. in height or more. (For geological details, see
UNITED STATES, section _Geology, ad fin_.)

_Flora and Fauna._--The predominant feature of the flora is the
grasses of the prairie. The former forests of the state were of two
general classes: on the bottom lands along the rivers grew cottonwood,
willow, honey-locust, coffee trees, black ash, and elm; on the less
heavily wooded uplands were oaks (white, red, yellow and bur), hickory
(bitternut and pignut), white and green ash, butternut, ironwood and
hackberry. The growth was heavier, however, in the E. than in the W.,
but, it has been estimated, covered in all about one-fifth of the area
of the state at the time of its first settlement by the whites. In the
N.E., also, small cedar and pine are found. But everywhere now most of
the merchantable timber has been cut; in 1900 it was estimated that
there were altogether about 7000, sq. m. of woodland in the state. The
bison and elk long ago disappeared; black bear and deer were long
found in unsettled parts of the state. Ducks, geese and other water
birds are common, especially during their migrations.

_Climate._--The climate is one of great extremes of heat and cold,
with a dry winter and a usually wet summer, the prevailing wind of
winter being N.W. while in summer it not infrequently blows from the
S.W. Both the midwinter isotherm of Montreal and the mid-summer one of
Washington, D.C., pass through the state. The mean annual temperature
is 47.5 deg. F.; the average range of extremes per year during the
decade ending with 1900 was 136 deg. F., while the greatest extremes
recorded are from -43 deg. F. in 1888 to 113 deg. F. in 1901, a
difference of 156 deg. F. From 1893 to 1898 the average mean annual
temperature at Cresco in Howard county, near the N.E. corner of the
state, was 44.3 deg. F., while at Keokuk in the S.E. corner it was
52.2 deg. F., and as the isotherms cross the state, especially in the
N., their tendency is to move S.W. The rainfall is also very unequal
in distribution throughout the year, as also between the same periods
of different years, and as between the different parts of the state.
For while the mean annual precipitation is 31.42 in., 22.48 in., or
71% of this, fall during the six months from the 1st of April to the
1st of October, or 10% in winter, 23% in autumn, 28% in spring and 39%
in summer, June and July being the two wettest months. At the same
time extremes during the four most critical crop months, from the 1st
of May to the 1st of September, have ranged from 6.75 in. in 1894 to
27.8 in. in 1902. Within any one year the precipitation is in general
usually less in the western part of the state than in the eastern, the
mean difference for all the years of record up to the close of 1903
being 2.5 in.; the western part also is marked by having a still
larger per cent of its rain in spring and summer than has the eastern.
The unequal distribution throughout the state is in much larger
measure due to local showers. Injury to crops from drought and hot
winds has occurred about two or three times in a decade, but liability
to injury of the crops from excessive rainfall and hailstorms is
greater than that from a deficiency of moisture. Three notable
tornadoes have swept portions of the state: the Comanche in June 1860,
the Grinnell in June 1882 and the Pomeroy in July 1893; but the
greatest area traversed by any of these was less than one-twentieth of
1% of the total area of the state, and this kind of storm has been
less destructive to human life, animals and buildings than the
lightning which accompanies summer showers.

_Soil, Agriculture._--Its depth, together with its porous nature,
makes the fertile soil of Iowa capable of withstanding the extremes of
wet and dry remarkably well, and it is perhaps true that, taken as a
whole, no other state in the Union has a superior soil for
agriculture. Certainly no other has so many acres of improved land, or
so large a proportion--from 85 to 90%--of its land subject to
cultivation. The soil is of four kinds: till or drift, alluvial, loess
or bluff and geest. The dark drift, composed chiefly of clay, sand,
gravel, boulders and lime, is both the soil and subsoil of the greater
part (about 66%) of the state, being especially predominant in the N.
and N.W. The alluvial soil, composed of what has been washed from
other soils, together with decayed vegetable matter, covers about 6%
of the surface of the state and is found in the river bottoms, of
greatest extent in that of the Missouri; it varies much in fertility.
The loess soil, chiefly a mixture of porous clay and carbonate of
lime, forms the bluffs bordering the bottom lands of the Missouri and
is common in the N.E. Its fertility is not inferior to that of the
better drift. Geest is found particularly in the north-eastern part of
the state; it covers less than 1% of the area of the state.

The superior qualities of the soil, together with the usually warm and
moist months of spring and summer, make Iowa one of the foremost
states of the Union in agriculture and stock-raising, especially in
the production of Indian corn, oats, hay and eggs, and in the raising
of hogs, horses, dairy cows and poultry. In comparison with its other
industries it stands also pre-eminently as an agricultural state; for
of its 789,404 labourers in 1900, 371,604, or 47%, were engaged in
agriculture, 129,006 being engaged in trade and transportation, and
124,803 in manufactures and mechanical pursuits. In 1899 the total
value of the agricultural products, $365,411,528, was greater than
that of any other state. Of the farms 65.1% were cultivated by owners
in 1900, a decrease from 76.2% in 1880; and 19.5% were cultivated by
cash tenants, an increase from 4.5% in 1880. After 1880 the percentage
of farms operated by share tenants slowly but steadily decreased,
falling from 19.4% in 1880 to 15.4% in 1900. Between 1880 and 1900 the
average number of acres to a farm slightly increased--from 133.5 acres
in 1880 to 151.2 acres in 1900--instead of decreasing as in the older
states of the Union; though the increase was not nearly so marked as
in such states as Nevada, Montana, Wyoming and Texas. Iowa about
equals Illinois in the production of both Indian corn and oats, nearly
10,000,000 acres or about one-third of its improved area usually being
planted with Indian corn, with a yield varying from 227,908,850
bushels in 1901 (according to state reports) to 373,275,000 (the
largest in the United States, with a crop value second only to that of
Illinois) in 1906. According to the Department of Agriculture in 1907
the acreage was 9,160,000 and the yield 270,220,000 bushels
(considerably less than the Illinois crop); the yield of oats was
168,364,170 bushels (Twelfth U.S. Census) in 1899, 124,738,337 bushels
(U.S. Department of Agriculture) in 1902, and in 1907 the acreage and
crop (greater than those of any other state) were 4,500,000 acres and
108,900,000 bushels, valued at $41,382,000--a valuation second only to
that of Illinois. In total acreage of cereals (16,920,095 in 1899) it
ranked first (Twelfth Census of the United States), and in product of
cereals was exceeded by Illinois only; in acreage of hay and forage
(4,649,378 in 1899) as well as in the annual supply of milk
(535,872,240 gallons in 1899) it was exceeded by New York only. In
1905, according to railway reports, 91,051,551 lb. of butter were
carried to points outside the state. It ranked far ahead of any other
state in 1908 in the number of its hogs (8,413,000, being 15% of the
whole number in the United States), Illinois, the second in rank,
having only about half as many. It ranked first in 1900 in the number
of horses (1,392,573); in the number of poultry (about 20,000,000); in
the annual egg product (99,621,290 dozen in 1899); in the total
acreage of all crops (22,170,000); in the total value of agricultural
products; and in the total value of live stock ($271,844,034). In 1899
it ranked fourth in the production of barley (18,059,050 bushels) and
in 1907 sixth (14,178,000 bushels). The wheat crop has varied from
12,531,304 bushels in 1903, 13,683,003 bushels in 1905, 7,653,000
bushels in 1907 (according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture), to
22,769,440 bushels (Twelfth Census) in 1899. Potatoes, apples and
small fruits are grown successfully. For the most part the several
crops are quite evenly distributed throughout the state; but nearly
all the winter wheat is grown in the S. and N.W., spring wheat most
largely in the N.W., barley mostly in the N., flax-seed and prairie
hay in the N.E.

_Minerals._--The first mines to be worked in Iowa were those for lead
and zinc at Dubuque and to the northward. These are little mined at
present, only 110 tons of lead ore and 516 tons of zinc ore being
taken from the mines in 1908. Of more promise is the gypsum deposit
extending over an area of about 50 sq. m. in the vicinity of Fort
Dodge (Webster county), from which was taken in 1908 a product valued
at $565,645, having increased to that figure from $45,819 in 1898.
Limestones and sandstone are also profitably quarried, the value of
the product in 1908 being $530,945 for limestone and $2337 for
sandstone. The principal mineral of Iowa, however, is bituminous coal;
it ranked in 1908 eighth among the coal-producing states of the Union,
its product being valued at $11,706,402. The beds lie in the southern
half of the state, extending under about two-fifths of its surface.

_Trade and Commerce._--The manufactures of Iowa are chiefly such as
have to do with the products of the farm. Meat packing is the most
important, the product of this industry amounting in 1900 to
$25,695,044, and in 1905 to $30,074,070, an increase of 17% in this
period; in 1900 the state was seventh, in 1905 sixth, among the states
in the value of this industry, producing in each year 3.3% of the
total. Next in importance is the manufacture of dairy products, the
value of which in 1900 was $15,846,077 (an increase of 50.3% in ten
years) and in 1905 was $15,028,326; at both censuses the state ranked
third in the value of cheese, butter, and condensed milk and of food
preparations, which were valued at $6,934,724 in 1905. Flour and
grist-mill products ranked third both in 1900 and 1905, the value of
the product for the later year being $12,099,493, an increase of 9.9%
over the value for the earlier. Among the lesser manufactures are
lumber and timber products (value in 1905, $5,610,772), most of the
raw material being floated down on rafts from Wisconsin and Minnesota.
The largest centres of industry are Sioux City, Davenport, Dubuque,
Des Moines, Burlington and Council Bluffs. In 1905 the gross value of
the manufactured product (of establishments on the factory system) was
$160,572,313, as against $132,870,865 in 1900, an increase of 20.8%;
whereas, even including the products of smaller establishments not
technically factories, the value of the product in 1850 was only
$3,551,783, and in 1880 was only $71,045,926.

The means of transportation is afforded chiefly by the steam railways,
of which the state had 9,907.44 m. in January 1909. Scarcely a farm is
more than 6 or 8 m. from a railway station; and only three other
states have a greater railway mileage. The great period of railway
building in Iowa was during the twenty-five years immediately
following the close of the Civil War, the railway mileage being only
655 m. in 1860. The several roads are under the management of
twenty-seven companies, but about 75% of the business is done by the
Chicago Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago
Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago Rock Island & Pacific. Electric
interurban railways are increasing in importance for freight and
passenger service. In 1908 about 225 m. of such railways were in
operation. Transportation facilities by water are afforded by the
Mississippi river. The former difficulties with the Des Moines Rapids
of the Mississippi (which are passable for rafts and light boats at
high water) have been overcome by a canal from Keokuk to Montrose
constructed by the National Government. Other federal improvements
undertaken are a harbour at Muscatine, a harbour of refuge below
Davenport and channel improvements at Clinton.

_Population._--The population of Iowa in 1850 was 192,214; in 1860, 674,913; in 1880, 1,624,615; in 1890, 1,911,896; in 1900, 2,231,853. The state census of 1905 showed a total population of 2,210,050, and the Federal census of 1910, of 2,224,771. Of the population in 1905, 1,264,443 (57.2%) were native whites of native parentage, 648,532 (29.3%) were native whites of foreign parentage, 289,296 (12.8%) were foreign-born and 14,832 (0.7%) were coloured, including 346 Indians. The Indians, a remnant of the Sauk and Foxes, are most unprogressive, and are settled on a reservation in Tama county in the east-central section of the state.

In 1906 it was estimated that there were 788,667 communicants of all religious denominations; of these 207,607 were Roman Catholics; 164,329 Methodists; 117,668 Lutherans; 60,081 Presbyterians; 55,948 Disciples of Christ; 44,096 Baptists; 37,061 Congregationalists; 11,681 members of the German Evangelical Synod; and 8990 Protestant Episcopalians.

The rural element of the population is large, though it is not increasing as rapidly as the urban; and no other state in the Union is so uniformly settled. There were in 1905 seven cities with a population of 25,000 or more; twenty with 8000 or more; and thirty-seven with 4000 or more. Between 1890 and 1900 the urban population increased 38.3%, while the rural increased 14.6%. The chief cities are Des Moines (pop. in 1905, 75,626), Dubuque (41,941), Davenport (39,797), Sioux City (40,952), Cedar Rapids (28,759), Council Bluffs (25,231) and Burlington (25,318).

_Government._--There is comparatively little in the political institutions of Iowa dissimilar to those of other states of the Union; they show in recent years a tendency toward greater centralization--in boards, however, rather than in individual officers. The constitution now in force was adopted in 1857, the constitution of 1846 having been superseded chiefly on account of its prohibition of banking corporations. The present one admits of amendment by a vote of a majority of the members of both houses of the legislature, followed by a majority vote of the electors in the state voting on the amendment; and by this process it was amended in 1868, 1880, 1884 and 1904. The present constitution also provides that the question, "Shall there be a convention to revise the constitution and amend the same?" shall be submitted to the people once every ten years (beginning with 1870), but the affirmative vote taken in accordance with this provision has hitherto been small. The suffrage now belongs to all male citizens of the United States at least twenty-one years of age who shall have resided in the state for six months, and in some one county sixty days preceding an election, except idiots and persons insane or convicted of some infamous crime. The franchise was conferred on negroes by an amendment adopted in 1868. Prior to 1904 elections were annual, but by an amendment of that year they became biennial.

The central executive and administrative authority is vested in a governor, a lieutenant-governor, an executive council, several boards and a few other officers. The governor and the lieutenant-governor was elected for a term of two years, and the qualifications for both offices require that the incumbents shall be at least thirty years of age and shall have been for two years immediately before their election residents of the state. Under the Territorial government when first organized the governor was given an extensive appointing power, as well as the right of an absolute veto on all legislation, but this speedily resulted in such friction between him and the legislature that Congress was petitioned for his removal, with the outcome that the office has since been much restricted in its appointing power, and the veto has been subjected to the ordinary United States limit, i.e. it may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature. Members of boards of regents or trustees of state institutions are for the most part elected by the General Assembly; railway commissioners are elected by the state electors; while in the case of the few appointments left for the governor, the recommendation or approval of the executive council, a branch of the legislature, or of some board, is usually required. He, however, is himself a member of the executive council as well as of some important boards or commissions, and it is in such capacity that he often has the greatest opportunity to exert power and influence. His salary is $5000 per annum (with $600 for house rent and $800 as a member of the executive council). The executive council, composed of the governor, secretary of state, auditor of state and treasurer of state, all elected by the people for a term of two years, has extensive powers. It supervises and audits the accounts of state departments, directs the taking of the census, transfers cities from one class to another in accordance with census returns, constitutes the board for canvassing election returns, classifies railways, assesses railway and other companies, constitutes the state board of equalization for adjusting property valuations between the several counties for taxing purposes, supervises the incorporation of building and loan associations, appoints the board of examiners of mine inspectors and has many other powers. Among other state boards the more important are the board of railroad commissioners, the board of control of state institutions, the board of health, and the board of educational examiners.

The state legislature, or General Assembly, composed of a senate and a house of representatives, sits biennially at Des Moines. Senators are elected for a term of four years, one from each of fifty senatorial districts, the term of one-half expiring every two years. Senators must be at least twenty-five years of age and residents of the state for one year at the time of election. Representatives are elected for a term of two years, one from each of the ninety-nine counties, with an additional one from each of the counties (not exceeding nine) having the largest population; the ratio of representation and the apportionment of the additional representatives from the larger counties is fixed by the General Assembly. The qualifications for representatives differ from those for electors only in that they must have been residents of the state for one year at the time of election, the disqualification of negroes for sitting in both senate and house having been removed by an amendment adopted in 1880. No bill can pass either house without the assent of a majority of all the members elected to that house; the governor is allowed three days (Sunday excepted) in which to veto a bill.

The state judiciary consists of a supreme court of six judges and a district court of fifty-three judges, from one to four in each of twenty districts. The supreme court has three sessions a year, while each district-court judge is directed to hold at least one session a year in each county of his district, and no two district-court judges may sit together on the same case. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in chancery cases only, but may correct errors at law in other cases. The district court has general, original and exclusive jurisdiction in all matters civil, criminal and probate not expressly conferred on an inferior court, and may hear appeals from inferior courts, boards or officers.

For purposes of administration and local government the state is
divided into ninety-nine counties, each of which is itself divided
into townships that are usually 6 m. square. The township may be
divided into school districts and highway districts, but in these
matters option has resulted in irregularity. Each county has its own
administrative boards and officers; and there are two justices of the
peace and two constables for every township. The board of supervisors,
consisting of not more than seven members, elected for a term of three
years, has the care of county property and the management of county
business, including highways and bridges; it fixes the rate of county
taxes within prescribed limits, and levies the taxes for state and
county purposes. The officers of the township are three trustees, a
clerk and an assessor. The trustees are elected for a term of three
years, the clerk and assessor for two years. All taxable property of
the state, that of corporations for the most part excepted, is
assessed by the township assessor.

The municipal corporations are civil divisions quite independent of
the county and township system. They are divided into cities of the
first class, cities of the second class and towns, besides a few
cities with special charters. Cities of the first class are those
having a population of 15,000 or over; cities of the second class are
those having a population of 2000 but less than 15,000; all other
municipal corporations, except cities with special charters, are known
as incorporated towns. In all these cities and towns a mayor, council
and various officers are elected, and also a police judge in cities of
the first class where there is no superior court. By a law of 1907
cities with a population of 25,000 or more may adopt a commission form
of government, with a mayor and four councilmen elected at large on a
non-partisan ticket.

Under the laws of Iowa a wife enjoys property rights equal to those of
her husband. The expenses of the family, including the education of
the children, are chargeable alike upon the property of either or
both. Otherwise, the wife may control her property as if single, and
neither is liable for what are clearly the debts of the other. In case
of the death of either, one-third of the property of the deceased
becomes that of the survivor. A homestead cannot be conveyed or
encumbered without the consent of both husband and wife, if held by a
married man; and a homestead, to the value of $500, is exempt from
liability for debts postdating the purchase, unless for improvements
on the property. A petition for a divorce may be presented after a
residence within the state of one year immediately preceding, and a
decree may be granted against the defendant if judged guilty of
adultery, desertion for two years without reasonable cause, habitual
drunkenness, such inhuman treatment as to endanger the life of the
plaintiff, or if convicted of felony after marriage. In 1882 an
amendment to the constitution was passed prohibiting the manufacture
and the sale of intoxicating liquors within the state. In April 1883
the Supreme Court pronounced this amendment invalid on the ground of
irregularity in recording it, whereupon the legislature provided for a
like prohibition in an ordinary statute. But attempts to execute this
were so unsuccessful that it has been succeeded by a law imposing what
is known as the "mulct tax," which requires the payment of $600 in
quarterly instalments for a licence to sell such liquors and places a
lien for the whole amount on the real property in use for the
business. One-half the proceeds goes to the county and one-half to the
municipality or township in which the liquor is sold. The exceptional
dependence of Iowa on eastern markets has given more than ordinary
prominence to railway legislation, and the conflict of interests
between the railways and the shippers has agitated the state for forty
years, various attempts being made to regulate freight rates by legal
enactment. In 1888 an elective commission was established with power
to fix maximum rates, which has met with general commendation
throughout the country.

The charitable, penal and reformatory institutions of the state are
all under a "Board of Control of State Institutions," composed of
three electors appointed by the governor and approved by two-thirds of
the senators, careful provision being made also to prevent the board
from becoming subject to either political party. The institutions
under its charge include a Soldiers' Orphans' Home at Davenport; a
Soldiers' Home at Marshalltown; a College for the Blind at Vinton; a
School for the Deaf at Council Bluffs; an Institution for
Feeble-minded Children at Glenwood; an Industrial School for Boys at
Eldora; an Industrial School for Girls at Mitchellville; and, at
Oakdale, a Sanatorium for the Treatment of Tuberculosis. The Board of
Control of State Institutions has supervisory and inquisitorial powers
over all county and private institutions in the state in which insane
are kept, and over homes for friendless children maintained by
societies or institutions. In 1907 the General Assembly passed a law
under which the indeterminate sentence was established in the state,
and the governor appoints a Board of Parole of three members, of whom
one must be an attorney and not more than two are to belong to the
same political party.

_Education._--The percentage of illiterates (i.e. both those unable to
read and write and those unable to write) ten years of age and over,
according to the census returns of 1900, was only 2.3; of all the
other states of the Union, Nebraska alone made such a good return. But
teachers were poorly paid, and fourteen schools have been closed at a
time within a single county from want of teachers. However, there are
laws requiring that each school be taught at least six months in a
year, and that children between the ages of seven and fourteen attend
for at least twelve consecutive weeks, and for a total of sixteen
weeks in every year. In 1905-1906 male teachers received on an average
$63.97 per month, women teachers, $43.41. Although the electors of
each school district have ample powers reserved to them, in actual
practice matters are attended to chiefly by an elected board of
directors. The county administration is in the hands of a board of
education and a superintendent. The school tax was derived in
1905-1906 from interest on the state's permanent school
fund--amounting to 2.3% of the total tax, and distributed in
proportion to the population of school age; from a 1 to 3 mill county
tax, amounting to 5.2% of the whole; and from local or district
taxation, 92.5% of the entire tax. A law of the state provides for the
establishment of a county high school whenever a majority of the
electors of a county desire it, but in 1902 only one county (Guthrie
county) had such a school. The number of public high schools in towns
and cities, however, increased from 256 in 1893 to 345 in 1903. The
state established a university at Iowa City in 1847, a State
Agricultural College and Model Farm in 1858 (opened at Ames in 1869 as
the Iowa State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts), an
Agricultural Experiment Station in 1887, an Engineering Experiment
Station in 1904, and a normal school at Cedar Falls in 1876.

At the head of the whole system is the state superintendent of public
instruction, assisted by a board of educational examiners. In 1901 the
total receipts for school purposes were $6,001,187; and the total
disbursements $5,813,541; in 1906 the receipts were $7,126,162.12 and
the disbursements $6,950,580.27. The pupils enumerated in 1906 were
707,843. Educational institutions not supported by the state include:
Iowa Wesleyan University (Methodist, opened in 1842) at Mt. Pleasant;
Iowa College (Congregational, 1848) at Grinnell; Central University of
Iowa (Baptist, 1853) at Pella; Cornell College (Methodist, 1857) at
Mt. Vernon; Western College (United Brethren, 1856) at Toledo; Upper
Iowa University (Methodist Episcopal, 1857) at Fayette; Leander Clark
College (United Brethren, 1857) at Toledo; Lenox College
(Presbyterian, 1859) at Hopkinton; Luther College (Norwegian
Evangelical Lutheran, 1861) at Decorah; Des Moines College (Baptist,
1865) at Des Moines; Tabor College (Congregational, 1866) at Tabor;
Simpson College (Methodist, 1867) at Indianola; Wartburg Kollege
(Lutheran, 1868) at Clinton; Amity College (Non-sectarian, 1872) at
College Springs; German College (Methodist Episcopal, 1873) at Mt.
Pleasant; Penn College (Friends, 1873) at Oskaloosa; St Joseph's
College (Roman Catholic, 1873) at Dubuque; Parsons College
(Presbyterian, 1875) at Fairfield; Coe College (Presbyterian, 1881) at
Cedar Rapids; Drake University (Disciples of Christ, 1881) at Des
Moines; Palmer College (Disciples of Christ, 1889) at Legrand; Buena
Vista College (Presbyterian, 1891) at Storm Lake; Charles City College
(Methodist Episcopal, 1891) at Charles City; Morningside College
(Methodist Episcopal, 1894) at Sioux City; Graceland College
(Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints, 1895) at Lamoni.

_Finance._--The taxing system of Iowa embraces a general property tax,
corporation taxes (imposed on the franchises or on either the capital
stock or the stock in the hands of shareholders), taxes on certain
businesses and a collateral inheritance tax. Several important
attempts have been made to effect a segregation as between state and
local taxes, but for the most part without success. For the year
ending June 30th, 1908, the receipts of the state from all sources
were $3,663,154.67, and the total expenditure was $3,891,842.81. The
full value of all property, according to assessment of 1904, is
$2,567,330,328. The state has no bonded debt, and the constitution
forbids it to incur debts exceeding in the aggregate a quarter of a
million dollars, except for warlike purposes or for some single work
to which the people give their consent by vote; the constitution also
forbids any county or municipal corporation from incurring an
indebtedness exceeding 5% of the value of its taxable property. When
first admitted into the Union, Iowa had a strongly pronounced
antipathy to banks. This was largely overcome by the year 1857, and
yet the constitution of that date prohibits any legislation of primary
importance relating to banks without referring the matter to a direct
vote of the people. The number of banks and the amount of banking
business has, nevertheless, rapidly increased.

_History._--Iowa, as a part of the whole Mississippi Valley, was taken into the formal possession of France in 1682; in 1762 as a part of the western half of that valley it was ceded to Spain; in 1800 it was retroceded to France; in 1803 was ceded to the United States; from 1804 to 1805, as a part of the District of Louisiana, it was under the government of Indiana Territory; from 1805 to 1812 it was a part of Louisiana Territory; from 1812 to 1821 a part of Missouri Territory; from 1821 to 1834 a part of the unorganized territory of the United States; from 1834 to 1836 a part of Michigan Territory; from 1836 to 1838 a part of Wisconsin Territory. In 1838 Wisconsin Territory was divided, the western portion being named Iowa, and out of this the state with its present bounds was carved in 1846.

The name Iowa (meaning "sleepy ones") was taken from a tribe of Siouan Indians (probably of Winnebago stock), which for some time had dwelt in that part of the country and were still there when the first white men came--the Frenchmen, Marquette and Joliet, in 1673 and Hennepin in 1680. Early in the next century the Sauk and Foxes, vanquished by the French in Michigan, retreated westward, and in their turn largely supplanted the Iowas. Thither also came Julien Dubuque, a French Canadian, to trade with the new occupants. He discovered lead mines on and near the site of the city which now bears his name, in 1788 obtained an Indian grant or lease of about 21 sq. m., established there a settlement of miners and continued his mining operations, together with a trade in furs, until his death in 1810. The Indians refused permission to others to work the mines, and when intruders attempted to do so without it United States troops protected the red man's rights, especially from 1830 to 1832. But Black Hawk's war policy soon resulted in letting the white man in; for the war which he instigated was concluded in 1832 by a cession to the United States of nearly 9000 sq. m., embracing much of what is now the district of the Iowa lead and zinc mines. Without further waiting, though still in the face of the Act of Congress of 1807 prohibiting such settlements, the frontiersmen rushed in to mine and to farm, and government was established through voluntary associations. Such proceedings of these associations as related to claims to land were later recognized by the United States authorities, while such as related to the establishment of schools were tolerated for a time by the state government. Iowa, having separated from Wisconsin in 1838 on account of lack of courts for judicial relief, the question of applying for admission into the Union as a state was voted on as early as 1840, the Territory in that year having a population of 43,112; but the measure was defeated then, as it was again in 1842, by those who most wished to avoid an increase of taxes. In 1844, however, the vote was otherwise, a convention was called, a constitution framed and application for admission made. The question of boundaries, to which the question of slavery gave rise, then became the cause of delay, but the Territory became a state in 1846.

During the period in which the question of admission was under consideration, the Whigs opposed the measure, while the Democrats carried it through and remained in power until 1854; but ever since 1857 the state has been preponderantly Republican in all national campaigns; and with but two exceptions, in 1889 and 1891, when liquor and railroad legislation were the leading issues, has elected a Republican state administration. Nevertheless there has always been a strong sentiment in the state urging that corporations be held more in check, and its industries are not such as to receive a large benefit directly from tariff legislation. As a consequence there has been a tendency towards the formation of two opposing elements within the dominant party; the more radical seeking the promotion of what since 1902 has been known as the "Iowa Idea," which in substance is to further the expansion of the trade of the United States with the rest of the world through the more extended application of tariff reciprocity, and at the same time to revise the tariff so as to prevent it from "affording a shelter to monopoly."

GOVERNORS OF IOWA

_Territorial._

Robert Lucas Democrat 1838-1841
John Chambers Whig 1841-1845
James Clark Democrat 1845-1846

_State._

Ansel Briggs Democrat 1846-1850
Stephen Hempstead " 1850-1854
James Wilson Grimes Whig and Free-Soil
Democrat 1854-1858
Ralph P. Lowe Republican 1858-1860
Samuel Jordan Kirkwood " 1860-1864
William Milo Stone " 1864-1868
Samuel Merrill " 1868-1872
Cyrus Clay Carpenter " 1872-1876
Samuel Jordan Kirkwood " 1876-1877
Joshua Giddings Newbold[1] " 1877-1878
John Henry Gear " 1878-1882
Buren Robinson Sherman " 1882-1886
William Larrabee " 1886-1890
Horace Boies Democrat 1890-1894
Frank Darr Jackson Republican 1894-1896
Francis Marion Drake " 1896-1898
Leslie Mortier Shaw " 1898-1902
Albert Baird Cummins " 1902-1909
B. F. Carroll " 1909-

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Publications of the Iowa Geological Survey_ (Des
Moines, 1868); _Iowa Weather and Crop Service_ (Des Moines, 1889);
_U.S. Census_; F. H. Dixon, _State Railroad Control, with a History of
its Development in Iowa_ (New York, 1896), a detailed history of the
control of Iowa railways through the commission system; B. F.
Shambaugh, _History of the Constitution of Iowa_ (Des Moines, 1902);
Jesse Macy, _Institutional Beginnings in a Western State_ in Johns
Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science
(Baltimore, 1894); H. M. Bowman, _The Administration of Iowa, a Study
in Centralization_ (New York, 1903), an able presentation of the
present administrative system in the light of its historical
development; William Salter, _Iowa, the first Free State in the
Louisiana Purchase_ (Chicago, 1905); B. F. Shambaugh, _Documentary
Material relating to the History of Iowa_ (Iowa City, 1897), and _The
Messages and Proclamations of the Governors of Iowa_ (Iowa City,
1903-1904); _Annals of Iowa_, 3 series: Series 1, _The Annals of the
State Historical Society of Iowa_ (Iowa City and Davenport,
1863-1874); Series 2, vol. i, _The Annals of Iowa_; vol. ii., _Howe's
Annals of Iowa_ (Iowa City, 1882-1884); Series 3, The Annals of Iowa,
published by the Historical Department of Iowa (Des Moines, 1893- );
_Iowa Historical Record_ (Iowa City, 1885-1902); _Iowa Journal of
History and Politics_ (Iowa City, 1903 seq.); and G. T. Flom,
_Chapters on Scandinavian Immigration to Iowa_ (Iowa City, 1907).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] As lieutenant-governor, Newbold serves for the unexpired portion
of the term to which Kirkwood was elected; Kirkwood resigned on the
1st of February 1877, having been chosen United States senator.

IOWA CITY, a city and the county-seat of Johnson county, Iowa, U.S.A., on Iowa river, about 120 m. E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 7016; (1900) 7987, of whom 1355 were foreign born; (1905) 8497; (1910) 10,091. It is served by two branches of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railroad, and by the Iowa City & Cedar Rapids Interurban railway (electric), of which it is a terminus. The ground on which the city is built forms an amphitheatre surrounded for the most part by hills and bluffs. Iowa City is the seat of the state university of Iowa, of Iowa City Academy, of the library of the State Historical Society and of the state Sanatorium for the Treatment of Tuberculosis. The university, organized in 1847, and occupying the old State Capitol grounds, is an integral part of the public school system of the state, and is under the control of a board of regents, consisting of the governor, the superintendent of public instruction and eleven members, elected--one from each congressional district--by the General Assembly. The university's preparatory department was opened in 1855 and continued until 1879; the first collegiate session was in 1856-1857, but during 1858-1860 the collegiate department was closed. The institution embraces a college of liberal arts (1860), with a school of political and social science (1900)--which offers courses in commerce, administration, modern history and practical philanthropy--and a school of education, first opened in 1907, to train secondary and college teachers and school principals and superintendents; a college of law (1868); a college of medicine (1870), including a training school for nurses (1897); a college of homoeopathic medicine (1877), including a nurses' training school (1894); a college of dentistry (1882); a college of pharmacy (1885); a graduate college; a college of applied science (1903), with courses in civil, electrical, mechanical, mining, municipal and sanitary engineering and courses in chemistry; a summer school for teachers and librarians and a university extension department. Affiliated with the university is a school of music. The university's income is derived from the proceeds of invested funds and lands originally given by the United States, from permanent appropriations by the state and from the proceeds of a one-fifth mill tax to be used for buildings alone. In 1907-1908 the institution had 28 buildings (including the old State Capitol, built in 1840), a teaching and administrative force of nearly 200 members and 2315 students, of whom 1082 were in the college of liberal arts; the university library had about 65,000 volumes (25,000 were destroyed by fire in 1897), and the university law library, 14,000 volumes; and the total income of the university was about $611,000. In 1908 the library of the State Historical Society of Iowa, housed in the Hall of the Liberal Arts of the university, numbered about 40,000 volumes. Iowa City has a considerable variety of small manufacturing establishments. In 1839 Iowa City was selected as the site for the seat of government of the newly created Territory of Iowa. The legislature met for the first time in 1841 and continued to hold its sessions here until 1857, when Des Moines, on account of its more central position, was made the capital.

IPECACUANHA.[1] The root used in medicine under this name is obtained from _Psychotria_ (or _Uragoga_) _Ipecacuanha_, a small shrubby plant of the natural order Rubiaceae. It is a native of Brazil, growing in clumps or patches in moist shady forests from 8 deg. to 22 deg. S., and is also found in New Granada and probably in Bolivia. The drug of commerce is procured chiefly from the region lying between the towns of Cuyaba, Villa Bella, Villa Maria and Diamantina in the province of Matto Grosso, and near the German colony of Philadelphia, north of Rio Janeiro. Ipecacuanha, although in common use in Brazil, was not employed in Europe previous to 1672. In France within a few years after that date it formed the chief ingredient in a remedy for dysentery, the secret of the composition of which was purchased by the French Government for 1000 louis d'or, and made public in 1688. The botanical source of ipecacuanha was not accurately known until 1800. The root appears to be possessed of very great vitality, for in 1869 M'Nab, of the Botanical Gardens of Edinburgh, discovered that so small a portion as 1/16 of an inch of the annulated root, placed in suitable soil, would throw out a leaf-bud and develop into a fresh plant, while Lindsay, a gardener in the same establishment, proved that even the leaf-stalk is capable of producing roots and buds; hence there is but little probability of the plant being destroyed in its native habitat. The great value of the drug in dysentery, and its rapid increase in price from an average of 2s. 9(1/2)d. per lb. in 1850 to about 8s. 9d. per lb. in 1870, led to attempts to acclimatize the plant in India, which, however, have not hitherto proved to be a commercial success, owing to the difficulty of finding suitable spots for its cultivation, and to its slowness of growth. Like other dimorphic plants, ipecacuanha ripens seeds best when cross-fertilized, and presents various forms. Two of these were described by the late Professor F. M. Balfour of Edinburgh, one distinguished by having a woody stem, firm elliptic or oval leaves, with wavy margins and few hairs, and the other by an herbaceous stem, and leaves less coriaceous in texture, more hairy and not wavy at the margins. This diversity of form is most apparent in young plants, and tends to disappear with age.

Ipecacuanha root occurs in pieces about 2 or 3 lines in thickness, of a greyish-brown or reddish-brown tint externally, having a ringed or annulated surface (see _r_ in fig.), and exhibiting a white or greyish interior and a hard wiry centre. It has a faint rather musty odour, and a bitterish taste. It is usually mixed with more or less of the slender subterranean stem, which has a very thin bark, and is thus easily distinguished from the root. The activity of the drug resides chiefly in the cortical portion, and hence the presence of the stem diminishes its value. The variety imported from Colombia and known as Cartagena ipecacuanha differs only in its larger size and in being less conspicuously annulated. Ipecacuanha owes its properties to the presence of rather more than 1% of the alkaloid emetine, which, with the exception of traces, occurs only in the cortical portion of the root. It is a white amorphous substance, with the formula C20H30NO5. It has a bitter taste, no odour, and turns yellow when exposed to air and light. There are also present a volatile oil, starch, gum, and a glucoside, which is a modification of tannin and is known as ipecacuanhic acid. The dose of the powdered root is 1/4 to 2 grains when an expectorant action is desired, and from 15 to 30 grains when it is given as an emetic, which is one of its most valuable functions. The Pharmacopoeias contain a very large number of preparations of this substance, most of which are standardized. A preparation from which the emetine has been removed, and known as "de-emetized ipecacuanha," is also in use for cases of dysentery.

When applied to the skin, ipecacuanha powder acts as a powerful irritant, even to the extent of causing pustulation. When inhaled it causes violent sneezing and a mild inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane, resembling a common cold in the head. It has feeble antiseptic properties. Small doses of ipecacuanha act as a stimulant to the secretions of the mouth, stomach, intestine and liver. The drug, therefore, increases appetite and aids digestion. Toxic doses cause gastro-enteritis, cardiac failure, dilatation of the blood-vessels, severe bronchitis and pulmonary inflammation closely resembling that seen in ordinary lobar pneumonia. In this respect and in its action on the skin, the drug resembles tartar emetic. Ipecacuanha is very frequently used as an expectorant in cases in which the bronchial secretion is deficient. Its diaphoretic properties are employed in the _pulvis ipecacuanhae compositus_ or Dover's powder, which contains one part of ipecacuanha powder and one part of opium in ten.

Other plants to which the name of ipecacuanha has been popularly
applied are American ipecacuanha (_Gillenia stipulacea_), wild
ipecacuanha (_Euphorbia Ipecacuanha_), bastard ipecacuanha (_Asclepias
curassavica_), Guiana ipecacuanha (_Boerhavia decumbens_), Venezuela
ipecacuanha (_Sarcostemma glaucum_), and ipecacuanha des Allemands
(_Vincetoxicum officinale_). All these possess emetic properties to a
greater or less degree.

The term _poaya_ is applied in Brazil to emetic roots of several
genera belonging to the natural orders Rubiaceae, Violaceae and
Polygalaceae, and hence several different roots have from time to time
been sent over to England as ipecacuanha; but none of them possesses
the ringed or annulated appearance of the true drug. Of these the
roots of _Ionidium Ipecacuanha_, _Richardsonia scabra_ and _Psychotria
emetica_ are those which have most frequently been exported from
Brazil or Colombia.

FOOTNOTE: