Chapter III: Part 3

The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation of two new universities, having their seats respectively at Dublin and at Belfast. The Royal University of Ireland at Dublin and the Queen's College, Belfast, were dissolved. Provision was made for a new college to be founded at Dublin. This college and the existing Queen's Colleges at Cork and Galway were made constituent colleges of the new university at Dublin. Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to these foundations under the titles of the National University of Ireland (Dublin), the Queen's University of Belfast and the University Colleges of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was provided by the act that no test of religious belief should be imposed on any person as a condition of his holding any position in any foundation under the act. A body of commissioners was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing with any matter calling for joint action, a joint commission, half from each of the above commissions, was established. Regulations as to grants-in-aid were made by the act, with the stipulation that no sum from them should be devoted to the provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial or other office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as to the transfer of graduates and students, so that they might occupy under the new regime positions equivalent to those which they occupied previously, in respect both of degrees and the keeping of terms. The commissioners were directed to work out schemes for the employment of officers already employed in the institutions affected by the new arrangements, and for the compensation of those whose employment could not be continued. A committee of the privy council in Ireland was appointed, to be styled the Irish Universities Committee.

The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be described as a survival of the Roman Catholic University, a voluntary institution founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman Catholic bishops placed the buildings belonging to the university under the control and direction of the archbishop of Dublin, who undertook to maintain a college in which education would be given according to the regulations of the Royal University. In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the Jesuits. Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it has proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of Rome.

The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in 1867 under the authority of the Science and Art Department, London. Its object is to supply a complete course of instruction in science as applicable to the industrial arts. In 1900 the college was transferred from the Science and Art Department to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.

Maynooth (q.v.) College was founded by an Irish act of parliament in 1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students for the Irish priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently endowed by a grant from the consolidated fund of over L26,000 a year. This grant was withdrawn by the Irish Church Act 1869, the college receiving as compensation a lump sum of over L372,000. The average number of students entering each year is about 100.

There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly's College at Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee College, Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theological courses. In 1881 the Assembly's College and the theological professors of Magee College were constituted a faculty with power to grant degrees in divinity.

In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions were
ranked as colleges in the census of 1901:--All Hallows (Drumcondra),
Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St Patrick's
(Carlow), St Kieran's (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus's (Tullamore) and St
Patrick's (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number of students was 715,
of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty of divinity.

Schools.

As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn
according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,
schools under religious orders, monastic and convent schools, and
Christian Brothers' schools, which were attended, according to the
census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000 pupils, male and female. On
the other hand are the endowed schools, which are almost exclusively
Protestant in their government. Under this heading may be included
royal and diocesan schools and schools upon the foundation of Erasmus
Smith, and others privately endowed. In 1901 these schools numbered 55
and had an attendance of 2653 pupils. To these must be added various
private establishments, which in the same year had over 8000 pupils,
mainly Protestants. Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole
the census of 1901 gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged
upon what the commissioners call the "higher studies," i.e. studies
involving instruction in at least one foreign language. In 1881 the
number of such pupils was 18,657; in 1891, 23,484; and in 1901,
28,484, of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as
follows among the different religions--Roman Catholics 18,248,
Protestant Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and
others 567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the
higher studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the
encouragement of intermediate education which was established by act
of parliament in 1879. A sum of L1,000,000, part of the Irish Church
surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the
intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The
administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of commissioners,
who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the act (1) by
carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by awarding
exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3) by the
payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An amending act was
passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held under rules made in
virtue of that act. The number of students who presented themselves
for examination in 1905 was 9677; the amount expended in exhibitions
and prizes was L8536; and the grants to schools amounted to over
L50,000. The examinations were held at 259 centres in 99 different
localities.

Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the
commissioners of national education, who were first created in 1831 to
take the place of the society for the education of the poor, and
incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the schools
under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426, with 432,844
pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants was L75,000; while
in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752 pupils, and the grant
was almost L1,400,000. Of the pupils attending in the latter year, 74%
were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant Episcopalians and 11%
Presbyterians. The schools under the commissioners include national
schools proper, model and workhouse schools and a number of monastic
and convent schools. The Irish Education Act of 1892 provided that the
parents of children of not less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age
should cause them to attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse
on at least 150 days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or
townships under commissioners; and provisions were made for the
partial or total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a
parliamentary school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for
the augmentation of the salaries of the national teachers.

There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68
industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.

Technical instruction.

By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education in
Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction and now forms an important part of its work. The annual
sum of L55,000 was allocated for the purpose, and this is augmented in
various ways. The department has devoted itself to (1) promoting
instruction in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and
domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to
country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for
technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects--these subjects
embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries but
the teaching of such rural industries as basket-making, (3) the
training of teachers by classes held at various centres, (4) the
provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of
scholarships.

_Revenue and Expenditure._--The early statistics as to revenue and expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford little possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years of Elizabeth's reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account of wars, amounted, according to Sir James Ware's estimate, to over L490,000, while the revenue is put by some writers at L8000 per annum and by others at less. In the reign of James I. the customs increased from L50 to over L9000; but although he obtained from various sources about L10,000 a year and a considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster, the revenue is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure by about L16,000 a year. During the reign of Charles I. the customs increased fourfold in value, but it was found necessary to raise L120,000 by yearly subsidies. According to the report of the committee appointed by Cromwell to investigate the financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was L197,304 and the expenditure L630,814. At the Restoration the Irish parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise for the maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and poundage for the navy, and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal burdens. "Additional duties" were granted shortly after the Revolution. "Appropriate duties" were imposed at different periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the post office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over L394,000.

Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the Irish
parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the following
table shows net income and expenditure over a series of years up to
1868:--

+------+-----------+------------+
| Year.| Income. |Expenditure.|
+------+-----------+------------+
| 1731 | L405,000 | L407,000 |
| 1741 | 441,000 | 441,000 |
| 1761 | 571,000 | 773,000 |
| 1781 | 739,000 | 1,015,000 |
| 1800 | 3,017,757 | 6,615,000 |
| 1834 | 3,814,000 | 3,439,800 |
| 1850 | 4,332,000 | 4,120,000 |
| 1860 | 7,851,000 | 6,331,000 |
| 1868 | 6,176,000 | 6,621,000 |
+------+-----------+------------+

The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland under
various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the following
tables:--

_Revenue._

+------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
| | | |Estate, &c.| Property | Post | Miscel- | Total | Estimated |
| Year.| Customs. | Excise. | Duties |and Income | Office. | laneous.| Revenue. | True |
| | | |and Stamps.| Tax. | | | | Revenue. |
+------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
| 1902 |L2,244,000 |L5,822,000 |L1,072,000 |L1,143,000 | L923,000 |L149,000 |L11,353,000 |L9,784,000 |
| 1903 | 2,717,000 | 6,011,000 | 922,000 | 1,244,000 | 960,000 | 148,500 | 12,002,500 |10,205,000 |
| 1904 | 2,545,000 | 5,904,000 | 1,033,000 | 1,038,000 | 980,000 | 146,500 | 11,646,500 | 9,748,500 |
| 1905 | 2,575,000 | 5,584,000 | 1,016,000 | 1,013,000 |1,002,000 | 150,500 | 11,340,500 | 9,753,500 |
| 1906 | 2,524,000 | 5,506,000 | 890,000 | 983,000 |1,043,000 | 150,000 | 11,096,000 | 9,447,000 |
+------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+

_Expenditure._

+------+---------+-----------+---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | | | Local Taxation | | | | | |
| | Consoli-| | Accounts. | Total | | | | Estimated |
| Year.| dated | Voted. +---------+-----------+ Civil |Collection| Post | Total | True |
| | Fund. | | Local | Exchequer | Charges. | of Taxes.| Office. | Expended. | Revenue. |
| | | |Taxation | Revenue. | | | | | |
| | | | Revenue.| | | | | | |
+------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| 1902 |L169,000 |L4,271,000 |L389,000 |L1,055,000 |L5,884,000 | L243,000 |L1,087,000 |L7,214,000 |L9,784,000 |
| 1903 | 168,500 | 4,357,500 | 383,000 | 1,058,000 | 5,967,000 | 246,000 | 1,140,000 | 7,353,000 |10,205,000 |
| 1904 | 170,000 | 4,569,000 | 376,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,174,000 | 248,000 | 1,126,000 | 7,548,000 | 9,784,500 |
| 1905 | 166,000 | 4,547,000 | 374,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,146,000 | 249,000 | 1,172,000 | 7,567,000 | 9,753,500 |
| 1906 | 164,000 | 4,582,500 | 385,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,191,500 | 245,000 | 1,199,000 | 7,635,500 | 9,447,000 |
+------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated true
revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland
contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the
following sums: L2,570,000, L2,852,000, L2,200,500, L2,186,500 and
L1,811,500.

The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland have long been a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal commission was appointed to consider them, which presented its report in 1896. The commissioners, though differing on several points, were practically agreed on the following five conclusions: (1) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for the purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities; (2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which, as events showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase of taxation laid upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not justified by the then existing circumstances; (4) that identity of rates of taxation did not necessarily involve equality of burden; (5) that, while the actual tax revenue of Ireland was about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the relative taxable capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not estimated by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This report furnished the material for much controversy, but little practical outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration of Ireland as a separate country, and was therefore inconsistent with the principles of Unionism.

The public debt of Ireland amounted to over L134,000,000 in 1817, in which year it was consolidated with the British national debt.

_Local Taxation._--The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 effected
considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties of the grand
jury were abolished, and the county council which took the place of
the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative purposes was given
three sources of revenue: (1) the agricultural grant, (2) the licence
duties and other imperial grants, and (3) the poor rate. These may be
considered separately. (1) It was provided that the Local Government
Board should ascertain the amount of county cess and poor rate levied
off agricultural land in Ireland during the year ending (as regards
the poor rate) on the 29th of September, and (as regards the county
cess) on the 21st of June 1897; and that half this amount, to be
called the agricultural grant, should be paid annually without any
variation from the original sum out of the consolidated fund to a
local taxation account. The amount of the agricultural grant was
ascertained to be over L727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made
in the act for fixing the proportion of the grant to which each county
should be entitled, and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay
half-yearly the proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2)
Before the passing of the act grants were made from the imperial
exchequer to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics
and to boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and
for salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these
grants amounted to over L236,000. Under the Local Government Act they
ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should be
annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation
account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain
specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that
a fixed sum of L79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the
consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the county
councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural districts
and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the purposes of
the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not upon the
landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few specified
cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year ending
the 31st of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county
councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were L2,964,298 and their
total expenditure was L2,959,961, the two chief items of expenditure
being "Union Charges" L1,002,620 and "Road Expenditure" L779,174.
During the same period the total receipts from local taxation in
Ireland amounted to L4,013,303, and the amount granted from imperial
sources in aid of local taxation was L1,781,143.

_Loans._--The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed
sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 31st of March
1906, was L26,946,393, of which L15,221,913 had been repaid to the
exchequer as principal and L9,011,506 as interest, and L1,609,694 had
been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about L5,500,000 was under the
Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly L3,500,000 under the Public Health
Acts, over L3,000,000 for lunatic asylums, and over L3,000,000 under
the various Labourers Acts.

_Banking._--The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in 1783 with
a capital of L600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at various times,
and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was increased to
L3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding to the Bank
of England in England. There are eight other joint-stock banks in
Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their subscribed capital
amounts to L26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to L7,309,230. The
authorized note circulation is L6,354,494 and the actual note
circulation in June 1906 was L6,310,243, two of the banks not being
banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock banks amounted in 1880
to L29,350,000; in 1890 to L33,061,000; in 1900 to L40,287,000; and in
1906 to L45,842,000. The deposits in the Post Office Savings Banks
rose from L1,481,000 in 1880 to L10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits
in Trustee Savings Banks from L2,100,165 in 1880 to L2,488,740 in
1905.

_National Wealth._--To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth
is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest
part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important
factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and other
industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty. The
following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valuation of
lands, houses, &c., L15,466,000; value of principal crops,
L35,362,000; value of cattle, &c., L81,508,000; paid-up capital and
reserve funds of joint-stock banks, L11,300,000; deposits in
joint-stock and savings banks, L58,791,000; investments in government
stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, L36,952,000; paid-up capital
and debentures of railway companies, L38,405,000; paid-up capital of
tramway companies, L2,074,000.

In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &c., in
Ireland was L16,016,000 as compared with L306,673,000 in England and
L38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce of the income tax
in Ireland was L983,000, as compared with L27,423,000 in England and
L2,888,000 in Scotland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Agriculture: Accounts of the land systems of Ireland
will be found in James Godkin's _Land War in Ireland_ (1870);
Sigerson's _History of Land Tenure in Ireland_ (1871); Joseph Fisher's
_History of Land Holding in Ireland_ (1877); R. B. O'Brien's _History
of the Irish Land Question_ (1880); A. G. Richey's _Irish Land Laws_
(1880). General information will be found in J. P. Kennedy's Digest of
the evidence given before the Devon Commission (Dublin, 1847-1848);
the _Report_ of the Bessborough Commission, 1881, and of the
commission on the agriculture of the United Kingdom, 1881. The
Department of Agriculture publishes several official annual reports,
dealing very fully with Irish agriculture.

Manufactures and Commerce: _Discourse on the Woollen Manufacture of
Ireland_ (1698); _An Inquiry into the State and Progress of the Linen
Manufacture in Ireland_ (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard, _Treatise on the
Revenue of Ireland_ (1776); John Hely Hutchinson, _Commercial
Restraints of Ireland_ (1779); Lord Sheffield, _Observations on the
Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland_ (1785); R. B.
Clarendon, _A Sketch of the Revenue and Finances of Ireland_ (1791);
the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other local
bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of Agriculture
on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature and contain much
valuable information).

Miscellaneous: Sir William Petty, _Political Anatomy of Ireland_
(1691); Arthur Dobbs, _Essay on the Trade of Ireland_ (1729);
_Abstract of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland_
(1726); Arthur Young, _Tour in Ireland_ (1780); T. Newenham, _View of
the Circumstances of Ireland_ (1809), and _Inquiry into the Population
of Ireland_ (1805); Cesar Moreau, _Past and Present State of Ireland_
(1827); J. M. Murphy, _Ireland, Industrial, Political and Social_
(1870); R. Dennis, _Industrial Ireland_ (1887); Grimshaw, _Facts and
Figures about Ireland_ (1893); _Report of the Recess Committee_
(1896, published in Dublin); _Report of the Financial Relations
Commission_ (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, _Ireland in the New Century_
(London, 1905); Filson Young, _Ireland at the Cross-Roads_ (London,
1904); Thom's _Almanac_, published annually in Dublin, gives a very
useful summary of statistics and other information. (W. H. Po.)

EARLY HISTORY

Historical sources.

On account of its isolated position we might expect to find Ireland in possession of a highly developed system of legends bearing on the origins of its inhabitants. Ireland remained outside the pale of the ancient Roman world, and a state of society which was peculiarly favourable to the preservation of national folk-lore survived in the island until the 16th century. The jealousy with which the hereditary antiquaries guarded the tribal genealogies naturally leads us to hope that the records which have come down to us may shed some light on the difficult problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands and the west of Europe. Although innumerable histories of Ireland have appeared in print since the publication of Roderick O'Flaherty's _Ogygia_ (London, 1677), the authors have in almost every case been content to reproduce the legendary accounts without bringing any serious criticism to bear on the sources. This is partly to be explained by the fact that the serious study of Irish philology only dates from 1853 and much of the most important material has not yet appeared in print. In the middle of the 19th century O'Donovan and O'Curry collected a vast amount of undigested information about the early history of the island, but as yet J. B. Bury in his monograph on St Patrick is the only trained historian who has ever adequately dealt with any of the problems connected with ancient Ireland. Hence it is evident that our knowledge of the subject must remain extremely unsatisfactory until the chief sources have been properly sifted by competent scholars. A beginning has been made by Sir John Rhys in his "Studies in Early Irish History" (_Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol. i.), and by John MacNeill in a suggestive series of papers contributed to the _New Ireland Review_ (March 1906-Feb. 1907). Much might reasonably be expected from the sciences of archaeology and anthropology. But although Ireland is as rich as, or even richer in monuments of the past than, most countries in Europe, comparatively little has been done owing in large measure to the lack of systematic investigation.

It may be as well to specify some of the more important sources at the outset. Of the classical writers who notice Ireland Ptolemy is the only one who gives us any very definite information. The legendary origins first appear in Nennius and in a number of poems by such writers as Maelmura (d. 884), Cinaed Uah Artacain (d. 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn (d. 984), Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056) and Gilla Coemgin (d. 1072). They are also embodied in the _Leabhar Gabhala_ or _Book of Invasions_, the earliest copy of which is contained in the _Book of Leinster_, a 12th-century MS., Geoffrey Keating's _History_, Dugald MacFirbis's _Genealogies_ and various collections of annals such as those by the Four Masters. Of prime importance for the earlier period are the stories known collectively as the Ulster cycle, among which the lengthy epic the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ takes first place. Amongst the numerous chronicles the _Annals of Ulster_, which commence with the year 441, are by far the most trustworthy. The _Book of Rights_ is another compilation which gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the various kingdoms to one another. Finally, there are the extensive collections of genealogies preserved in Rawlinson B 502, the _Books of Leinster_ and _Ballymote_.

_Earliest Inhabitants._--There is as yet no certain evidence to show that Ireland was inhabited during the palaeolithic period. But there are abundant traces of man in the neolithic state of culture (see Sir W. R. W. Wilde's _Catalogue_ of the antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy). The use of bronze was perhaps introduced about 1450 B.C. The craniological evidence is unfortunately at present insufficient to show whether the introduction of metal coincided with any particular invasion either from Britain or the European continent. At any rate it was not until well on in the Bronze Age, perhaps about 600 or 500 B.C., that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a Celtic language, set foot in Ireland. The newcomers probably overran the whole island, subduing but not exterminating the older race with which they doubtless intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic types are frequent among the populations of Connaught and Munster at the present day. What the language was that was spoken by the neolithic aborigines is a question which will probably never be settled. The division into provinces or "fifths" (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E. Munster and W. Munster) appears to be older than the historical period, and may be due to the Goidels. Between 300 B.C. and 150 B.C. various Belgic and other Brythonic tribes established themselves in Britain bringing with them the knowledge of how to work in iron. Probably much about the same time certain Belgic tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland. Some time must have elapsed before any Brythonic people undertook to defy the powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the Brythonic kingdom of Tara does not seem to have been acknowledged before the 4th century of our era. The early Belgic settlers constituted perhaps in the main trading states which acted as intermediaries of commerce between Ireland and Gaul.[1] In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish tribes, who doubtless came over from Scotland, conquered for themselves parts of Antrim and Down where they maintained their independence till late in the historical period. Picts are also represented as having settled in the county of Roscommon; but we have at present no means of ascertaining when this invasion took place.

_Classical Writers._--Greek and Roman writers seem to have possessed very little definite information about the island, though much of what they relate corresponds to the state of society disclosed in the older epics. Strabo held the inhabitants to be mere savages, addicted to cannibalism and having no marriage ties. Solinus speaks of the luxurious pastures, but the natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation. The conquerors among them having first drunk the blood of their enemies, afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard right and wrong alike. Whenever a woman brings forth a male child, she puts his first food on the sword of her husband, and lightly introduces the first _auspicium_ of nourishment into his little mouth with the point of the sword. Pomponius Mela speaks of the climate as unfit for ripening grain, but he, too, notices the luxuriance of the grass. However, it is not until we reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on firm ground. His description is of supreme importance for the study of early Irish ethnography. Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples in Ireland, several of which can be identified. As we should expect from our knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any towns are mentioned. In the S.E., probably in Co. Wicklow, we find the Manapii--evidently a colony from N.E. Gaul. North of them, perhaps in Kildare, a similar people, the Cauci, are located. In Waterford and Wexford are placed the Brigantes, who also occur in Yorkshire. The territory to the west of the Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni. Their capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W. of the island he marks the mouth of the river Iernos, by which the top of Dingle Bay called Castlemaine Harbour is perhaps intended. The Iverni must have been a nation of considerable importance, as they play a prominent part in the historical period, where they are known as the Ernai or Eraind of Munster. It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with whom foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that the Latin name for the whole island is derived. The earliest form was probably _Iveriyo_ or _Iveriyu_, genitive _Iveryonos_, from which come Lat. _Iverio_, _Hiverio_ (Antonine Itinerary), _Hiberio_ (Confession of St Patrick), Old Irish _Eriu_, _Heriu_, gen. _Herenn_ with regular loss of intervocalic v, _Welsh Iwerddon_ (from the oblique cases). West of the Iverni in Co. Kerry Ptolemy mentions the Vellabori, and going in a northerly direction following the coast we find the Gangani, Autini (Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae). Erdini (cf. the name Lough Erne), Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified with certainty. In south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the Voluntii who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir. _Ulaid_, in Irish Lat. _Uloti_). About Queen's county or Tipperary are situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later Ossory (Ir. _Os-raige_). Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find the Coriondi who occur in Irish texts near the Boyne (Mid. Ir. _Coraind_). It would seem as if Ptolemy's description of Ireland answered in some measure to the state of affairs which we find obtaining in the older Ulster epic cycle.[2] Both are probably anterior to the foundation of a central state at Tara.

_Legendary Origins._--We can unfortunately derive no further assistance from external sources and must therefore examine the native traditions. From the 9th century onwards we find accounts of various races who had colonized the island. These stories naturally become amplified as times goes on, and in what we may regard as the classical or standard versions to be found in Keating, the Four Masters, Dugald MacFirbis and elsewhere, no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated. The first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in A.M. 2520, under the leadership of an individual named Partholan who hailed from Middle Greece. His company landed in Kenmare Bay and settled in what is now Co. Dublin. After occupying the island for 300 years they were all carried off by a plague and were buried at Tallaght (Ir. _Tamlacht_, "plague-grave"), at which place a number of ancient remains (probably belonging, however, to the Viking period) have come to light. In A.M. 2850 a warrior from Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900 fighting men. Nemed's people are represented as having to struggle for their existence with a race of sea-pirates known as the Fomorians. The latter's stronghold was Tory Island, where they had a mighty fortress. After undergoing great hardship the Nemedians succeeded in destroying the fortress and in slaying the enemies' leaders, but the Fomorians received reinforcements from Africa. A second battle was fought in which both parties were nearly exterminated. Of the Nemedians only thirty warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed, who made their way each to a different country (A.M. 3066). One of them, Simon Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity multiplied to such an extent that the Greeks grew afraid and reduced them to slavery. In time their position became so intolerable that they resolved to escape, and they arrived in Ireland A.M. 3266. This third body of invaders is known collectively as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very important. They are stated to have had five leaders, all brothers, each of whom occupied one of the provinces or "fifths." We find them landing in different places. One party, the Fir Galeoin, landed at Inber Slangi, the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied much of Leinster. Another, the Fir Domnand, settled in Mayo where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the ancient name for the district of Erris. A third band, the Firbolg proper, took possession of Munster. Many authorities such as Keating and MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be found in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are characterized as "tattling, guileful, tale-bearing, noisy, contemptible, mean, wretched, unsteady, harsh and inhospitable." The Firbolgs had scarcely established themselves in the island when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the scene. These were the Tuatha De Danann ("tribes of the god Danu"), who according to the story were also descended from Nemed. They came originally from Greece and were highly skilled in necromancy. Having to flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they proceeded to Scandinavia. Under Nuadu Airgetlaim they moved to Scotland, and finally arrived in Ireland (A.M. 3303), bringing with them in addition to the celebrated Lia Fail ("stone of destiny") which they set up at Tara, the cauldron of the Dagda and the sword and spear of Lugaid Lamfada. Eochaid, son of Erc, king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender the sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the plain of Moytura near Cong (Co. Mayo), the site of a prehistoric cemetery. In this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with great slaughter, and the remnants of the race according to Keating and other writers took refuge in Arran, Islay, Rathlin and the Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven out by Picts. Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha De had to defend themselves against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the battle of north Moytura near Sligo. The Tuatha De then enjoyed undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians in A.M. 3500.

All the early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin and adventures of this race. The Milesians came primarily from Scythia and after sojourning for some time in Egypt, Crete and in Scythia again, they finally arrived in Spain. In the line of mythical ancestors which extends without interruption up to Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid, Goedel Glas, Eber Scot and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story. At length eight sons of Miled (Lat. _Milesius_) set forth to conquer Ireland. The spells of the Tuatha De accounted for most of their number. However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in overcoming the older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon, divided the island between them, Eber Find taking east and west Munster, whilst Eremon received Leinster and Connaught. Lugaid, son of the brother of Miled, took possession of south-west Munster. At the same time Ulster was left to Eber son of Ir son of Miled. The old historians agree that Ireland was ruled by a succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of Roderick O'Connor, the last native king. The Tuatha De are represented as retiring into the _sid_ or fairy mounds. Eber Find and Eremon did not remain long in agreement. The historians place the beginnings of the antithesis between north and south at the very commencement of the Milesian domination. A battle was fought between the two brothers in which Eber Find lost his life. In the reign of Eremon the Picts are stated to have arrived in Ireland, coming from Scythia. It will have been observed that Scythia had a peculiar attraction for medieval Irish chroniclers on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots. The Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced to remove to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in Meath. Among the numerous mythical kings placed by the annalists between Eremon and the Christian era we may mention Tigernmas (A.M. 3581), Ollam Fodla (A.M. 3922) who established the meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (c. 305 B.C.) the reputed founder of Emain Macha, Ugaine Mor, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid Feidlech, who built Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter, Medb queen of Connaught. During the 1st century of our era we hear of the rising of the _aithech-tuatha_, i.e. subject or plebeian tribes, or in other words the Firbolgs, who paid _daer_- or base rent to the Milesians. From a resemblance in the name which is probably fortuitous these tribes have been identified with the Attecotti of Roman writers. Under Cairbre Cinnchait ("cathead") the oppressed peoples succeeded in wresting the sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles were almost exterminated (A.D. 90). The line of Eremon was, however, restored on the accession of Tuathal Techtmar ("the legitimate"), who reigned A.D. 130-160. This ruler took measures to consolidate the power of the _ardri_ (supreme king). He constructed a number of fortresses on the great central plain and carved out the kingdom of Meath to serve as his mensal land. The new kingdom was composed of the present counties of Meath, Westmeath and Longford together with portions of Monaghan, Cavan, King's Co. and Kildare. He was also the first to levy the famous Leinster tribute, the _boroma_, in consequence of an insult offered to him by one of the kings of that province. This tribute, which was only remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling, must have been the source of constant war and oppression. A grandson of Tuathal's, the famous Conn Cetchathach ("the hundred-fighter"), whose death is placed in the year 177 after a reign of about twenty years, was constantly at war with the Munster ruler Eogan Mor, also called Mog Nuadat, of the race of Eber Find. Eogan had subdued the Ernai and the Corco Laigde (descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the supreme king was obliged to share the island with him. Hence the well-known names Leth Cuinn or "Conn's half" (north Ireland), and Leth Moga or "Mug's half" (south Ireland). The boundary line ran from the Bay of Galway to Dublin along the great ridge of gravel known as Eiscir Riada which stretches across Ireland. Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays a prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons Eogan, Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-known families. Conn's grandson, Cormac son of Art, is represented as having reigned in great splendour (254-266) and as having been a great patron of learning. It was during this reign that the sept of the Desi were expelled from Meath. They settled in Munster where their name still survives in the barony of Decies (Co. Waterford). A curious passage in Cormac's _Glossary_ connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Musc, with the settlements of the Irish in south Wales which may have taken place as early as the 3rd century. Of greater consequence was the invasion of Ulster by the three Collas, cousins of the ardri Muredach. The stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed and the Ulstermen were driven across the Newry River into Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts.

The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to distinguish them from the Milesian peoples who overran the province. With the advent of Niall Noigiallach ("N. of the nine hostages" reigned 379-405) son of Eochaid Muigmedoin (358-366) we are treading safer ground. It was about this time that the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established. Nor was Niall's activity confined to Ireland alone. Irish sources represent him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions oversea, and it was doubtless on one of these that St Patrick was taken captive. These movements coincide with the inroads of the Picts and Scots recorded by Roman writers. It is probably from this period that the Irish colonies in south Wales, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall date. And the earliest migrations from Ulster to Argyll may also have taken place about this time. Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some idea of the extent of Irish oversea activity may be gathered from the distribution of the Ogam inscriptions in Wales, south-west England and the Isle of Man.

_Criticism of the Legendary Origins._--It is only in recent years that the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious criticism. The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian descent to the bulk of the native population has at length been assailed. MacNeill asserts that in MacFirbis's genealogies the majority of the tribes in early Ireland do not trace their descent to Eremon and Eber Find; they are rather the descendants of the subject races, one of which figures in the list of conquests under the name of Firbolg. The stories of the Fomorians were doubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but the origin of the Partholan legend has not been discovered. The Tuatha De do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical documents, nor in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to any particular race. It seems more probable that a special invasion was assigned to them by later writers in order to explain the presence of mythical personages going by their name in the heroic cycles, as they were found inconvenient by the monkish historians. In the early centuries of our era Ireland would therefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and kindred races and the Milesians. According to MacNeill the Firbolg tribal names are formed with the suffix -_raige_, e.g. _Ciarraige_, Kerry, _Osraige_, Ossory, or with the obscure words _Corcu_ and _mocu_ (_maccu_), e.g. _Corco Duibne_, Corkaguiney, _Corco Mruad_, Corcomroe, _Macu Loegdae_, _Macu Teimne_. In the case of _corcu_ and _mocu_ the name which follows is frequently the name of an eponymous ancestor. The Milesians on the other hand named themselves after an historical ancestor employing terms such as _ui_, "descendants," _cland_, "children," _dal_, "division," _cinel_, "kindred," or _sil_, "seed." In this connexion it may be noted that practically all the Milesian pedigrees converge on three ancestors in the 2nd century--Conn Cetchathach king of Tara, Cathair Mor of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of Munster,--whilst in scarcely any of them are mythological personages absent when we go farther back than A.D. 300. Special genealogies were framed to link up other races, e.g. the Eraind and Corcu Loegdi of Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians of Tara.

The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian conquest is the establishment of a central monarchy at Tara. No trace of such a state of affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic. In the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ we find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over by its own king. These divisions were: Ulster with Emain Macha as capital, Connaught with Cruachu as residence, north Munster from Slieve Bloom to north Kerry, south Munster from south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of the two kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn. Moreover, the kings of Tara mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian kings. It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara was an innovation subsequent to the state of society described in the oldest sagas and the political position reflected in Ptolemy's account. It was probably due to an invasion undertaken by Brythons[3] from Britain, but it is impossible to assign a precise date for their arrival. Until the end of the 3rd century the Milesian power must have been confined to the valley of the Boyne and the district around Tara. At the beginning of the 4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of Oriel (comprising the present counties of Armagh, Monaghan, north Louth, south Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the eastern part of the province. Brian and Fiachra, sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, conquered for themselves the country of the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan) and Tir Fiachrach, the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the valley of the Moy (Co. Mayo). Somewhat later south Connaught was similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by descendants of Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach Aidni and Ui Briuin Seola. The north of Ulster is stated to have been conquered and colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of Niall Noigiallach. The former gave his name to the western portion, Tir Conaill (Co. Donegal), whilst Inishowen was called Tir Eogain after Eogan. The name Tir Eogain later became associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county name Tyrone. The whole kingdom of the north is commonly designated the kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold near Derry which the sons of Niall probably took over from the earlier inhabitants. At the end of the 5th century Maine, a relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a tract of Firbolg territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which formed the nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in English commonly called the "O'Kelly's country"). Thus practically the whole of the north and west gradually came under the sway of the Milesian rulers. Nevertheless one portion retained its independence. This was Ulidia, consisting of Dalriada, Dal Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present counties of Antrim and Down. The bulk of the population here was probably Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians or ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until the 8th century when they were subdued by their Pictish neighbours. The relationship of Munster and Leinster to the Tara dynasty is not so easy to define. The small kingdom of Ossory remained independent until a very late period. As for Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by Ptolemy left traces of their name, although it is possible that the ruling family may have been derived from them. It would seem that the Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the _Tain_ had been crushed before authentic history begins. The king of Leinster was for centuries the most determined opponent of the _ardri_, an antithesis which is embodied in the story of the _boroma_ tribute. When we turn to Munster we find that Cashel was the seat of power in historical times. Now Cashel (a loanword from Lat. _castellum_) was not founded Until the beginning of the 5th century by Core son of Lugaid. The legendary account attributes the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting Munster to Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his son Ailill Aulom. Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber Find was not Milesian but a branch of the Ernai, and this theory has much in its favour. The allegiance of the rulers of Munster to Niall and his descendants can at the best of times only have been nominal.

In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging only the supremacy of the Tara dynasty. These were (1) Munster with Cashel as centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4) Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7) Leinster, (8) Ossory. Some of these states might be split up into various parts at certain periods, each part becoming for the time-being an over-kingdom. For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tir Conaill and Tir Eogain according to political conditions. Hence the number of over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents. The supremacy was vested in the descendants of Niall Noigiallach without interruption until 1002; but as Niall's descendants were represented by four reigning families, the high-kingship passed from one branch to another. Nevertheless after the middle of the 8th century the title of _ardri_ (high-king) was only held by the Cinel Eogain (northern Hy Neill) and the rulers of Meath (southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had dropped into insignificance. The supremacy of the _ardri_ was more often than not purely nominal. This must have been particularly the case in Leth Moga.

_Religion in Early Ireland._--Our knowledge of the beliefs of the pagan Irish is very slight. The oldest texts belonging to the heroic cycle are not preserved in any MS. before 1100, and though the sagas were certainly committed to writing several centuries before that date, it is evident that the monkish transcribers have toned down or omitted features that savoured too strongly of paganism. Supernatural beings play an important part in the _Tain Bo Cualgne_, _Cuchulinn's Sickbed_, the _Wooing of Emer_ and similar stories, but the relations between ordinary mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy to establish. It seems unlikely that the ancient Irish had a highly developed pantheon. On the other hand there are abundant traces of animistic worship, which have survived in wells, often associated with a sacred tree (Ir. _bile_), bullans, pillar stones, weapons. There are also traces of the worship of the elements, prominent among which are sun and fire. The belief in earth spirits or fairies (Ir. _aes side_, _sid_) forms perhaps the most striking feature of Irish belief. The sagas teem with references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who play such an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own time. These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal, but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals. Numerous cases of marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded. The Tuatha De Danann is used as a collective name for the _aes side_. The representatives of this race in the _Tain Bo Cualgne_ play a somewhat similar part to the gods of the ancient Greeks in the _Iliad_, though they are of necessity of a much more shadowy nature. Prominent among them were Manannan mac Lir, who is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda, the father of a numerous progeny. One of them, Bodb Derg, resided near Portumna on the shore of Lough Derg, whilst another, Angus Mac-in-og, dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known tumulus at New Grange. The Dagda's daughter Brigit transmitted many of her attributes to the Christian saint of the same name (d. 523). The ancient Brigit seems to have been the patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of fertility. At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare which burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the Reformation was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides, and until quite recently in Donegal, to secure good crops. Well-known fairy queens are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north Munster). We frequently hear of three goddesses of war--Ana, Bodb and Macha, also generally called Morrigu and Badb. They showed themselves in battles hovering over the heads of the combatants in the form of a carrion crow. The name Bodb appears on a Gaulish stone as (_Cathu_-)_bodvae_. The _Geniti glinni_ and _demna aeir_ were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage.