Chapter IX: Part 9

The episcopal succession, then, was unbroken at the Reformation. The Marian prelates are admitted on all hands to have been the true bishops of the Church, and in every case they were followed by a line of lawful successors, leading down to the present occupants of the several sees. The rival lines of Roman Catholic titulars are not in direct succession to the Marian bishops, and cannot be regarded as continuous with the medieval Church. The question of the continuity of the pre-Reformation Church with the Church of the Celtic period before the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland is more difficult. Ten out of eleven archbishops of Armagh who held office between 1272 and 1439 were consecrated outside Ireland, and there is no evidence forthcoming that any one of them derived his apostolic succession through bishops of the Irish Church. It may be stated with confidence that the present Church of Ireland is the direct and legitimate successor of the Church of the 14th and 15th centuries, but it cannot so clearly be demonstrated that any existing organization is continuous with the Church of St Patrick. In the reign of James I. the first Convocation of the clergy was summoned in Ireland, of which assembly the most notable act was the adoption of the "Irish Articles" (1615). These had been drawn up by Usher, and were more decidedly Calvinistic in tone than the Thirty-nine Articles, which were not adopted as standards in Ireland until 1634, when Strafford forced them on Convocation. During the Commonwealth period the bishoprics which became vacant were not filled; but on the accession of Charles II. the Church was strengthened by the translation of John Bramhall (the most learned and zealous of the prelates) from Derry to the primatial see of Armagh, and the consecration of twelve other bishops, among whom was Jeremy Taylor. The short period during which the policy of James II. prevailed in Ireland was one of disaster to the Church; but under William and Mary she regained her former position. She had now been reformed for more than 100 years, but had made little progress; and the tyrannical provisions of the Penal Code introduced by the English government made her more unpopular than ever. The clergy, finding their ministrations unacceptable to the great mass of the population, were tempted to indolence and non-residence; and although bright exceptions could be named, there was much that called for reform. To William King (1650-1729), bishop of Derry, and subsequently archbishop of Dublin, it was mainly due that the work of the Church was reorganized, and the impulse which he gave it was felt all through the 18th century. His ecclesiastical influence was exerted in direct opposition to Primate Hugh Boulter and his school, who aimed at making the Established Church the instrument for the promotion of English political opinions rather than the spiritual home of the Irish people. In 1800 the Act of Union was passed by the Legislature; and thenceforward, until Disestablishment, there was but one "United Church of England and Ireland."

Continuous agitation for the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities brought about in 1833 the passing of the Church Temporalities Act, one of the most important provisions of which was the reduction of the number of Irish archbishoprics from four to two, and of bishoprics from eighteen to ten, the funds thus released being administered by commissioners. In 1838 the Tithe Rentcharge Act, which transferred the payment of tithes from the occupiers to the owners of land, was passed, and thus a substantial grievance was removed. It became increasingly plain, however, as years passed, that all such measures of relief were inadequate to allay the dissatisfaction felt by the majority of Irishmen because of the continued existence of the Established Church. Her position had been pledged to her by the Act of Union, and she was undoubtedly the historical representative of the ancient Church of the land; but such arguments proved unavailing in view of the visible fact that she had not gained the affections of the people. The census of 1861 showed that out of a total population of 5,798,967 only 693,357 belonged to the Established Church, 4,505,265 being Roman Catholics; and once this had been made clear, the passing of the Act of Disestablishment was only a question of time. Introduced by Mr Gladstone, and passed in 1869, it became law on the 1st of January 1871.

The Church was thus suddenly thrown on her own resources, and called on to reorganize her ecclesiastical system, as well as to make provision for the maintenance of her future clergy. A convention of the bishops, clergy, and laity was summoned in 1870, and its first act was to declare the adherence of the Church of Ireland to the ancient standards, and her determination to uphold the doctrine and discipline of the Catholic and Apostolic Church, while reaffirming her witness, as Protestant and Reformed, against the innovations of Rome. Under the constitution then agreed on, the supreme governing body of the Church is the General Synod, consisting of the bishops and of 208 clerical and 416 lay representatives of the several dioceses, whose local affairs are managed by subordinate Diocesan Synods. The bishops are elected as vacancies arise, and, with certain restrictions, by the Diocesan Synods, the Primate, whose see is Armagh, being chosen by the bishops out of their own number. The patronage of benefices is vested in boards of nomination, on which both the diocese and the parish are represented. The Diocesan Courts, consisting of the bishop, his chancellor, and two elected members, one clerical and the other lay, deal as courts of first instance with legal questions; but there is an appeal to the Court of the General Synod, composed of three bishops and four laymen who have held judicial office. During the years 1871 to 1878 the revision of the Prayer Book mainly occupied the attention of the General Synod; but although many far-reaching resolutions were proposed by the then predominant Evangelical party, few changes of moment were carried, and none which affected the Church's doctrinal position. A two-thirds majority of both the lay and clerical vote is necessary before any change can be made in the formularies, and an ultimate veto rests, on certain conditions, with the house of bishops.

The effects of Disestablishment have been partly good and partly evil. On the one hand, the Church has now all the benefits of autonomy and is free from the anomalies incidental to state control. Her laws are definite, and the authority of her judicial courts is recognized by all her members. The place given to the laity in her synods has quickened in them the sense of responsibility so essential to the Church's progress. And although there are few worldly inducements to men to take orders in Ireland, the clergy are, for the most part, the equals of their predecessors in social standing and in intellectual equipment, while the standard of clerical activity is higher than in pre-Disestablishment days. On the other hand, the vesting of patronage in large bodies like synods, or (as is the case in some districts) in nominators with little knowledge of the Church beyond the borders of their own parish, is not an ideal system, although it is working better as the dangers of parochialism and provinciality are becoming more generally recognized than in the early years of Disestablishment.

The finances are controlled by the Representative Church Body, to which the sum of L7,581,075, sufficient to provide life annuities for the existing clergy (2043 in number), amounting to L596,913, was handed over by the Church Temporalities Commissioners in 1870. So skilfully was this fund administered, and so generous were the contributions of clergy and laity, at and since Disestablishment, that while on 31st December 1906 only 136 annuitants were living, the total assets in the custody of the Representative Church Body amounted at that date to L8,729,941. Of this sum no less than L6,525,952 represented the free-will offerings of the members of the Church for the thirty-seven years ending 31st December 1906. Out of the interest on capital, augmented by the annual parochial assessments, which are administered by the central office, provision has to be made for two archbishops at L2500 per annum, eleven bishops, who receive about L1500 each, and over 1500 parochial clergy. Of the clergy only 338 are curates, while 1161 are incumbents, the average annual income of a benefice being about L240, with (in most cases) a house. The large majority of the clergy receive their training in the Divinity School of Trinity College, Dublin. At the census of 1901 the members of the Church of Ireland numbered 579,385 out of a total population of 4,456,546.

See R. Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London,
1840); _Essays on the Irish Church_, by various writers (Oxford,
1866); Maziere Brady, _The Alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops_
(London, 1877); A. T. Lee, _The Irish Episcopal Succession_ (Dublin,
1867); G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_ (London, 1888),
_Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church_ (London, 1892), _Some Worthies
of the Irish Church_ (London, 1900); T. Olden, _The Church of Ireland_
(London, 1892); J. T. Ball, _The Reformed Church of Ireland_ (London,
1890); H. C. Groves, _The Titular Archbishops of Ireland_ (Dublin,
1897); W. Lawlor, _The Reformation in Ireland_ (London, 1906);
_Reports of the Representative Church Body_ (Dublin, 1872-1905).
(J. H. Be.)

IRENAEUS, bishop of Lyons at the end of the 2nd century, was one of the most distinguished theologians of the ante-Nicene Church. Very little is known of his early history. His childhood was spent in Asia Minor, probably at or near Smyrna; for he himself tells us (_Adv. haer._ iii. 3, 4, and Euseb. _Hist. Eccl._ v. 20) that as a child he heard the preaching of Polycarp, the aged bishop of Smyrna (d. February 22, 156). But we do not know when this was. He can hardly have been born very long after 130, for later on he frequently mentions having met certain Christian presbyters who had actually seen John, the disciple of our Lord. The circumstances under which he came into the West are also unknown to us; the only thing which is certain is that at the time of the persecution of the Gallic Church under Marcus Aurelius (177) he was a presbyter of the church at Lyons. In 177 or 178 he went to Rome on a mission from this church, to make representations to Bishop Eleutherius in favour of a more lenient treatment of the Montanists (see MONTANISM.; Eus. v. 4. 2). On his return he was called upon to undertake the direction of the church at Lyons in the place of Bishop Pothinus, who had perished in the persecution (Eus. v. 5. 8). As bishop he carried on a great and fruitful work. Though the statement of Gregory of Tours (_Hist. Franc._ i. 29), that within a short time he succeeded in converting all Lyons to Christianity, is probably exaggerated, from him at any rate dates the wide spread of Christianity in Lyons and its neighbourhood. He devoted particular attention to trying to reconcile the numerous sects which menaced the existence of the church (see below). In the dispute on the question of Easter, which for a long time disturbed the Christian Church both in West and East, he endeavoured by means of many letters to effect a compromise, and in particular to exercise a moderating influence on Victor, the bishop of Rome, and his unyielding attitude towards the dissentient churches of Africa, thus justifying his name of "peace-maker" (Eirenaios) (Eus. _H. E._ v. 24. 28). The date of his death is unknown. His martyrdom under Septimius Severus is related by Gregory of Tours, but by no earlier writer.

The chief work of Irenaeus, written about 180, is his "Refutation and Overthrow of Gnosis, falsely so called" (usually indicated by the name _Against the Heresies_). Of the Greek original of this work only fragments survive; it only exists in full in an old Latin translation, the slavish fidelity of which to a certain extent makes up for the loss of the original text. The treatise is divided into five books: of these the first two contain a minute and well-informed description and criticism of the tenets of various heretical sects, especially the Valentinians; the other three set forth the true doctrines of Christianity, and it is from them that we find out the theological opinions of the author. Irenaeus admits himself that he is not a good writer. And indeed, as he worked, his materials assumed such unmanageable proportions that he could not succeed in throwing them into a satisfactory form. But however clumsily he may have handled his material, he has produced a work which is even nowadays rightly valued as the first systematic exposition of Catholic belief. The foundation upon which Irenaeus bases his system consists in the episcopate, the canon of the Old and New Testaments, and the rule of faith. With their assistance he sets forth and upholds, in opposition to the gnostic dualism, i.e. the severing of the natural and the supernatural, the Catholic monism, i.e. the unity of the life of faith as willed by God. The "grace of truth" (the _charisma_), which the apostles had called down upon their first disciples by prayer and laying-on of hands, and which was to be imparted anew by way of succession ([Greek: diadoche], _successio_) to the bishops from generation to generation without a break, makes those who receive it living witnesses of the salvation offered to the faithful by written and spoken tradition. The Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, rightly expounded by the church alone, give us an insight into God's plan of salvation for mankind, and explain to us the covenant which He made on various occasions (Moses and Christ; or Noah, Abraham, Moses and Christ). Finally, the "rule of faith" (_regula fidei_), received at baptism, contains in itself all the riches of Christian truth. To distribute these, i.e. to elucidate the rule of faith as set forth in the creed, and further to point out its agreement with the Scriptures, is the object of Irenaeus as a theologian. Hence he lays the greatest stress on the conception of God's disposition of salvation towards mankind (_oeconomia_), the object of which is that mankind, who in Adam were sunk in sin and death, should in Christ, comprised as it were in his person, be brought back to life. God, as the head of the family, so to speak, disposes of all. The Son, the Word (_Logos_) for ever dwelling with the Father, carries out His behests. The Holy Ghost (_Pneuma_), however, as the Spirit of wisdom for ever dwelling with the Father, controls what the Father has appointed and the Son fulfilled, and this Spirit lives in the church. The climax of the divine plan of salvation is found in the incarnation of the Word. God was to become man, and in Christ he became man. Christ must be God; for if not, the devil would have had a natural claim on him, and he would have been no more exempt from death than the other children of Adam; he must be _man_, if his blood were indeed to redeem us. On God incarnate the power of the devil is broken, and in Him is accomplished the reconciliation between God and man, who henceforth pursues his true object, namely, to become like unto God. In the God-man God has drawn men up to Himself. Into their human, fleshly and perishable nature imperishable life is thereby engrafted; it has become deified, and death has been changed into immortality. In the sacrament of the Lord's Supper it is the heavenly body of the God-man which is actually partaken of in the elements. This exposition by Irenaeus of the divine economy and the incarnation was taken as a criterion by later theologians, especially in the Greek Church (cf. Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus). He himself was especially influenced by St John and St Paul. Before him the Fourth Gospel did not seem to exist for the Church; Irenaeus made it a living force. His conception of the Logos is not that of the philosophers and apologists; he looks upon the Logos not as the "reason" of God, but as the "voice" with which the Father speaks in the revelation to mankind, as did the writer of the Fourth Gospel. And the Pauline epistles are adopted almost bodily by Irenaeus, according to the ideas contained in them; his expositions often present the appearance of a patchwork of St Paul's ideas. Certainly, it is only one side of Paul's thought that he displays to us. The great conceptions of justification and atonement are hardly ever touched by Irenaeus. In Irenaeus is no longer heard the Jew, striving about and against the law, who has had to break free from his early tradition of Pharisaism.

Till recent times whatever other writings and letters of Irenaeus are mentioned by Eusebius appeared to be lost, with the exception of a fragment here or there. Recently, however, two Armenian scholars, Karapet Ter-Mekerttschian and Erwand Ter-Minassianz, have published from an Armenian translation a German edition (Leipzig, 1907; minor edition 1908) of the work "in proof of the apostolic teaching" mentioned by Eusebius _(H. E._ v. 26). This work, which is in the form of a dialogue with one Marcianus, otherwise unknown to us, contains a statement of the fundamental truths of Christianity. It is the oldest catechism extant, and an excellent example of how Bishop Irenaeus was able not only to defend Christianity as a theologian and expound it theoretically, but also to preach it to laymen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The edition of the Benedictine R. Massuet (Paris, 1710
and 1734, reprinted in Migne, _Cursus patrologiae_, Series Graeca,
vol. v., Paris, 1857) long continued to be the standard one, till it
was superseded by the editions of Adolph Stieren (2 vols., Leipzig,
1848-1853) and of W. Wigan Harvey (2 vols., Cambridge, 1857), the
latter being the only edition which contains the Syriac fragments. For
an English translation see the _Ante-Nicene Library_. Of modern
monographs consult H. Ziegler, _Irenaeus, der Bischof von Lyon_
(Berlin, 1871); Friedrich Loofs, _Irenaeus-Handschriften_ (Leipzig,
1888); Johannes Werner, _Der Paulinismus des Irenaeus_ (Leipzig,
1889); Johannes Kunze, _Die Gotteslehre des Irenaeus_ (Leipzig, 1891);
Ernst Klebba, _Die Anthropologie des heiligen Irenaeus_ (Munster,
1894); Albert Dufourcq, _Saint Irenee_ (Paris, 1904); Franz Stoll,
_Die Lehre des Heil. Irenaeus von der Erlosung und Heiligung_ (Mainz,
1905); also the histories of dogma, especially Harnack, and
Bethune-Baker, _An Introduction to the Early History of Christian
Doctrine_ (London, 1903). (G. K.)

IRENE, the name of several Byzantine empresses.

1. IRENE (752-803), the wife of Leo IV., East Roman emperor. Originally a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily gained the love and confidence of her feeble husband, and at his death in 780 was left by him sole guardian of the empire and of their ten-year-old son Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme power in the name of the latter, Irene ruled the empire at her own discretion for ten years, displaying great firmness and sagacity in her government. Her most notable act was the restoration of the orthodox image-worship, a policy which she always had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it in her husband's lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her partisans, to the patriarchate (784), she summoned two church councils. The former of these, held in 786 at Constantinople, was frustrated by the opposition of the soldiers. The second, convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the adoration of images and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome. As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive under her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force was met and crushed by the empress, who demanded that the oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone. The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the Armenian guard, formally proclaimed Constantine VI. as the sole ruler. A hollow semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skilful intrigues with the bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces, but even there he was surrounded by participants in the plot. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, the emperor was carried back to the palace at Constantinople; and there, by the orders of his mother, his eyes were stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness of seventeen days' duration were attributed by the common superstition to the horror of heaven. Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour for five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne; but according to Theophanes, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated by Aetius, one of her favourites. A projected alliance between Constantine and Charlemagne's daughter, Rothrude, was in turn broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon whom she had lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her, and placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The haughty and unscrupulous princess, "who never lost sight of political power in the height of her religious zeal," was exiled to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning. She died the following year. Her zeal in restoring images and monasteries has given her a place among the saints of the Greek church.

See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. J.
Bury, London, 1896), vol. v.; G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed.
1877, Oxford,) vol. ii.; F. C. Schlosser, _Geschichte der
bildersturmenden Kaiser des ostromischen Reiches_ (Frankfort, 1812);
J. D. Phoropoulos, [Greek: Eirene he autokrateira Rhomaion] (Leipzig,
1887); J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (London, 1889), ii.
480-498; C. Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 77-109.
(M. O. B. C.)

2. IRENE (c. 1066-c. 1120), the wife of Alexius I. The best-known fact of her life is the unsuccessful intrigue by which she endeavoured to divert the succession from her son John to Nicephorus Bryennius, the husband of her daughter Anna. Having failed to persuade Alexius, or, upon his death, to carry out a _coup d'etat_ with the help of the palace guards, she retired to a monastery and ended her life in obscurity.

3. IRENE (d. 1161), the first wife of Manuel Comnenus. She was the daughter of the count of Sulzbach, and sister-in-law of the Roman emperor Conrad II., who arranged her betrothal. The marriage was celebrated at Constantinople in 1146. The new empress, who had exchanged her earlier name of Bertha for one more familiar to the Greeks, became a devoted wife, and by the simplicity of her manner contrasted favourably with most Byzantine queens of the age.

H. v. Kap-Herr, _Die abendlandische Politik des Kaisers Manuel_
(Strassburg, 1881).

IRETON, HENRY (1611-1651), English parliamentary general, eldest son of German Ireton of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire, was baptized on the 3rd of November 1611, became a gentleman commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1626, graduated B.A. in 1629, and entered the Middle Temple the same year. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the parliamentary army, fought at Edgehill and at Gainsborough in July 1643, was made by Cromwell deputy-governor of the Isle of Ely, and next year served under Manchester in the Yorkshire campaign and at the second battle of Newbury, afterwards supporting Cromwell in his accusations of incompetency against the general. On the night before the battle of Naseby, in June 1645, he succeeded in surprising the Royalist army and captured many prisoners, and next day, on the suggestion of Cromwell, he was made commissary-general and appointed to the command of the left wing, Cromwell himself commanding the right. The wing under Ireton was completely broken by the impetuous charge of Rupert, and Ireton was wounded and taken prisoner, but after the rout of the enemy which ensued on the successful charge of Cromwell he regained his freedom. He was present at the siege of Bristol in the September following, and took an active part in the subsequent victorious campaign which resulted in the overthrow of the royal cause. On the 30th of October 1645 Ireton entered parliament as member for Appleby, and while occupied with the siege of Oxford he was, on the 15th of June 1646, married to Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. This union brought Ireton into still closer connexion with Cromwell, with whose career he was now more completely identified. But while Cromwell's policy was practically limited to making the best of the present situation, and was generally inclined to compromise, Ireton's attitude was based on well-grounded principles of statesmanship. He was opposed to the destructive schemes of the extreme party, disliked especially the abstract and unpractical theories of the Republicans and the Levellers, and desired, while modifying their mutual powers, to retain the constitution of King, Lords and Commons. He urged these views in the negotiations of the army with the parliament, and in the conferences with the king, being the person chiefly entrusted with the drawing up of the army proposals, including the manifesto called "The Heads of the Proposals." He endeavoured to prevent the breach between the army and the parliament, but when the division became inevitable took the side of the former. He persevered in supporting the negotiations with the king till his action aroused great suspicion and unpopularity. He became at length convinced of the hopelessness of dealing with Charles, and after the king's flight to the Isle of Wight treated his further proposals with coldness and urged the parliament to establish an administration without him. Ireton served under Fairfax in the second civil war in the campaigns in Kent and Essex, and was responsible for the executions of Lucas and Lisle at Colchester. After the rejection by the king of the last offers of the army, he showed special zeal in bringing about his trial, was one of the chief promoters of "Pride's Purge," attended the court regularly, and signed the death-warrant. The regiment of Ireton having been chosen by lot to accompany Cromwell in his Irish campaign, Ireton was appointed major-general; and on the recall of his chief to take the command in Scotland, he remained with the title and powers of lord-deputy to complete Cromwell's work of reduction and replantation. This he proceeded to do with his usual energy, and as much by the severity of his methods of punishment as by his military skill was rapidly bringing his task to a close, when he died on the 26th of November 1651 of fever after the capture of Limerick. His loss "struck a great sadness into Cromwell," and perhaps there was no one of the parliamentary leaders who could have been less spared, for while he possessed very high abilities as a soldier, and great political penetration and insight, he resembled in stern unflinchingness of purpose the protector himself. By his wife, Bridget Cromwell, who married afterwards General Charles Fleetwood, Ireton left one son and three daughters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article by C. H Firth in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ with
authorities there quoted; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._ iii. 298, and _Fasti_,
i. 451; Cornelius Brown's _Lives of Notts Worthies_, 181; _Clarke
Papers_ published by Camden Society; Gardiner's _History of the Civil
War and of the Commonwealth_.

IRIARTE (or YRIARTE) Y OROPESA, TOMAS DE (1750-1791), Spanish poet, was born on the 18th of September 1750, at Orotava in the island of Teneriffe, and received his literary education at Madrid under the care of his uncle, Juan de Iriarte, librarian to the king of Spain. In his eighteenth year the nephew began his literary career by translating French plays for the royal theatre, and in 1770, under the anagram of Tirso Imarete, he published an original comedy entitled _Hacer que hacemos_. In the following year he became official translator at the foreign office, and in 1776 keeper of the records in the war department. In 1780 appeared a dull didactic poem in _silvas_ entitled _La Musica_, which attracted some attention in Italy as well as at home. The _Fabulas literarias_ (1781), with which his name is most intimately associated, are composed in a great variety of metres, and show considerable ingenuity in their humorous attacks on literary men and methods; but their merits have been greatly exaggerated. During his later years, partly in consequence of the _Fabulas_, Iriarte was absorbed in personal controversies, and in 1786 was reported to the Inquisition for his sympathies with the French philosophers. He died on the 17th of September 1791.

He is the subject of an exhaustive monograph (1897) by Emilio Cotarelo
y Mori.

IRIDACEAE (the iris family), in botany, a natural order of flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class Monocotyledons, containing about 800 species in 57 genera, and widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions. The members of this order are generally perennial herbs growing from a corm as in _Crocus_ and _Gladiolus_, or a rhizome as in _Iris_; more rarely, as in the Spanish iris, from a bulb. A few South African representatives have a shrubby habit. The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular as in _Iris_ (fig. 1) and _Crocus_ (fig. 3), or with a symmetry in the median plane as in _Gladiolus_. The petaloid perianth consists of two series, each with three members, which are joined below into a longer or shorter tube, followed by one whorl of three stamens; the inferior ovary is three-celled and contains numerous ovules on an axile placenta; the style is branched and the branches are often petaloid. The fruit (fig. 2) is a capsule opening between the partitions and containing generally a large number of roundish or angular seeds. The arrangement of the parts in the flower resembles that in the nearly allied order Amaryllidaceae (_Narcissus_, _Snowdrop_, &c.), but differs in the absence of the inner whorl of stamens.

1. Flower, from which the outer petals and the stigmas have been
removed, leaving the inner petals (a) and stamens.
2. Pistil with petaloid stigmas.
3. Fruit cut across showing the three chambers containing seeds.
4. A seed. 1-4 about 1/2 nat. size.]

The most important genera are _Crocus_ (q.v.), with about 70 species, _Iris_ (q.v.), with about 100, and _Gladiolus_ (q.v.), with 150. _Ixia_, _Freesia_ (q.v.) and _Tritonia_ (including _Montbretia_), all natives of South Africa, are well known in cultivation. _Sisyrinchium_, blue-eyed grass, is a new-world genus extending from arctic America to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles. One species, _S. angustifolium_, an arctic and temperate North American species, is also native in Galway and Kerry in Ireland. Other British representatives of the order are: _Iris Pseudacorus_, (yellow iris), common by river-banks and ditches, _I. foetidissima (stinking iris), _Gladiolus communis_, a rare plant found in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight, and _Romulea Columnae_, a small plant with narrow recurved leaves a few inches long and a short scape bearing one or more small regular funnel-shaped flowers, which occurs at Dawlish in Devonshire.

IRIDIUM (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193.1), one of the metals of the platinum group, discovered in 1802 by Smithson Tennant during the examination of the residue left when platinum ores are dissolved in _aqua regia_; the element occurs in platinum ores in the form of alloys of platinum and iridium, and of osmium and iridium. Many methods have been devised for the separation of these metals (see PLATINUM), one of the best being that of H. St. C Deville and H. J. Debray (_Comptes rendus_, 1874, 78, p. 1502). In this process the osmiridium is fused with zinc and the excess of zinc evaporated; the residue is then ignited with barium nitrate, extracted with water and boiled with nitric acid. The iridium is then precipitated from the solution (as oxide) by the addition of baryta, dissolved in _aqua regia_, and precipitated as iridium ammonium chloride by the addition of ammonium chloride. The double chloride is fused with nitre, the melt extracted with water and the residue fused with lead, the excess of lead being finally removed by solution in nitric acid and _aqua regia_. It is a brittle metal of specific gravity 22.4 (Deville and Debray), and is only fusible with great difficulty. It may be obtained in the spongy form by igniting iridium ammonium chloride, and this variety of the metal readily oxidizes when heated in air.

Two oxides of iridium are known, namely the _sesquioxide_, Ir2O3, and
the _dioxide_, IrO2, corresponding to which there are two series of
salts, the sesqui-salts and the iridic salts; a third series of salts
is also known (the iridious salts) derived from an oxide IrO. _Iridium
sesquioxide_, Ir2O3, is obtained when potassium iridium chloride is
heated with sodium or potassium carbonates, in a stream of carbon
dioxide. It is a bluish-black powder which at high temperatures
decomposes into the metal, dioxide and oxygen. The hydroxide, Ir(OH)3,
may be obtained by the addition of caustic potash to iridium sodium
chloride, the mixture being then heated with alcohol. _Iridium
dioxide_, IrO2, may be obtained as small needles by heating the metal
to bright redness in a current of oxygen (G. Geisenheimer, _Comptes
rendus_, 1890, 110, p. 855). The corresponding hydroxide, Ir(OH)4, is
formed when potassium iridate is boiled with ammonium chloride, or
when the tetrachloride is boiled with caustic potash or sodium
carbonate. It is an indigo-blue powder, soluble in hydrochloric acid,
but insoluble in dilute nitric and sulphuric acids. On the oxides see
L. Wohler and W. Witzmann, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._ (1908), 57, p. 323.
_Iridium sesquichloride_, IrCl3, is obtained when one of the
corresponding double chlorides is heated with concentrated sulphuric
acid, the mixture being then thrown into water. It is thus obtained as
an olive green precipitate which is insoluble in acids and alkalis.
_Potassium iridium sesquichloride_, K3IrCl6.3H2O, is obtained by
passing sulphur dioxide into a suspension of potassium chloriridate in
water until all dissolves, and then adding potassium carbonate to the
solution (C. Claus, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1847, 42, p. 351). It forms
green prisms which are readily soluble in water. Similar sodium and
ammonium compounds are known. _Iridium tetrachloride_, IrCl4, is
obtained by dissolving the finely divided metal in _aqua regia_; by
dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid; and by digesting the
hydrated sesquichloride with nitric acid. On evaporating the solution
(not above 40 deg. C.) a dark mass is obtained, which contains a little
sesquichloride. It forms double chlorides with the alkaline chlorides.
For a bromide see A. Gautbier and M. Riess, _Ber._, 1909, 42, p. 3905.
_Iridium sulphide_, IrS, is obtained when the metal is ignited in
sulphur vapour. The _sesquisulphide_, Ir2S3, is obtained as a brown
precipitate when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into a solution of
one of the sesqui-salts. It is slightly soluble in potassium sulphide.
The _disulphide_, IrS2, is formed when powdered iridium is heated with
sulphur and an alkaline carbonate. It is a dark brown powder. Iridium
forms many ammine derivatives, which are analogous to the
corresponding platinum compounds (see M. Skoblikoff, _Jahresb._, 1852,
p. 428; W. Palmer, _Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 15; 1890, 23, p. 3810; 1891,
24, p. 2090; _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1896, 13, p. 211).

Iridium is always determined quantitatively by conversion into the
metallic state. The atomic weight of the element has been determined
in various ways, C. Seubert (_Ber._, 1878, 11, p. 1770), by the
analysis of potassium chloriridate obtaining the value 192.74, and A.
Joly (_Comptes rendus_, 1890, 110, p. 1131) from analyses of potassium
and ammonium chloriridites, the value 191.78 (O = 15.88).

IRIGA, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 20 m. S.E. of Nueva Caceres and near the S.W. base of Mt. Iriga, a volcanic peak reaching a height of 4092 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1903) 19,297. Iriga has a temperate climate. The soil in its vicinity is rich, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, pepper, cacao, cotton, abaca, tobacco and copra. The neighbouring forests furnish ebony, molave, tindalo and other very valuable hardwoods. The language is Bicol.

IRIS, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and the Ocean nymph Electra (according to Hesiod), the personification of the rainbow and messenger of the gods. As the rainbow unites earth and heaven, Iris is the messenger of the gods to men; in this capacity she is mentioned frequently in the _Iliad_, but never in the _Odyssey_, where Hermes takes her place. She is represented as a youthful virgin, with wings of gold, who hurries with the swiftness of the wind from one end of the world to the other, into the depths of the sea and the underworld. She is especially the messenger of Zeus and Hera, and is associated with Hermes, whose caduceus or staff she often holds. By command of Zeus she carries in a ewer water from the Styx, with which she puts to sleep all who perjure themselves. Her attributes are the caduceus and a vase.

IRIS, in botany. The iris flower belongs to the natural order Iridaceae of the class Monocotyledons, which is characterized by a petaloid six-parted perianth, an inferior ovary and only three stamens (the outer series), being thus distinguished from the Amaryllidaceae family, which has six stamens. They are handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name having been applied on account of the hues of the flowers. The genus contains about 170 species widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone. Two of the species are British. _I. Pseudacorus_, the yellow flag or iris, is common in Britain on river-banks, and in marshes and ditches. It is called the "water-flag" or "bastard floure de-luce" by Gerard, who remarks that "although it be a water plant of nature, yet being planted in gardens it prospereth well." Its flowers appear in June and July, and are of a golden-yellow colour. The leaves are from 2 to 4 ft. long, and half an inch to an inch broad. Towards the latter part of the year they are eaten by cattle. The seeds are numerous and pale-brown; they have been recommended when roasted as a substitute for coffee, of which, however, they have not the properties. The astringent rhizome has diuretic, purgative and emetic properties, and may, it is said, be used for dyeing black, and in the place of galls for ink-making. The other British species, _I. foetidissima_, the fetid iris, gladdon or roast-beef plant, the _Xyris_ or stinking gladdon of Gerard, is a native of England south of Durham, and also of Ireland, southern Europe and North Africa. Its flowers are usually of a dull, leaden-blue colour; the capsules, which remain attached to the plant throughout the winter, are 2 to 3 in. long; and the seeds scarlet. When bruised this species emits a peculiar and disagreeable odour.

_Iris florentina_, with white or pale-blue flowers, is a native of the south of Europe, and is the source of the violet-scented orris root used in perfumery. _Iris versicolor_, or blue flag, is indigenous to North America, and yields "iridin," a powerful hepatic stimulant. _Iris germanica_ of central Europe, "the most common purple Fleur de Luce" of Ray, is the large common blue iris of gardens, the bearded iris or fleur de luce and probably the Illyrian iris of the ancients. From the flowers of _Iris florentina_ a pigment--the "verdelis," "vert d'iris," or iris-green, formerly used by miniature painters--was prepared by maceration, the fluid being left to putrefy, when chalk or alum was added. The garden plants known as the Spanish iris and the English iris are both of Spanish origin, and have very showy flowers. Along with some other species, as _I. reticulata_ and _I. persica_, both of which are fragrant, they form great favourites with florists. All these just mentioned differ from those formerly named in the nature of the underground stem, which forms a bulb and not a strict creeping rhizome as in _I. Pseudacorus_, _germanica_, _florentina_, &c. Some botanists separate these bulbous irises from the genus _Iris_, and place them apart in the genus _Xiphium_, the Spanish iris, including about 30 species, all from the Mediterranean region and the East.

The iris flower is of special interest as an example of the relation between the shape of the flower and the position of the pollen-receiving and stigmatic surfaces on the one hand and the visits of insects on the other. The large outer petals form a landing-stage for a flying insect which in probing the perianth-tube for honey will first come in contact with the stigmatic surface which is borne on the outer face of a shelf-like transverse projection on the under side of the petaloid style-arm. The anther, which opens towards the outside, is sheltered beneath the over-arching style arm below the stigma, so that the insect comes in contact with its pollen-covered surface only after passing the stigma, while in backing out of the flower it will come in contact only with the non-receptive lower face of the stigma. Thus an insect bearing pollen from one flower will in entering a second deposit the pollen on the stigma, while in backing out of a flower the pollen which it bears will not be rubbed off on the stigma of the same flower.

The hardier bulbous irises, including the Spanish iris (_I. Xiphium_)
and the English iris (_I. xiphioides_, so called, which is also of
Spanish origin), require to be planted in thoroughly drained beds in
very light open soil, moderately enriched, and should have a rather
sheltered position. Both these present a long series of beautiful
varieties of the most diverse colours, flowering in May, June and
July, the smaller Spanish iris being the earlier of the two. There are
many other smaller species of bulbous iris. Being liable to perish
from excess of moisture, they should have a well-drained bed of good
but porous soil made up for them, in some sunny spot, and in winter
should be protected by a 6-in. covering of half-decayed leaves or
fresh coco-fibre refuse. To this set belong _I. persica_,
_reticulata_, _filifolia_, _Histrio_, _juncea_, _Danfordiae_
_Rosenbachiana_ and others which flower as early as February and
March.

The flag irises are for the most part of the easiest culture; they
grow in any good free garden soil, the smaller and more delicate
species only needing the aid of turfy ingredients, either peaty or
loamy, to keep it light and open in texture. The earliest to bloom are
the dwarf forms of _Iris pumila_, which blossom during March, April
and May; and during the latter month and the following one most of the
larger growing species, such as _I. germanica_, _florentina_,
_pallida_, _variegata_, _amoena_, _flavescens_, _sambucina_,
_neglecta_, _ruthenica_, &c., produce their gorgeous flowers. Of many
of the foregoing there are, besides the typical form, a considerable
number of named garden varieties. _Iris unguicularis_ (or _stylosa_)
is a remarkable winter flowering species from Algeria, with sky-blue
flowers blotched with yellow, produced at irregular intervals from
November to March, the bleakest period of the year.

The beautiful Japanese _Iris Kaempferi_ (or _I. laevigata_) is of
comparatively modern introduction, and though of a distinct type is
equally beautiful with the better-known species. The outer segments
are rather spreading than deflexed, forming an almost circular flower,
which becomes quite so in some of the very remarkable duplex
varieties, in which six of these broad segments are produced instead
of three. Of this too there are numberless varieties cultivated under
names. They require a sandy peat soil on a cool moist subsoil.

What are known as _Oncocyclus_, or cushion irises, constitute a
magnificent group of plants remarkable for their large, showy and
beautifully marked flowers. Compared with other irises the "cushion"
varieties are scantily furnished with narrow sickle-shaped leaves and
the blossoms are usually borne singly on the stalks. The best-known
kinds are _atrofusca_, _Barnumae_, _Bismarckiana_, _Gatesi_,
_Heylandiana_, _iberica_, _Lorteti_, _Haynei_, _lupina_, _Mariae_,
_meda_, _paradoxa_, _sari_, _sofarana_ and _susiana_--the last-named
being popularly called the "mourning" iris owing to the dark silvery
appearance of its huge flowers. All these cushion irises are somewhat
fastidious growers, and to be successful with them they must be
planted rather shallow in very gritty well-drained soil. They should
not be disturbed in the autumn, and after the leaves have withered the
roots should be protected from heavy rains until growth starts again
naturally.

A closely allied group to the cushion irises are those known as
_Regelia_, of which _Korolkowi_, _Leichtlini_ and _vaga_ are the best
known. Some magnificent hybrids have been raised between these two
groups, and a hardier and more easily grown race of garden irises has
been produced under the name of _Regelio-Cyclus_. They are best
planted in September or October in warm sunny positions, the rhizomes
being lifted the following July after the leaves have withered.

IRISH MOSS, or CARRAGEEN (Irish _carraigeen_, "moss of the rock"), a sea-weed (_Chondrus crispus_) which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. In its fresh condition the plant is soft and cartilaginous, varying in colour from a greenish-yellow to a dark purple or purplish-brown; but when washed and sun-dried for preservation it has a yellowish translucent horn-like aspect and consistency. The principal constituent of Irish moss is a mucilaginous body, of which it contains about 55%; and with that it has nearly 10% of albuminoids and about 15% of mineral matter rich in iodine and sulphur. When softened in water it has a sea-like odour, and from the abundance of its mucilage it will form a jelly on boiling with from 20 to 30 times its weight of water. The jelly of Irish moss is used as an occasional article of food. It may also be used as a thickener in calico-printing and for fining beer. Irish moss is frequently mixed with _Gigartina mammillosa_, _G. acicularis_ and other sea-weeds with which it is associated in growth.

IRKUTSK, a government of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia, bounded on the W. by the government of Yeniseisk, on the N. by Yakutsk, on the E. by Lake Baikal and Transbaikalia and on the S. and S.W. by Mongolia; area, 287,061 sq. m. The most populous region is a belt of plains 1200 to 2000 ft. in altitude, which stretch north-west to south-east, having the Sayan mountains on the south and the Baikal mountains on the north, and narrowing as it approaches the town of Irkutsk. The high road, now the Trans-Siberian railway, follows this belt. The south-western part of the government is occupied by mountains of the Sayan system, whose exact orography is as yet not well known. From the high plateau of Mongolia, fringed by the Sayan mountains, of which the culminating point is the snow-clad Munko-sardyk (11,150 ft.), a number of ranges, 7500 to 8500 ft. high, strike off in a north-east direction. Going from south to north they are distinguished as the Tunka Alps, the Kitoi Alps (both snow-clad nearly all the year round), the Ida mountains and the Kuitun mountains. These are, however, by no means regular chains, but on the contrary are a complex result of upheavals which took place at different geological epochs, and of denudation on a colossal scale. A beautiful, fertile valley, drained by the river Irkut, stretches between the Tunka Alps and the Sayan, and another somewhat higher plain, but not so wide, stretches along the river Kitoi. A succession of high plains, 2000 to 2500 ft. in altitude, formed of horizontal beds of Devonian (or Upper Silurian) sandstone and limestone, extends to the north of the railway along the Angara, or Verkhnyaya (i.e. upper) Tunguzka, and the upper Lena, as far as Kirensk. The Bratskaya Steppe, west of the Angara, is a prairie peopled by Buriats. A mountain region, usually described as the Baikal range, but consisting in reality of several ranges running north-eastwards, across Lake Baikal, and scooped out to form the depression occupied by the lake, is fringed on its north-western slope by horizontal beds of sandstone and limestone. Farther north-east the space between the Lena and the Vitim is occupied by another mountain region belonging to the Olekma and Vitim system, composed of several parallel mountain chains running north-eastwards (across the lower Vitim), and auriferous in the drainage area of the Mama (N.E. of Lake Baikal). Lake Baikal separates Irkutsk from Transbaikalia. The principal rivers of the government are the Angara, which flows from this lake northwards, with numerous sharp windings, and receives from the left several large tributaries. as the Irkut, Kitoi, Byelaya, Oka and Iya. The Lena is the principal means of communication both with the gold-mines on its own tributary, the lower Vitim, and with the province of Yakutsk. The Nizhnyaya Tunguzka flows northwards, to join the Yenisei in the far north, and the mountain streams tributary to the Vitim drain the north-east.

The post-Tertiary formations are represented by glacial deposits in
the highlands and loess on their borders. Jurassic deposits are met
with in a zone running north-westwards from Lake Baikal to
Nizhne-udinsk. The remainder of this region is covered by vast series
of Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian deposits--the first two but
slightly disturbed over wide areas. All the highlands are built up of
older, semi-crystalline Cambro-Silurian strata, which attain a
thickness of 2500 ft., and of crystalline slates and limestones of the
Laurentian system, with granites, syenites, diorites and diabases
protruding from beneath them. Very extensive beds of basaltic lavas
and other volcanic deposits are spread along the border ridge of the
high plateau, about Munko-sardyk, up the Irkut, and on the upper Oka,
where cones of extinct volcanoes are found (Jun-bulak). Earthquakes
are frequent in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal and the surrounding
region. Gold is extracted in the Nizhne-udinsk district; graphite is
found on the Botu-gol and Alibert mountains (abandoned many years
since) and on the Olkhon island of Lake Baikal. Brown coal (Jurassic)
is found in many places, and coal on the Oka. The salt springs of
Usoliye (45 m. west of Irkutsk), as also those on the Ilim and of
Ust-Kutsk (on the Lena), yield annually about 7000 tons of salt.
Fireclay, grindstones, marble and mica, lapis-lazuli, granites and
various semi-precious stones occur on the Sludyanka (south-west corner
of the Baikal).

The climate is severe; the mean temperatures being at Irkutsk (1520
ft), for the year 31 deg. Fahr., for January -6 deg., for July 65
deg.; at Shimki (valley of the Irkut, 2620 ft.), for the year 24 deg.,
for January -17 deg., for July 63 deg. The average rainfall is 15 in.
a year. Virgin forests cover all the highlands up to 6500 ft.

The population which was 383,578 in 1879, was 515,132 in 1897, of whom 238,997 were women and 60,396 were urban; except about 109,000 Buriats and 1700 Tunguses, they are Russians. The estimated population in 1906 was 552,700. Immigration contributes about 14,000 every year. Schools are numerous at Irkutsk, but quite insufficient in the country districts, and only 12% of the children receive education. The soil is very fertile in certain parts, but meagre elsewhere, and less than a million acres are under crops (rye, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes). Grain has to be imported from West Siberia and cattle from Transbaikalia. Fisheries on Lake Baikal supply every year about 2,400,000 Baikal herring (_omul_). Industry is only beginning to be developed (iron-works, glass- and pottery-works and distilleries, and all manufactured goods are imported from Russia). The government is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Irkutsk (q.v.), Balagansk (pop., 1313 in 1897), Kirensk (2253), Nizhne-udinsk and Verkholensk. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

IRKUTSK, the chief town of the above government, is the most important place in Siberia, being not only the largest centre of population and the principal commercial depot north of Tashkent, but a fortified military post, an archbishopric of the Orthodox Greek Church and the seat of several learned societies. It is situated in 52 deg. 17' N. and 104 deg. 16' E., 3792 m. by rail from St Petersburg. Pop. (1875) 32,512, (1900) 49,106. The town proper lies on the right bank of the Angara, a tributary of the Yenisei, 45 m. below its outflow from Lake Baikal, and on the opposite bank is the Glaskovsk suburb. The river, which has a breadth of 1900 ft., is crossed by a flying bridge. The Irkut, from which the town takes its name, is a small river which joins the Angara directly opposite the town, the main portion of which is separated from the monastery, the castle, the port and the suburbs by another confluent, the Ida or Ushakovka. Irkutsk has long been reputed a remarkably fine city--its streets being straight, broad, well paved and well lighted; but in 1879, on the 4th and 6th of July, the palace of the (then) governor-general, the principal administrative and municipal offices and many of the other public buildings were destroyed by fire; and the government archives, the library and museum of the Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Society were utterly ruined. A cathedral (built of wood in 1693 and rebuilt of stone in 1718), the governor's palace, a school of medicine, a museum, a military hospital, and the crown factories are among the public institutions and buildings. An important fair is held in December. Irkutsk grew out of the winter-quarters established (1652) by Ivan Pokhabov for the collection of the fur tax from the Buriats. Its existence as a town dates from 1686.