Chapter D: Modern Logic (4)

LOIRE, a department of central France, made up in 1793 of the old district of Forez and portions of Beaujolais and Lyonnais, all formerly included in the province of Lyonnais. Pop. (1906) 643,943. Area 1853 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Saône-et-Loire, E. by those of Rhône and Isère, S. by Ardèche and Haute-Loire, and W. by Puy-de-Dôme and Allier. From 1790 to 1793 it constituted, along with that of Rhône, a single department (Rhône-et-Loire). It takes its name from the river which bisects it from south to north. The Rhone skirts the S.E. of the department, about one-eighth of which belongs to its basin. After crossing the southern border the Loire runs through wild gorges, passing the picturesque crag crowned by the old fortress of St Paul-en-Cornillon. At St Rambert it issues into the broad plain of Fotez, flows north as far as its confluence with the Aix where the plain ends, and then again traverses gorges till it enters the less extensive plain of Roanne in the extreme north of the department. These two plains, the beds of ancient lakes, are enclosed east and west by chains of mountains running parallel with the river. In the west are the Forez mountains, which separate the Loire basin from that of the Allier; their highest point (Pierre sur Haute, 5381 ft.) is 12 m. W. of Montbrison. They sink gradually towards the north, and are successively called Bois Noirs (4239 ft.), from their woods, and Monts de la Madeleine (3822 to 1640 ft.). In the east the Rhone and Loire basins are separated, by Mont Pilat (4705 ft.) at the north extremity of the Cévennes, and by the hills of Lyonnais, Tarare, Beaujolais and Charolais, none of which rise higher than 3294 ft. Of the affluents of the Loire the most important are the Lignon du Nord, the beautiful valley of which has been called "La Suisse Forezienne," and the Aix on the left, and on the right the Ondaine (on which stand the industrial towns of Chambon-Feugerolles and Firminy), the Furens and the Rhin. The Gier forms a navigable channel to the Rhone at Givors, and has on its banks the industrial towns of St Chamond and Rive-de-Gier. From Mont Pilat descends the Déôme, in the valley of which are the workshops of Annonay (q.v.). The climate on the heights is cold and healthy, it is unwholesome in the marshy plain of Forez, mild in the valley of the Rhone. The annual rainfall varies from 39 to 48 in. on the Forez mountains, but only reaches 20 to 24 in. in the vicinity of Montbrison.

The plains of Forez and Roanne are the two most important agricultural
districts, but the total production of grain within the department is
insufficient for the requirements of the population. The pasture lands
of the plain of Forez, the western portion of which is irrigated by
the canal of Forez, support a large number of live stock. Good
pasturage is also found on the higher levels of the Forez mountains,
on the north-eastern plateaus, where oxen of the famous Charolais
breed are raised, and on the uplands generally. Wheat and rye are the
leading cereal crops; oats come next in importance, barley and colza
occupying a relatively small area. The vine is cultivated in the
valley of the Rhone, on the lower slopes of the Forez mountains and on
the hills west of the plain of Roanne. The forests of Mont Pilat and
the Forez chain yield good-sized pines and wood for mining purposes.
The so-called Lyons chestnuts are to a large extent obtained from
Forez; the woods and pasture lands of Mont Pilat yield medicinal
plants, such as mint. Poultry-rearing and bee-keeping are considerable
industries. The department is rich in mineral springs, the waters of
St Galmier, Sail-sous-Couzan, St Romain-le-Puy and St Alban being
largely exported. The chief wealth of the department lies in the coal
deposits of the basin of St Étienne (q.v.), the second in importance
in France, quarrying is also active. Metal-working industries are
centred in the S.E. of the department, where are the great
manufacturing towns of St Étienne, Rive-de-Gier, St Chamond and
Firminy. At St Étienne there is a national factory of arms, in which
as many as 10,000 have been employed; apart from other factories of
the same kind carried on by private individuals, the production of
hardware, locks, edge-tools, common cutlery, chain cables for the
mines, files, rails, &c., occupies thousands of hands. Cast steel is
largely manufactured, and the workshops of the department supply the
heaviest constructions required in naval architecture, as well as war
material and machinery of every description. The glass industry is
carried on at Rive-de-Gier and St Galmier. St Étienne and St Chamond
are centres for the fabrication of silk ribbons, elastic ribbons and
laces, and the dressing of raw silks. Between 50,000 and 60,000 people
are employed in the last-named industries. The arrondissement of
Roanne manufactures cotton stuffs, muslins and the like. That of
Montbrison produces table linen. The department has numerous
dye-works, flour-mills, paper works, tanyards, brick-works,
silk-spinning works and hat factories. It is served by the Paris-Lyon
railway, Roanne being the junction of important lines from Paris to
Lyons and St Étienne. Within the department the Loire is hardly used
for commercial navigation; the chief waterways are the canal from
Roanne to Digoin (13 m. in the department), that from Givors to
Rive-de-Gier (7 m.) and the Rhone (7 m.).

Loire comprises three arrondissements--St Étienne, Montbrison and Roanne--with 31 cantons and 335 communes. It falls within the region of the XIII. army corps and the _diocèse_ and _académie_ (educational circumscription) of Lyons, where also is its court of appeal. St Étienne is the capital, other leading towns being Roanne, Montbrison, Rive-de-Gier, St Chamond, Firminy and Le Chambon, all separately noticed. St Bonnet-le-Château, besides old houses, has a church of the 15th and 16th centuries, containing paintings of the 15th century; St Rambert and St Romain-le-Puy have priory churches of the 11th and 12th centuries; and at Charlieu there are remains of a Benedictine abbey founded in the 9th century, including a porch decorated with fine Romanesque carving.

LOIRE-INFÉRIEURE, a maritime department of western France, made up in 1790 of a portion of Brittany on the right and of the district of Retz on the left of the Loire, and bounded W. by the ocean, N. by Morbihan and Ille-et-Vilaine, E. by Maine-et-Loire and S. by Vendée. Pop. (1906) 666,748. Area 2694 sq. m. The surface is very flat, and the highest point, in the north on the borders of Ille-et-Vilaine, reaches only 377 ft. The line of hillocks skirting the right bank of the Loire, and known as the _sillon de Bretagne_, scarcely exceeds 250 ft.; below Savenay they recede from the river, and meadows give place to peat bogs. North of St Nazaire and Grande Brière, measuring 9 m. by 6, and rising hardly 10 ft. above the sea-level, still supplies old trees which can be used for joiners' work. A few scattered villages occur on the more elevated spots, but communication is effected chiefly by the canals which intersect it. The district south of the Loire lies equally low; its most salient feature is the lake of Grandlieu, covering 27 sq. m., and surrounded by low and marshy ground, but so shallow (6½ ft. at most) that drainage would be comparatively easy. The Loire (q.v.) has a course of 70 m. within the department. On the left bank a canal stretches for 9 m. between Pellerin, where the dikes which protect the Loire valley from inundation terminate, and Paimboeuf, and vessels drawing 17 or 18 ft. can reach Nantes. The principal towns on the river within the department are Ancenis, Nantes and St Nazaire (one of the most important commercial ports of France) on the right, and Paimboeuf on the left. The chief affluents are, on the right the Erdre and on the left the Sèvre, both debouching at Nantes. The Erdre in its lower course broadens in places into lakes which give it the appearance of a large river. Four miles below Nort it coalesces with the canal from Nantes to Brest. The Sèvre is hemmed in by picturesque hills; at the point where it enters the department it flows past the beautiful town of Clisson with its imposing castle of the 13th century. Apart from the Loire, the only navigable channel of importance within the department is the Nantes and Brest canal, fed by the Isac, a tributary of the Vilaine, which separates Loire-Inférieure from Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan. The climate is humid, mild and equable. At Nantes the mean annual temperature is 54.7° Fahr., and there are one hundred and twenty-two rainy days, the annual rainfall being 25.6 in.

Horse and cattle raising prospers, being carried on chiefly in the
west of the department and in the Loire valley. Good butter and cheese
are produced. Poultry also is reared, and there is a good deal of
bee-keeping. Wheat, oats, buckwheat and potatoes are produced in great
abundance; leguminous plants are also largely cultivated, especially
near Nantes. Wine, cider and forage crops are the chief remaining
agricultural products. The woods are of oak in the interior and pine
on the coast. The department has deposits of tin, lead and iron. N.W.
of Ancenis coal is obtained from a bed which is a prolongation of that
of Anjou. The salt marshes, about 6000 acres in all, occur for the
most part between the mouth of the Vilaine and the Loire, and on the
Bay of Bourgneuf, and salt-refining, of which Guérande is the centre,
is an important industry. The granite of the sea-coast and of the
Loire up to Nantes is quarried for large blocks. Steam-engines are
built for the government at Indret, a few miles below Nantes; the
forges of Basse-Indre are in good repute for the quality of their
iron; and the production of the lead-smelting works at Couëron amounts
to several millions of francs annually. There are also considerable
foundries at Nantes, Chantenay, close to Nantes, and St Nazaire, and
shipbuilding yards at Nantes and St Nazaire. Among other industries
may be mentioned the preparation of pickles and preserved meats at
Nantes, the curing of sardines at Le Croisic and in the neighbouring
communes, the manufacture of sugar, brushes, tobacco, macaroni and
similar foods, soap and chemicals at Nantes, and of paper, sugar and
soap at Chantenay. Fishing is prosecuted along the entire coast,
particularly at Le Croisic. Among the seaside resorts Le Croisic,
Pornichet and Pornic, where there are megalithic monuments, may be
mentioned. The department is traversed by the railways of the state,
the Orléans company and the Western company. The department is divided
into five arrondissements--Nantes, Ancenis, Châteaubriant, Paimboeuf
and St Nazaire--45 cantons and 219 communes. It has its appeal court
at Rennes, which is also the centre of the _académie_ (educational
division) to which it belongs.

The principal places are Nantes, the capital, St Nazaire and Châteaubriant, which receive separate treatment. On the west coast the town of Batz, and the neighbouring villages, situated on the peninsula of Batz, are inhabited by a small community possessed of a distinct costume and dialect, and claiming descent from a Saxon or Scandinavian stock. Its members are employed for the most part in the salt marshes N.E. of the town. Guérande has well-preserved ramparts and gates of the 15th century, a church dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries, and other old buildings. At St Philbert-de-Grandlieu there is a church, rebuilt in the 16th and 17th centuries, but preserving remains of a previous edifice belonging at least to the beginning of the 11th century.

LOIRET, a department of central France, made up of the three districts of the ancient province of Orléanais--Orléanais proper, Gâtinais and Dunois--together with portions of those of Île-de-France and Berry. It is bounded N. by Seine-et-Oise, N.E. by Seine-et-Marne, E. by Yonne, S. by Nièvre and Cher, S.W. and W. by Loir-et-Cher and N.W. by Eure-et-Loir. Area, 2629 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 364,999. The name is borrowed from the Loiret, a stream which issues from the ground some miles to the south of Orléans, and after a course of about 7 m. falls into the Loire; its large volume gives rise to the belief that it is a subterranean branch of that river. The Loire traverses the south of the department by a broad valley which, though frequently devastated by disastrous floods, is famed for its rich tilled lands, its castles, its towns and its vine-clad slopes. To the north of the Loire are the Gâtinais (capital Montargis) and the Beauce; the former district is so named from its _gâtines_ or wildernesses, of which saffron is, along with honey, the most noteworthy product; the Beauce (q.v.), a monotonous tract of corn-fields without either tree or river, has been called the granary of France. Between the Beauce and the Loire is the extensive forest of Orléans, which is slowly disappearing before the advances of agriculture. South of the Loire is the Sologne, long barren and unhealthy from the impermeability of its subsoil, but now much improved in both respects by means of pine plantation and draining and manuring operations. The highest point (on the borders of Cher) is 900 ft. above sea-level, and the lowest (on the borders of Seine-et-Marne) is 220 ft. The watershed on the plateau of Orléans between the basins of the Seine and Loire, which divide Loiret almost equally between them, is almost imperceptible. The lateral canal of the Loire from Roanne stops at Briare; from the latter town a canal (canal de Briare) connects with the Seine by the Loing valley, which is joined by the Orléans canal below Montargis. The only important tributary of the Loire within the department is the Loiret; the Loing, a tributary of the Seine, has a course of 40 m. from south to north, and is accompanied first by the Briare canal and afterwards by that of the Loing. The Essonne, another important affluent of the Seine, leaving Loiret below Malesherbes, takes its rise on the plateau of Orléans, as also does its tributary the Juine. The department has the climate of the Sequanian region, the mean temperature being a little above that of Paris; the rainfall varies from 18.5 to 27.5 in., according to the district, that of the exposed Beauce being lower than that of the well-wooded Sologne. Hailstorms cause much destruction in the Loire valley and the neighbouring regions.

The department is essentially agricultural in character. A large
number of sheep, cattle, horses and pigs are reared; poultry,
especially geese, and bees are plentiful. The yield of wheat and oats
is in excess of the consumption; rye, barley, meslin, potatoes,
beetroot, colza and forage plants are also cultivated. Wine in
abundance, but of inferior quality, is grown on the hills of the Loire
valley. Buckwheat supports bees by its flowers, and poultry by its
seeds. Saffron is another source of profit. The woods consist of oak,
elm, birch and pine; fruit trees thrive in the department, and Orléans
is a great centre of nursery gardens. The industries are brick and
tile making, and the manufacture of faience, for which Gien is one of
the most important centres in France. The Briare manufacture of
porcelain buttons and pearls employs many workmen. Flour-mills are
very numerous. There are iron and copper foundries, which, with
agricultural implement making, bell-founding and the manufacture of
pins, nails and files, represent the chief metal-working industries.
The production of hosiery, wool-spinning and various forms of wool
manufacture are also engaged in. A large quantity of the wine grown is
made into vinegar (vinaigre d'Orléans). The tanneries produce
excellent leather; and paper-making, sugar-refining, wax-bleaching and
the manufacture of caoutchouc complete the list of industries. The
four arrondissements are those of Orléans, Gien, Montargis and
Pithiviers, with 31 cantons and 349 communes. The department forms
part of the _académie_ (educational division) of Paris.

Besides Orléans, the capital, the more noteworthy places, Gien, Montargis, Beaugency, Pithiviers, Briare and St Benoît-sur-Loire, are separately noticed. Outside these towns notable examples of architecture are found in the churches of Cléry (15th century), of Ferrières (13th and 14th centuries), of Puiseaux (12th and 13th centuries) and Meung (12th century). At Germigny-des-Prés there is a church built originally at the beginning of the 9th century and rebuilt in the 19th century, on the old plan and to some extent with the old materials. Yèvre-le-Châtel has an interesting château of the 13th century, and Sully-sur-Loire the fine medieval château rebuilt at the beginning of the 17th century by Maximilien de Béthune, duke of Sully, the famous minister of Henry IV. There are remains of a Gallo-Roman town (perhaps the ancient _Vellaunodunum_) at Triguères and of a Roman amphitheatre near Montbouy.

LOIR-ET-CHER, a department of central France, formed in 1790 from a small portion of Touraine, the Perche, but chiefly from the Dunois, Vendômois and Blésois, portions of Orléanais. It is bounded N. by Eure-et-Loir, N.E. by Loiret, S.E. by Cher, S. by Indre, S.W. by Indre-et-Loire and N.W. by Sarthe. Pop. (1906) 276,019. Area, 2479 sq. m. The department takes its name from the Loir and the Cher by which it is traversed in the north and south respectively. The Loir rises on the eastern border of the Perche and joins the Maine after a course of 195 m.; the Cher rises on the Central Plateau near Aubusson, and reaches the Loire after a course of 219 m. The Loire flows through the department from north-east to south-west, and divides it into two nearly equal portions. To the south-east is the district of the Sologne, to the north-west the rich wheat-growing country of the Beauce (q.v.) which stretches to the Loir. Beyond that river lies the Perche. The surface of this region, which contains the highest altitude in the department (840 ft.), is varied by hills, valleys, hedged fields and orchards. The Sologne was formerly a region of forests, of which those in the neighbourhood of Chambord are the last remains. Its soil, once barren and marshy, has been considerably improved by draining and afforestation, though pools are still very numerous. The district is much frequented by sportsmen. The Cher and Loir traverse pleasant valleys, occasionally bounded by walls of tufa in which dwellings have been excavated, as at Les Roches in the Loir valley; the stone, hardened by exposure to the air, is also used for building purposes. The Loire and, with the help of the Berry canal, the Cher are navigable. The chief remaining rivers of the department are the Beuvron, which flows into the Loire on the left, and the Sauldre, a right-hand affluent of the Cher. The climate is temperate and mild, though that of the Beauce tends to dryness and that of the Sologne to dampness. The mean annual temperature is between 52° and 53° F.

The department is primarily agricultural, yielding abundance of wheat
and oats. Besides these the chief products are rye, wheat and
potatoes. Vines thrive on the valley slopes, the vineyards falling
into four groups--those of the Cher, which yield fine red wines, the
Sologne, the Blésois and the Vendômois. In the valleys fruit-trees and
nursery gardens are numerous; the asparagus of Romorantin and Vendôme
is well-known. The Sologne supplies pine and birch for fuel, and there
are extensive forests around Blois and on both sides of the Loir.
Pasture is of good quality in the valleys. Sheep are the chief stock;
the Perche breed of horses is much sought after for its combination of
lightness and strength. Bee-farming is of some importance in the
Sologne. Formerly the speciality of Loir-et-Cher was the production of
gun-flints. Stone-quarries are numerous. The chief industries are the
cloth-manufacture of Romorantin, and leather-dressing and glove-making
at Vendôme; and lime-burning, flour-milling, distilling, saw-milling,
paper-making and the manufacture of "sabots" and boots and shoes,
hosiery and linen goods, are carried on. The department is served
chiefly by the Orléans railway.

The arrondissements are those of Blois, Romorantin and Vendôme, with 24 cantons and 297 communes. Loir-et-Cher forms part of the educational division (_académie_) of Paris. Its court of appeal and the headquarters of the V. army corps, to the regions of which it belongs, are at Orléans. Blois, the capital, Vendôme, Romorantin and Chambord are noticed separately. In addition to those of Blois and Chambord there are numerous fine châteaux in the department, of which that of Montrichard with its donjon of the 11th century, that of Chaumont dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, and that of Cheverny (17th century) in the late Renaissance style are the most important. Those at St Aignan, Lassay, Lavardin and Cellettes may also be mentioned. Churches wholly or in part of Romanesque architecture are found at Faverolles, Selles-sur-Cher, St Aignan and Suèvres. The village of Trôo is built close to ancient tumuli and has an interesting church of the 12th century, and among other remains those of a lazar-house of the Romanesque period. At Pontlevoy are the church, consisting of a fine choir in the Gothic style, and the buildings of a Benedictine abbey. At La Poissonnière (near Montoire) is a small Renaissance manor-house, in which Ronsard was born in 1524.

LOISY, ALFRED FIRMIN (1857- ), French Catholic theologian, was born at Ambrières in French Lorraine of parents who, descended from a long line of resident peasantry, tilled there the soil themselves. The physically delicate boy was put into the ecclesiastical school of St Dizier, without any intention of a clerical career; but he decided for the priesthood, and in 1874 entered the Grand Seminaire of Chalons-sur-Marne. Mgr Meignan, then bishop of Chalons, afterwards cardinal and archbishop of Tours, ordained him priest in 1879. After being _curé_ successively of two villages in that diocese, Loisy went in May 1881, to study and take a theological degree, to the Institut Catholique in Paris. Here he was influenced, as to biblical languages and textual criticism, by the learned and loyal-minded Abbé Paulin Martin, and as to a vivid consciousness of the true nature, gravity and urgency of the biblical problems and an Attic sense of form by the historical intuition and the mordant irony of Abbé Louis Duchesne. At the governmental institutions, Professors Oppert and Halévy helped further to train him. He took his theological degree in March 1890, by the oral defence of forty Latin scholastic theses and by a French dissertation, _Histoire du canon de l'ancien testament_, published as his first book in that year.

Professor now at the Institut Catholique, he published successively his lectures: _Histoire du canon du N.T._ (1891); _Histoire critique du texte et des versions de la Bible_ (1892); and _Les Évangiles synoptiques_ (1893, 1894). The two latter works appeared successively in the bi-monthly _L'Enseignement biblique_, a periodical written throughout and published by himself. But already, on the occasion of the death of Ernest Renan, October 1892, the attempts made to clear up the main principles and results of biblical science, first by Mgr d'Hulst, rector of the Institut Catholique, in his article "La Question biblique" (_Le Correspondant_, Jan. 25th, 1893), and then by Loisy himself, in his paper "La Question biblique et l'inspiration des Écritures" (_L'Enseignement biblique_, Nov.-Dec. 1893), promptly led to serious trouble. The latter article was immediately followed by Loisy's dismissal, without further explanation, from the Institut Catholique. And a few days later Pope Leo XIII. published his encyclical _Providentissimus Deus_, which indeed directly condemned not Abbé Loisy's but Mgr d'Hulst's position, yet rendered the continued publication of consistently critical work so difficult that Loisy himself suppressed his _Enseignement_ at the end of 1893. Five further instalments of his _Synoptiques_ were published after this, bringing the work down to the Confession of Peter inclusively.

Loisy next became chaplain to a Dominican convent and girls' school at Neuilly-sur-Seine (Oct. 1894-Oct. 1899), and here matured his apologetic method, resuming in 1898 the publication of longer articles, under the pseudonyms of Desprès and Firmin in the _Revue du clergé français_, and of Jacques Simon in the lay _Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses_. In the former review, a striking paper upon development of doctrine (Dec. 1st, 1898) headed a series of studies apparently taken from an already extant large apologetic work. In October 1899 he resigned his chaplaincy for reasons of health, and settled at Bellevue, somewhat farther away from Paris. His notable paper, "La Religion d'Israël" (_Revue du clergé français_, Oct. 15th, 1900), the first of a series intended to correct and replace Renan's presentation of that great subject, was promptly censured by Cardinal Richard, archbishop of Paris; and though scholarly and zealous ecclesiastics, such as the Jesuit Père Durand and Monseigneur Mignot, archbishop of Albi, defended the general method and several conclusions of the article, the aged cardinal never rested henceforward till he had secured a papal condemnation also. At the end of 1900 Loisy secured a government lectureship at the École des Hautes Études Pratiques, and delivered there in succession courses on the Babylonian myths and the first chapters of Genesis; the Gospel parables; the narrative of the ministry in the synoptic Gospels; and the Passion narratives in the same. The first course was published in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses_; and here also appeared instalments of his commentary on St John's Gospel, his critically important _Notes sur la Genèse_, and a _Chronique biblique_ unmatched in its mastery of its numberless subjects and its fearless yet delicate penetration.

It was, however, two less erudite little books that brought him a European literary reputation and the culmination of his ecclesiastical troubles. _L'Évangile et l'église_ appeared in November 1902 (Eng. trans., 1903). Its introduction and six chapters present with rare lucidity the earliest conceptions of the Kingdom of Heaven, the Son of God, the Church, Christian dogma and Catholic worship; and together form a severely critico-historical yet strongly Catholic answer to Harnack's still largely pietistic _Wesen des Christentums_. It develops throughout the principles that "what is essential in Jesus' Gospel is what occupies the first and largest place in His authentic teaching, the ideas for which He fought and died, and not only that idea which we may consider to be still a living force to day"; that "it is supremely arbitrary to decree that Christianity must be essentially what the Gospel did not borrow from Judaism, as though what the Gospel owes to Judaism were necessarily of secondary worth"; that "whether we trust or distrust tradition, we know Christ only by means of, athwart and within the Christian tradition"; that "the _essence of Christianity_ resides in the fulness and totality of its life"; and that "the adaptation of the Gospel to the changing conditions of humanity is to-day a more pressing need than ever." The second edition was enlarged by a preliminary chapter on the sources of the Gospels, and by a third section for the Son of God chapter. The little book promptly aroused widespread interest, some cordial sympathy and much vehement opposition; whilst its large companion the _Études évangéliques_, containing the course on the parables and four sections of his coming commentary on the Fourth Gospel, passed almost unnoticed. On the 21st of January 1903 Cardinal Richard publicly condemned the book, as not furnished with an _imprimatur_, and as calculated gravely to trouble the faith of the faithful in the fundamental Catholic dogmas. On the 2nd of February Loisy wrote to the archbishop: "I condemn, as a matter of course, all the errors which men have been able to deduce from my book, by placing themselves in interpreting it at a point of view entirely different from that which I had to occupy in composing it." The pope refused to interfere directly, and the nuncio, Mgr Lorenzelli, failed in securing more than ten public adhesions to the cardinal's condemnation from among the eighty bishops of France.

Pope Leo had indeed, in a letter to the Franciscan minister-general (November 1898), and in an encyclical to the French clergy (September 1899), vigorously emphasized the traditionalist principles of his encyclical _Providentissimus_ of 1893; he had even, much to his prompt regret, signed the unfortunate decree of the Roman Inquisition, January 1897, prohibiting all doubt as to the authenticity of the "Three Heavenly witnesses" passage, 1 John v. 7, a text which, in the wake of a line of scholars from Erasmus downwards, Abbé Paulin Martin had, in 1887, exhaustively shown to be no older than the end of the 4th century A.D. Yet in October 1902 he established a "Commission for the Progress of Biblical Studies," preponderantly composed of seriously critical scholars; and even one month before his death he still refused to sign a condemnation of Loisy's _Études évangéliques_.

Cardinal Sarto became Pope Pius X. on the 4th of August 1903. On the 1st of October Loisy published three new books, _Autour d'un petit livre_, _Le Quatrième Évangile_ and _Le Discours sur la Montagne_. _Autour_ consists of seven letters, on the origin and aim of _L'Évangile et l'Église_; on the biblical question; the criticism of the Gospels; the Divinity of Christ; the Church's foundation and authority; the origin and authority of dogma, and on the institution of the sacraments. The second and third, addressed respectively to a cardinal (Perraud) and a bishop (Le Camus), are polemical or ironical in tone; the others are all written to friends in a warm, expansive mood; the fourth letter especially, appropriated to Mgr Mignot, attains a grand elevation of thought and depth of mystical conviction. _Le Quatrième Évangile_, one thousand large pages long, is possibly over-confident in its detailed application of the allegorical method; yet it constitutes a rarely perfect sympathetic reproduction of a great mystical believer's imperishable intuitions. _Le Discours sur la Montagne_ is a fragment of a coming enlarged commentary on the synoptic Gospels. On the 23rd of December the pope ordered the publication of a decree of the Congregation of the Index, incorporating a decree of the Inquisition, condemning Loisy's _Religion d'Israël_, _L'Évangile et l'Église_, _Études évangéliques_, _Autour d'un petit livre_ and _Le Quatrième Évangile_. The pope's secretary of state had on the 19th December, in a letter to Cardinal Richard, recounted the causes of the condemnation in the identical terms used by the latter himself when condemning the _Religion d'Israël_ three years before. On the 12th of January 1904 Loisy wrote to Cardinal Merry del Val that he received the condemnation with respect, and condemned whatever might be reprehensible in his books, whilst reserving the rights of his conscience and his opinions as an historian, opinions doubtless imperfect, as no one was more ready to admit than himself, but which were the only form under which he was able to represent to himself the history of the Bible and of religion. Since the Holy See was not satisfied, Loisy sent three further declarations to Rome; the last, despatched on the 17th of March, was addressed to the pope himself, and remained unanswered. And at the end of March Loisy gave up his lectureship, as he declared, "on his own initiative, in view of the pacification of minds in the Catholic Church." In the July following he moved into a little house, built for him by his pupil and friend, the Assyriologist François Thureau Dangin, within the latter's park at Garnay, by Dreux. Here he continued his important reviews, notably in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses_, and published _Morceaux d'exégèse_ (1906), six further sections of his synoptic commentary. In April 1907 he returned to his native Lorraine, to Ceffonds by Montier-en-Der, and to his relatives there.

Five recent Roman decisions are doubtless aimed primarily at Loisy's teaching. The Biblical Commission, soon enlarged so as to swamp the original critical members, and which had become the simple mouthpiece of its presiding cardinals, issued two decrees. The first, on the 27th of June 1906, affirmed, with some significant but unworkable reservations, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch; and the second (29th of May 1907) strenuously maintained the Apostolic Zebedean authorship of the fourth Gospel, and the strictly historical character of the events and speeches recorded therein. The Inquisition, by its decree _Lamentabili sane_ (2nd of July 1907), condemned sixty-five propositions concerning the Church's _magisterium_; biblical inspiration and interpretation; the synoptic and fourth Gospels; revelation and dogma; Christ's divinity, human knowledge and resurrection; and the historical origin and growth of the Sacraments, the Church and the Creed. And some forty of these propositions represent, more or less accurately, certain sentences or ideas of Loisy, when torn from their context and their reasons. The encyclical _Pascendi Dominici Gregis_ (Sept. 6th, 1907), probably the longest and most argumentative papal utterance extant, also aims primarily at Loisy, although here the vehemently scholastic redactor's determination to piece together a strictly coherent, complete a priori system of "Modernism" and his self-imposed restriction to medieval categories of thought as the vehicles for describing essentially modern discoveries and requirements of mind, make the identification of precise authors and passages very difficult. And on the 21st of November 1907 a papal _motu proprio_ declared all the decisions of the Biblical Commission, past and future, to be as binding upon the conscience as decrees of the Roman Congregations.

Yet even all this did not deter Loisy from publishing three further books. _Les Évangiles synoptiques_, two large 8vo volumes of 1009 and 798 pages, appeared "chez l'auteur, à Ceffonds, Montier-en-Der, Haute-Marne," in January 1908. An incisive introduction discusses the ecclesiastical tradition, modern criticism; the second, the first and the third Gospels; the evangelical tradition; the career and the teaching of Jesus; and the literary form, the tradition of the text and the previous commentaries. The commentary gives also a careful translation of the texts. Loisy recognizes two eye-witness documents, as utilized by all three synoptists, while Matthew and Luke have also incorporated Mark. His chief peculiarity consists in clearly tracing a strong Pauline influence, especially in Mark, which there remodels certain sayings and actions as these were first registered by the eye-witness documents. These doctrinal interpretations introduce the economy of blinding the Jews into the parabolic teaching; the declaration as to the redemptive character of the Passion into the sayings; the sacramental, institutional words into the account of the Last Supper, originally, a solemnly simple Messianic meal; and the formal night-trial before Caiaphas into the original Passion-story with its informal, morning decision by Caiaphas, and its one solemn condemnation of Jesus, by Pilate. Mark's narratives of the sepulture by Joseph of Arimathea and of the empty tomb are taken as posterior to St Paul; the narratives of the infancy in Matthew and Luke as later still. Yet the great bulk of the sayings remain substantially authentic; if the historicity of certain words and acts is here refused with unusual assurance, that of other sayings and deeds is established with stronger proofs; and the redemptive conception of the Passion and the sacramental interpretation of the Last Supper are found to spring up promptly and legitimately from our Lord's work and words, to saturate the Pauline and Johannine writings, and even to constitute an element of all three synoptic Gospels.

_Simples Réflexions sur le décret Lamentabili et sur l'encyclique Pascendi_, 12mo, 277 pages, was published from Ceffonds a few days after the commentary. Each proposition of the decree is carefully tracked to its probable source, and is often found to modify the latter's meaning. And the study of the encyclical concludes: "Time is the great teacher ... we would do wrong to despair either of our civilization or of the Church."

The Church authorities were this time not slow to act. On the 14th of February Mgr Amette, the new archbishop of Paris, prohibited his diocesans to read or defend the two books, which "attack and deny several fundamental dogmas of Christianity," under pain of excommunication. The abbé again declared "it is impossible for me honestly and sincerely to make the act of absolute retractation and submission exacted by the sovereign pontiff." And the Holy Office, on the 7th of March, pronounced the major excommunication against him. At the end of March Loisy published _Quelques Lettres_ (December 1903-February 1908), which conclude: "At bottom I have remained in my last writings on the same line as in the earlier ones. I have aimed at establishing principally the historical position of the various questions, and secondarily the necessity for reforming more or less the traditional concepts."

Three chief causes appear jointly to have produced M. Loisy's very absolute condemnation. Any frank recognition of the abbé's even general principles involves the abandonment of the identification of theology with scholasticism or even with specifically ancient thought in general. The abbé's central position, that our Lord himself held the proximateness of His second coming, involves the loss by churchmen of the prestige of directly divine power, since Church and Sacraments, though still the true fruits and vehicles of his life, death and spirit, cannot thus be immediately founded by the earthly Jesus himself. And the Church policy, as old as the times of Constantine, to crush utterly the man who brings more problems and pressure than the bulk of traditional Christians can, at the time, either digest or resist with a fair discrimination, seemed to the authorities the one means to save the very difficult situation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Autobiographical passages in M. Loisy's _Autour d'un
petit livre_ (Paris, 1903), pp. xv. xvi. 1, 2, 157, 218. A full
account of his literary activity and ecclesiastical troubles will be
found in Abbé Albert Houtin's _La Question biblique au XIX^e siècle_
(Paris, 2nd ed., 1902) and _La Question biblique au XX^e siècle_
(Paris, 1906), but the latter especially is largely unfair to the
conservatives and sadly lacking in religious feeling. The following
articles and booklets concerning M. Loisy and the questions raised by
him are specially remarkable. France: Père Durand, S.J., _Études
religieuses_ (Paris, Nov. 1901) frankly describes the condition of
ecclesiastical biblical studies; Monseigneur Mignot, archbishop of
Albi, _Lettres sur les études ecclésiastiques 1900-1901_ (collected
ed., Paris, 1908) and "Critique et tradition" in _Le Correspondant_
(Paris, 10th January 1904), the utterances of a finely trained
judgment; Mgr Le Camus, bishop of La Rochelle, _Fausse Exégèse,
mauvaise théologie_ (Paris, 1902), a timid, mostly rhetorical,
scholar's protest; Père Lagrange, a Dominican who has done much for
the spread of Old Testament criticism, _La Méthode historique, surtout
à propos de l'Ancien Testament_ (Paris, 1903) and _Éclaircissement_ to
same (ibid. 1903); P. Lagrange, Mgr P. Batiffol, P. Portalié, S.J.,
"Autour des fondements de la Foi" in the _Bulletin de litt. eccl.
Toulouse_ (Paris, December 1903, January 1904), very suggestive
papers; Professor Maurice Blondel's "Histoire et dogma," in _La
Quinzaine_ (Paris January 16, February 16, 1904), F. de Hugel's "Du
Christ éternel et des christologies successives" (ibid. June 1, 1904),
the Abbé J. Wehrle's "Le Christ et la conscience catholique" (ibid.
August 16, 1904) and F. de Hügel's "Correspondance" (ibid. Sept. 16,
1904) discuss the relations between faith and the affirmation of
phenomenal happenings; Paul Sabatier, "Les Derniers Ouvrages de l'Abbé
Loisy," in the _Revue chrétienne_ (Dôle, 1904) and Paul Desjardins'
_Catholicisme et critique_ (Paris, 1905), a Broad Church Protestant's
and a moralist agnostic's delicate appreciations; a revue of _Les
Évangiles synoptiques_ by the Abbé Mangenot, in _Revue du Clergé
français_ (Feb. 15, 1908) containing some interesting discriminations;
a revue by L. in the _Revue biblique_ (1908), pp. 608-620, a mixture
of unfair insinuation, powerful criticism and discriminating
admissions; and a paper by G. P. B. and Jacques Chevalier in the
_Annales de philosophie chrétienne_ (Paris, Jan. 1909) seeks to trace
and to refute certain philosophical presuppositions at work in the
book's treatment, especially of the Miracles, the Resurrection and the
Institution of the Church. Italy: "Lettres Romaines" in _Annales de
philosophie chrétienne_ (Paris, January-March 1904), an Italian
theologian's fearless defence of Loisy's main New Testament positions;
Rev. P. Louis Billot S.J., _De sacra traditione_ (Freiburg i. Br.
1905), the ablest of the scholastic criticisms of the historical
method by a highly influential French professor of theology, now many
years in Rome; _Quello che vogliamo_ (Rome, 1907, Eng. trans., What we
want, by A. L. Lilley, London, 1907), and _Il Programma dei
Modernisti_ (ibid. 1908), Eng. trans., _The Programme of Modernism_
ed. by Lilley (London, eloquent 1098), pleadings by Italian priest,
substantially on M. Loisy's lines; "L'Abate Loisy e il Problema dei
Vangeli Sinottici," four long papers signed "H." in _Il Rinnovamento_
(Milan, 1908, 1909) are candid and circumspect. Germany: Professor E.
Troeltsch, "Was heisst Wesen des Christentums?" 6 arts. in _Die
christliche Welt_ (Leipzig, autumn 1903), a profound criticism of M.
Loisy's developmental defence of Catholicism; Professor Harnack's
review of _L'Évangile et l'Église_ in the _Theol. Literatur-Zeitung_
(Leipzig, 23rd January 1904) is generous and interesting; Professor H.
J. Holtzmann's "Urchristentum u. Reform-Katholizismus," in the _Prot.
Monatshefte_, vii. 5 (Berlin, 1903), "Der Fall Loisy," ibid. ix. 1,
and his review of "Les Évangiles synoptiques" in _Das zwanzigste
Jahrhundert_ (Munich, May 3, 1908) are full of facts and of deep
thought; Fr. F. von Hummelauer, _Exegetisches zur Inspirationsfrage_
(Freiburg i. Br. 1904) is a favourable specimen of present-day German
Roman Catholic scholarship. America: Professor C. A. Briggs, "The Case
of the Abbé Loisy," _Expositor_ (London, April 1905), and C. A. Briggs
and F. von Hügel, _The Papal Commission and the Pentateuch_ (London,
1907) discuss Rome's attitude towards biblical science. England: The
Rev. T. A. Lacey's _Harnack and Loisy_, with introduction by Viscount
Halifax (London, 1904); "The Encyclical and M. Loisy" (_Church Times_,
Feb. 20, 1908); "Recent Roman Catholic Biblical Criticism" (_The Times
Literary Supplement_ for January 15th, 22nd, 29th, 1904), and "The
Synoptic Gospels" (review in _The Times Literary Supplement_, March
26, 1908) are interesting pronouncements respectively of two
Tractarian High Churchmen and of a disciple of Canon Sanday. Professor
Percy Gardner's paper in the _Hibbert Journal_, vol. i. (1903) p. 603,
is the work of a Puritan-minded, cultured Broad Church layman.
(F. v. H.)

LOJA (formerly written _Loxa_), a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada, on the Granada-Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 19,143. The narrow and irregular streets of Loja wind up the sides of a steep hill surmounted by a Moorish citadel; many of the older buildings, including a fine Moorish bridge, were destroyed by an earthquake in December 1884, although two churches of the early 16th century remained intact. An iron bridge spans the river Genil, which flows past the town on the north, forcing a passage through the mountains which encircle the fertile and beautiful Vega of Granada. This passage would have afforded easy access to the territory still held by the Moors in the last half of the 15th century, had not Loja been strongly fortified; and the place was thus of great military importance, ranking with the neighbouring town of Alhama as one of the keys of Granada. Its manufactures consist chiefly of coarse woollens, silk, paper and leather. Salt is obtained in the neighbourhood.

Loja, which, has sometimes been identified with the ancient _Ilipula_, or with the _Lacibi_ (_Lacibis_) of Pliny and Ptolemy, first clearly emerges in the Arab chronicles of the year 890. It was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1226, but was soon afterwards abandoned, and was not finally recaptured until the 28th of May, 1486, when it surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella after a siege.

LOKEREN, an important industrial town of Belgium between Ghent and Antwerp (in East Flanders on the Durme). Pop. (1904) 21,869. It lies at the southern point of the district called Pays de Waes, which in the early part of the 19th century was only sandy moorland, but is now the most highly cultivated and thickly populated tract in Belgium. The church of St Laurence is of some interest.

LOKOJA, a town of Nigeria, at the junction of the Niger and Benue rivers, founded in 1860 by the British consul, W. B. Baikie, and subsequently the military centre of the Royal Niger Company. It is in the province of Kabba, 250 m. from the mouth of the Niger, and is of considerable commercial importance (see NIGERIA and KABBA).

LOLLARDS, the name given to the English followers of John Wycliffe; they were the adherents of a religious movement which was widespread in the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, and to some extent maintained itself on to the Reformation. The name is of uncertain origin; some derive it from _lolium_, tares, quoting Chaucer (_C.T._, Shipman's Prologue):--

"This Loller heer wil prechen us somwhat ...
He wolde sowen som difficultee
Or springen cokkel in our clene corn";

but the most generally received explanation derives the words from _lollen_ or _lullen_, to sing softly. The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 14th century, who were akin to the Fratricelli, Beghards and other sectaries of the recusant Franciscan type. The earliest official use of the name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the bishop of Worcester against five "poor preachers," _nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos_. It is probable that the name was given to the followers of Wycliffe because they resembled those offshoots from the great Franciscan movement which had disowned the pope's authority and set before themselves the ideal of _Evangelical poverty_.

The 14th century, so full of varied religious life, made it manifest that the two different ideas of a life of separation from the world which in earlier times had lived on side by side within the medieval church were irreconcilable. The church chose to abide by the idea of Hildebrand and to reject that of Francis of Assisi; and the revolt of Ockham and the Franciscans, of the Beghards and other spiritual fraternities, of Wycliffe and the Lollards, were all protests against that decision. Gradually there came to be facing each other a great political Christendom, whose rulers were statesmen, with aims and policy of a worldly type, and a religious Christendom, full of the ideas of separation from the world by self-sacrifice and of participation in the benefits of Christ's work by an ascetic imitation. The war between the two ideals was fought out in almost every country in Europe in the 14th century. In England Wycliffe's whole life was spent in the struggle, and he bequeathed his work to the Lollards. The main practical thought with Wycliffe was that the church, if true to her divine mission, must aid men to live that life of evangelical poverty by which they could be separate from the world and imitate Christ, and if the church ceased to be true to her mission she ceased to be a church. Wycliffe was a metaphysician and a theologian, and had to invent a metaphysical theory--the theory of _Dominium_--to enable him to transfer, in a way satisfactory to himself, the powers and privileges of the church to his company of poor Christians; but his followers were content to allege that a church which held large landed possessions, collected tithes greedily and took money from starving peasants for baptizing, burying and praying, could not be the church of Christ and his apostles.

Lollardy was most flourishing and most dangerous to the ecclesiastical organization of England during the ten years after Wycliffe's death. It had spread so rapidly and grown so popular that a hostile chronicler could say that almost every second man was a Lollard. Wycliffe left three intimate disciples:--Nicolas Hereford, a doctor of theology of Oxford, who had helped his master to translate the Bible into English; John Ashton, also a fellow of an Oxford college; and John Purvey, Wycliffe's colleague at Lutterworth, and a co-translator of the Bible, with these were associated more or less intimately, in the first age of Lollardy, John Parker, the strange ascetic William Smith, the restless fanatic Swynderly, Richard Waytstract and Crompe. Wycliffe had organized in Lutterworth an association for sending the gospel through all England, a company of poor preachers somewhat after the Wesleyan method of modern times. "To be poor without mendicancy, to unite the flexible unity, the swift obedience of an order, with free and constant mingling among the poor, such was the ideal of Wycliffe's 'poor priests'" (cf. Shirley, _Fasc. Ziz._ p. xl.), and, although proscribed, these "poor preachers" with portions of their master's translation of the Bible in their hand to guide them, preached all over England. In 1382, two years before the death of Wycliffe, the archbishop of Canterbury got the Lollard opinions condemned by convocation, and, having been promised royal support, he began the long conflict of the church with the followers of Wycliffe. He was able to coerce the authorities of the university of Oxford, and to drive out of it the leading Wycliffite teachers, but he was unable to stifle Oxford sympathies or to prevent the banished teachers preaching throughout the country. Many of the nobles, like Lords Montacute and Salisbury, supported the poor preachers, took them as private chaplains, and protected them against clerical interference. Country gentlemen like Sir Thomas Latimer of Braybrooke and Sir Richard Stury protected them, while merchants and burgesses supported them with money. When Richard II. issued an ordinance (July 1382) ordering every bishop to arrest all Lollards, the Commons compelled him to withdraw it. Thus protected, the "poor preachers" won masses of the people to their opinions, and Leicester, London and the west of England became their headquarters.

The organization must have been strong in numbers, but only those who were seized for heresy are known by name, and it is only from the indictments of their accusers that their opinions can be gathered. The preachers were picturesque figures in long russet dress down to the heels, who, staff in hand, preached in the mother tongue to the people in churches and graveyards, in squares, streets and houses, in gardens and pleasure grounds, and then talked privately with those who had been impressed. The Lollard literature was very widely circulated--books by Wycliffe and Hereford and tracts and broadsides--in spite of many edicts proscribing it. In 1395 the Lollards grew so strong that they petitioned parliament through Sir Thomas Latimer and Sir R. Stury to reform the church on Lollardist methods. It is said that the Lollard Conclusions printed by Canon Shirley (p. 360) contain the substance of this petition. If so, parliament was told that temporal possessions ruin the church and drive out the Christian graces of faith, hope and charity; that the priesthood of the church in communion with Rome was not the priesthood Christ gave to his apostles; that the monk's vow of celibacy had for its consequence unnatural lust, and should not be imposed; that transubstantiation was a feigned miracle, and led people to idolatry; that prayers made over wine, bread, water, oil, salt, wax, incense, altars of stone, church walls, vestments, mitres, crosses, staves, were magical and should not be allowed; that kings should possess the _jus episcopale_, and bring good government into the church; that no special prayers should be made for the dead; that auricular confession made to the clergy, and declared to be necessary for salvation, was the root of clerical arrogance and the cause of indulgences and other abuses in pardoning sin; that all wars were against the principles of the New Testament, and were but murdering and plundering the poor to win glory for kings; that the vows of chastity laid upon nuns led to child murder; that many of the trades practised in the commonwealth, such as those of goldsmiths and armourers, were unnecessary and led to luxury and waste. These Conclusions really contain the sum of Wycliffite teaching; and, if we add that the principal duty of priests is to preach, and that the worship of images, the going on pilgrimages and the use of gold and silver chalices in divine service are sinful (_The Peasants' Rising and the Lollards_, p. 47), they include almost all the heresies charged in the indictments against individual Lollards down to the middle of the 15th century. The king, who had hitherto seemed anxious to repress the action of the clergy against the Lollards, spoke strongly against the petition and its promoters, and Lollardy never again had the power in England which it wielded up to this year.

If the formal statements of Lollard creed are to be got from these Conclusions, the popular view of their controversy with the church may be gathered from the ballads preserved in the _Political Poems and Songs relating to English History_, published in 1859 by Thomas Wright for the Master of the Rolls series, and in the Piers Ploughman poems. _Piers Ploughman's Creed_ (see LANGLAND) was probably written about 1394, when Lollardy was at its greatest strength; the ploughman of the _Creed_ is a man gifted with sense enough to see through the tricks of the friars, and with such religious knowledge as can be got from the creed, and from Wycliffe's version of the Gospels. The poet gives us a "portrait of the fat friar with his double chin shaking about as big as a goose's egg, and the ploughman with his hood full of holes, his mittens made of patches, and his poor wife going barefoot on the ice so that her blood followed" (_Early English Text Society_, vol. xxx., pref., p. 16); and one can easily see why farmers and peasants turned from the friars to the poor preachers. The _Ploughman's Complaint_ tells the same tale. It paints popes, cardinals, prelates, rectors, monks and friars, who call themselves followers of Peter and keepers of the gates of heaven and hell, and pale poverty-stricken people, cotless and landless, who have to pay the fat clergy for spiritual assistance, and asks if these are Peter's priests. "I trowe Peter took no money, for no sinners that he sold.... Peter was never so great a fole, to leave his key with such a losell."