Chapter IV: POPULATION, PUBLIC HEALTH, &c

The population of Greater London by the census of 1901 was 6,581,402.

The following table gives comparisons between the figures of certain census returns for Greater London and its chief component parts, namely, the City, the county and the outer ring (i.e. Greater London outside the county). All the figures before those of 1901 are adjusted to these areas.

+------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------------+
| Year.| City. | County. | Outer Ring. | Greater London. |
+------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------------+
| 1801 | 128,129 | 831,181 | 155,334 | 1,114,644 |
| 1841 | 123,563 | 1,825,714 | 286,067 | 2,235,344 |
| 1881 | 50,569 | 3,779,728 | 936,364 | 4,766,661 |
| 1901 | 26,923 | 4,509,618 | 2,044,864 | 6,581,402 |
+------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------------+

The reason for the decrease in the resident City population is to be found in the rapid extension of business premises, while the widening ramifications of the outer residential areas are illustrated by the increase in the later years of the population of the Outer Ring. The growth and population of London previous to the 19th century is considered under _History_, _ad. fin._

Aliens.

The foreign-born population of London was 60,252 in 1881, and 135,377
in 1901. During 1901, 27,070 aliens (excluding sailors) arrived at the
port, and in 1902, 33,060. Of these last Russians and Poles numbered
21,013; Germans, 3386; Austrians and Hungarians, 2197; Dutch, 1902;
Norwegians, Swedes and Danes, 1341; and Rumanians, 1016. Other
nationalities numbered below one thousand each. The foreign-born
population shows a large increase in percentage to the whole, being
1.57 in 1881 and 2.98 in 1901. Residents of Irish birth have decreased
since 1851; those of Scottish birth have increased steadily, and
roughly as the population. German residents are found mainly in the
western and west central districts; French mainly in the City of
Westminster (especially the district of Soho), St Pancras and St
Marylebone; Italians in Holborn (Saffron Hill), Soho and Finsbury; and
Russians and Poles in Stepney and Bethnal Green.

_Vital Statistics._--The following table shows the average birth rate
and death-rate per thousand at stated periods.

+------------+---------+---------+
| Years. | Births. | Deaths. |
+------------+---------+---------+
| 1861-1880* | 35.4 | 23.4 |
| 1891-1900* | 30.3 | 19.2 |
| 1901-1904* | 28.5 | 16.5 |
| 1905 | 27.1 | 15.6 |
+------------+---------+---------+
* Average.

A comparison of the death-rate of London and those of other great
towns in England and abroad is given here:--

+---------------+-----------+-------+
| | Average | 1905. |
| | 1895-1904.| |
+---------------+-----------+-------+
| Leicester | 16.7 | 13.3 |
| Brussels | 16.7 | 14.5 |
| Bristol | 16.9 | 14.6 |
| Bradford | 17.7 | 15.2 |
| Leeds | 19.1 | 15.2 |
| LONDON | 18.2 | 15.6 |
| Birmingham | 20.2 | 16.2 |
| Nottingham | 18.4 | 16.5 |
| Newcastle | 20.9 | 16.8 |
| Sheffield | 19.6 | 17.0 |
| Berlin | 17.8 | 17.2 |
| Paris | 19.2 | 17.4 |
| Manchester | 22.6 | 18.0 |
| New York | 20.2 | 18.3 |
| Vienna | 20.0 | 19.0 |
| Liverpool | 23.2 | 19.6 |
| Rome | 19.1 | 20.6 |
| St Petersburg | 25.9 | 25.3 |
+---------------+-----------+-------+

In 1905 the lowest death-rates among the metropolitan boroughs were
returned by Hampstead (9.3), Lewisham (11.7), Wandsworth (12.6),
Woolwich (12.8), Stoke Newington (12.9), and the highest by Shoreditch
(19.7), Finsbury (19.0), Bermondsey (18.7), Bethnal Green (18.6) and
Southwark (18.5). A return of the percentage of inhabitants dwelling
in over-crowded tenements shows 2.7 for Lewisham, 4.5 for Wandsworth,
5.5 for Stoke Newington, and 6.4 for Hampstead, against 35.2 for
Finsbury and 29.9 for Shoreditch.

_Sanitation._--As regards sanitation London is under special
regulations. When the statutes relating to public health were
consolidated and amended in 1875 London was excluded; and the law
applicable to it was specially consolidated and amended in 1891. The
London County Council is a central sanitary authority; the City and
metropolitan boroughs are sanitary districts, and the Corporation and
borough councils are local sanitary authorities. The County Council
deals directly with matters where uniformity of administration is
essential, e.g. main drainage, housing of working classes, infant life
protection, common lodging-houses and shelters, and contagious
diseases of animals. With a further view to uniformity it has certain
powers of supervision and control over local authorities, and can make
by-laws respecting construction of local sewers, sanitary
conveniences, offensive trades, slaughter-houses and dairies, and
prevention of nuisances outside the jurisdiction of local authorities.
A medical officer of health for the whole county is appointed by the
Council, which also pays half the salaries of local medical officers
and sanitary inspectors. The Council may also act in cases of default
by the local authorities, or may make representations to the Local
Government Board respecting such default, whereupon the Board may
direct the Council to withhold payment due to the local authority
under the Equalization of Rates Act 1894.

Drainage.

The first act providing for a commission of sewers in London dates
from 1531. Various works of a more or less imperfect character were
carried out, such as the bridging over in 1637 of the river Fleet,
which as early as 1307 had become inaccessible to shipping through the
accumulation of filth. Scavengers were employed in early times, and
sewage was received into wells and pumped into the kennels of the
streets. A system of main drainage was inaugurated by the
Commissioners of Sewers in 1849, but their work proceeded very slowly.
It was carried on more effectively by the Metropolitan Board of Works
(1856-1888) which expended over six-and-a-half millions sterling on
the work. The London County Council maintained, completed and improved
the system. The length of sewers in the main system is about 288 m.,
and their construction has cost about eight millions. The system
covers the county of London, West Ham, Penge, Tottenham, Wood Green,
and parts of Beckenham, Hornsey, Croydon, Willesden, East Ham and
Acton. There are actually two distinct systems, north and south of the
Thames, having separate outfall works on the north and south banks of
the river, at Barking and Crossness. The clear effluent flows into the
Thames, and the sludge is taken 50 m. out to sea. The annual cost of
maintenance of the system exceeds £250,000. The sanitary authorities
are concerned only with the supervision of house drainage, and the
construction and maintenance of local sewers discharging into the main
system. The Thames and the Lea Conservancies have powers to guard
against the pollution of the rivers.

Metropolitan Asylums Board.

_Hospitals._--The Metropolitan Asylums Board, though established in
1867 purely as a poor-law authority for the relief of the sick, insane
and infirm paupers, has become a central hospital authority for
infectious diseases, with power to receive into its hospitals persons,
who are not paupers, suffering from fever, smallpox or diphtheria.
Both the Board and the County Council have certain powers and duties
of sanitary authority for the purpose of epidemic regulations. The
local sanitary authorities carry out the provisions of the Infectious
Diseases (Notification and Prevention) Acts, which for London are
embodied in the Public Health (London) Act 1891. The Board has asylums
for the insane at Tooting Bec (Wandsworth), Ealing (for children);
King's Langley, Hertfordshire; Caterham, Surrey; and Darenth, Kent.
There are twelve fever hospitals, including northern and southern
convalescent hospitals. For smallpox the Board maintains hospital
ships moored in the Thames at Dartford, and a land establishment at
the same place. There are land and river ambulance services.

There are three regular funds in London for the support of hospitals.
(1) King Edward's Hospital Fund (1897) founded by King Edward VII. as
Prince of Wales in commemoration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen
Victoria. The League of Mercy, under royal charter, operates in
conjunction with the Fund in the collection of small subscriptions.
The Order of Mercy was instituted by the King as a reward for
distinguished personal service. (2) The Metropolitan Hospital Sunday
Fund, founded in 1873, draws the greater part of its revenue from
collections in churches on stated occasions. (3) The Metropolitan
Hospital Saturday Fund was founded in 1873, and is made up chiefly of
small sums collected in places of business, &c. The following is a
list of the principal London hospitals, with dates of foundation:--

1. _General Hospitals with Medical Schools_ (all of which, with the
exception of that of the Seamen's Hospital, are schools of London
University):--

Charing Cross; Agar Street, Strand (1820).
Guy's; St Thomas Street, Southwark (1724).
King's College; Lincoln's Inn Fields (1839).
London; Whitechapel (1740).
Middlesex; Mortimer Street, Marylebone (1745).
North London, or University College; Gower Street (1833).
Royal Free; Gray's Inn Road (1828; on present site, 1842).
London School of Medicine for Women.
St Bartholomew's; Smithfield (1123; refounded 1547).
St George's; Hyde Park Corner (1733).
St Mary's; Paddington (1845).
St Thomas'; Lambeth (1213; on present site, 1871).
Seamen's Hospital Society; Greenwich (1821).
Westminster, facing the Abbey. (1720; on present site, 1834).

2. _General Hospitals without Schools_:--

Great Northern Central; Islington (1856; on present site, 1887).
Metropolitan; Hackney (1836).
Poplar Hospital for Accidents (1854).
West London; Hammersmith Road (1856).

3. _Hospitals for Special Purposes_:--

Brompton Consumption Hospital (1841).
Cancer Hospital; Brompton (1851).
City of London Hospital for diseases of the chest; Bethnal Green
(1848).
East London Hospital for Children and Dispensary for Women; Shadwell
(1868).
Hospital for Sick Children; Bloomsbury (1852).
London Fever Hospital; Islington (1802).
National Hospital for Paralysed and Epileptics; Bloomsbury (1859).
Royal Hospital for Incurables; Putney (1854).
Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital; City Road (1804; on present site,
1899).

(See also separate articles on boroughs.)

_Water Supply._--In the 12th century London was supplied with water
from local streams and wells, of which Holy Well, Clerk's Well
(Clerkenwell) and St Clement's Well, near St Clement's Inn, were
examples. In 1236 the magistrates purchased the liberty to convey the
waters of the Tyburn from Paddington to the City by leaden pipes, and
a great conduit was erected in West Cheap in 1285. Other conduits were
subsequently built (cf. Conduit Street off Bond Street, Lamb's Conduit
Street, Bloomsbury); and water was also supplied by the company of
water-bearers in leathern panniers borne by horses. In 1582 Peter
Moris, a Dutchman, erected a "forcier" on an arch of London Bridge,
which he rented for 10s. per annum for 500 years. His works succeeded
and increased, and continued in his family till 1701, when a company
took over the lease. Other forciers had been set up, and in 1609, on
an act of 1605, Sir Hugh Myddelton undertook the task of supplying
reservoirs at Clerkenwell through the New river from springs near
Ware, Hertfordshire; and these were opened in 1613. In 1630 a scheme
to bring water from Hoddesdon on the Lea was promoted by aid of a
lottery licensed by Charles I. The Chelsea Water Company opened its
supply from the Thames in 1721; the Lambeth waterworks were erected in
1783; the Vauxhall Company was established in 1805, the West
Middlesex, near Hammersmith, and the East London on the river Lea in
1806, the Kent on the Ravensbourne (Deptford) in 1810, the Grand
Junction in 1811, and the Southwark (which amalgamated with the
Vauxhall) in 1822.

Metropolitan Water Board.

For many years proposals to amalgamate the working of the companies
and displace them by a central public authority were put forward from
time to time. The difficulty of administration lay in the fact that of
the area of 620 sq. m. constituting what is known as "Water London"
(see map in _London Statistics_, vol. xix., issued by the L.C.C.,
1909) the London County Council has authority over little more than
one-third, and therefore when the Council proposed to acquire the
eight undertakings concerned its scheme was opposed not only by the
companies but by the county councils and local authorities outside the
County of London. The Council had a scheme of bringing water to London
from Wales, in view of increasing demands on a stationary supply. This
involved impounding the headwaters of the Wye, the Towey and the Usk,
and the total cost was estimated to exceed fifteen millions sterling.
The capacity of existing sources, however, was deemed sufficient by a
Royal Commission under Lord Balfour of Burleigh in 1893, and this
opinion was endorsed by a further Commission under Lord Llandaff. The
construction of large storage reservoirs was recommended, and this
work was put in hand jointly by the New River, West Middlesex and
Grand Junction companies at Staines on the Thames. As regards
administration, Lord Llandaff's Commission recommended the creation of
a Water Trust, and in 1902 the Metropolis Water Act constituted the
Metropolitan Water Board to purchase and carry on the undertakings of
the eight companies, and of certain local authorities. It consists of
66 members, appointed by the London County Council (14), the City of
London and the City of Westminster (2 each), the other Metropolitan
boroughs (1 each), the county councils of Middlesex, Hertfordshire,
Essex, Kent and Surrey (l each), borough of West Ham (2), various
groups of other boroughs and urban districts, and the Thames and the
Lea Conservancies. The first election of the Board took place in 1903.
The 24th of June, 1904, was the date fixed on which control passed to
the Board, and in the meantime a Court of Arbitration adjudicated the
claims of the companies for compensation for the acquisition of their
properties.

"Water London" is an irregular area extending from Ware in
Hertfordshire to Sevenoaks in Kent, and westward as far as Ealing and
Sunbury.

A constant supply is maintained generally throughout "Water London,"
although a suspension between certain hours has been occasionally
necessitated, as in 1895 and 1898, when, during summer droughts, the
East London supply was so affected. During these periods other
companies had a surplus of water, and in 1899 an act was passed
providing for the interconnexion of systems. The Thames and Lea are
the principal sources of supply, but the Kent and (partially) the New
River Company draw supplies from springs. The systems of filtration
employed by the different companies varied in efficacy, but both the
Royal Commissions decided that water as supplied to the consumer was
generally of a very high standard of purity. The expenditure of the
Water Board for 1907-1908 amounted to £2,846,265. Debt charges
absorbed £1,512,718 of this amount.

Public baths and washhouses are provided by local authorities under
various acts between 1846 and 1896, which have been adopted by all the
borough councils.

_Lighting._--From 1416 citizens were obliged to hang out candles
between certain hours on dark nights to illuminate the streets. An act
of parliament enforced this in 1661; in 1684 Edward Heming, the
inventor of oil lamps, obtained licence to supply public lights; and
in 1736 the corporation took the matter in hand, levying a rate.
Gas-lighting was introduced on one side of Pall Mall in 1807, and in
1810 the Gas Light & Coke Company received a charter, and developed
gas-lighting in Westminster. The City of London Gas Company followed
in 1817, and seven other companies soon after. Wasteful competition
ensued until in 1857 an agreement was made between the companies to
restrict their services to separate localities, and the Gas Light &
Coke Company, by amalgamating other companies, then gradually acquired
all the gas-lighting north of the Thames, while a considerable area in
the south was provided for by another great gas company, the South
Metropolitan. Various acts from 1860 onwards have laid down laws as to
the quality and cost of gas. Gas must be supplied at 16-candle
illuminating power, and is officially tested by the chemists'
department of the London County Council. The amalgamations mentioned
were effected subsequently to 1860, and there are now three principal
companies within the county, the Gas Light & Coke, South Metropolitan
and Commercial, though certain other companies supply some of the
outlying districts. As regards street lighting, the extended use of
burners with incandescent mantles has been of good effect. The
Metropolitan Board of Works, and the commissioners of sewers in the
City, began experiments with electric light. At the close of the 19th
and the beginning of the 20th century a large number of electric light
companies came into existence, and some of the metropolitan borough
councils, and local authorities within Greater London, also undertook
the supply. An extensive use of the light resulted in the principal
streets and in shops, offices and private houses.

_Fire._--In 1832 the fire insurance companies united to maintain a
small fire brigade, and continued to do so until 1866. The brigade was
confined to the central part of the metropolis; for the rest, the
parochial authorities had charge of protection from fire. The central
brigade came under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works; and
the County Council now manages the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, under a
chief officer and a staff numbering about 1300. The cost of
maintenance exceeds £200,000 annually; contributions towards this are
made by the Treasury and the fire insurance companies. The Council
controls the provision of fire escapes in factories employing over 40
persons, under an act of 1901; it also compels the maintenance of
proper precautions against fire in theatres and places of
entertainments. A Salvage Corps is independently maintained by the
Insurance Companies.

_Cemeteries._--The administrative authorities of cemeteries for the
county are the borough councils and the City Corporation and private
companies. The large cemetery at Brompton is the property of the
government. Kensal Green cemetery, the burial-place of many famous
persons, is of great extent, but several large cemeteries outside the
metropolis have come into use. Such are that of the London Necropolis
Company at Brookwood near Woking, Surrey, and that of the parishes of
St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, at Hanwell,
Middlesex. Crematoria are provided at certain of the companies'
cemeteries, and the Cremation Act 1902 enabled borough councils to
provide crematoria.