Chapter XIX: Part 19

There are in print several scientific works of Malesherbes of varying
value, of which the most interesting is his _Observations sur Buffon
et Daubenton_, written when he was very young, and published with a
notice by Abeille in 1798. There exist also his _Mémoire pour Louis
XVI._, his _Mémoire sur la liberté de la presse_ (published 1809) and
extracts from his remonstrances, published as _Oeuvres choisies de
Malesherbes_ in 1809. For his life should be read the _Notice
historique_ (3rd ed., 1806) of Dubois, the _Éloge historique_ (1805)
of Gaillard, and the interesting _Essai sur la vie, les écrits et les
opinions de M. de Malesherbes_ (in 2 vols., 1818), of F. A. de Boissy
d'Anglas. There are also many éloges on him in print, of which the
best-known is that of M. Dupin, which was delivered at the Academy in
1841, and was reviewed with much light on Malesherbes's control of the
press by Sainte-Beuve in the 2nd volume of the _Causeries du lundi_.
The protest of the _cour des aides_ has been published with
translation by G. Robinson in the _Translations and Reprints of the
University of Pennsylvania_ (1900). For his defence of Louis XVI. see
Marquis de Beaucourt, _Captivité et derniers moments de Louis XVI._ (2
vols., 1892, Soc. d'hist. contemp.), and A. Tuetey, _Répertoire
général des sources manuscrites de l'hist. de Paris pendant la Rev.
fr._, vol. viii. (1908).

MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison (1852- ), English novelist. She was the eldest daughter of Charles Kingsley, and was born at Eversley on the 4th of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and at University College, London, and married in 1876 William Harrison, rector of Clovelly. After her husband's death in 1897 she eventually settled in London. She had already written several books--_Mrs Lorimer_ (1882), _Colonel Enderby's Wife_ (1885), _Little Peter_ (1887), _A Counsel of Perfection_ (1888)--when she published her powerful story, _The Wages of Sin_ (1891), which attracted great attention. Her _History of Sir Richard Calmady_ (1901) had an even greater success. Her other novels include _The Carissima_ (1896), _The Gateless Barrier_ (1900), _On the Far Horizon_ (1906).

MALHERBE, FRANÇOIS DE (1555-1628), French poet, critic and translator, was born at Caen in 1555. His family was of some position, though it seems not to have been able to establish to the satisfaction of heralds the claims which it made to nobility older than the 16th century. The poet was the eldest son of another François de Malherbe, _conseiller du roi_ in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated at Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of twenty-one, preferring arms to the gown, he entered the household of Henri d'Angoulême, grand prior of France, the natural son of Henry II. He served this prince as secretary in Provence, and married there in 1581. It seems that he wrote verses at this period, but, to judge from a quotation of Tallemant des Réaux, they must have been very bad ones. His patron died when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for a time he had no particular employment, though by some servile verses he obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III., whom he afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and partly in Normandy for many years after this event; but very little is known of his life during this period. His _Larmes de Saint Pierre_, imitated from Luigi Tansillo, appeared in 1587.

It was in the year parting the two centuries (1600) that he presented to Marie de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of his remarkable poems. But four or five years more passed before his fortune, which had hitherto been indifferent, turned. He was presented by his countryman, the Cardinal Du Perron, to Henry IV.; and, though that economical prince did not at first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was at last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or another. It is said that the pension promised him was not paid till the next reign. His father died in 1606, and he came into his inheritance. From this time forward he lived at court, corresponding affectionately with his wife, but seeing her only twice in some twenty years. His old age was saddened by a great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of promise, fell in a duel in 1626. His father used his utmost influence to have the guilty parties (for more than one were concerned, and there are grounds for thinking that it was not a fair duel) brought to justice. But he died before the suit was decided (it is said in consequence of disease caught at the camp of La Rochelle, whither he had gone to petition the king), in Paris, on the 16th of October, 1628, at the age of seventy-three.

The personal character of Malherbe was far from amiable, but he exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring effect upon French literature, though by no means a wholly beneficial one. The lines of Boileau beginning _Enfin Malherbe vint_ are rendered only partially applicable by the extraordinary ignorance of older French poetry which distinguished that peremptory critic. But the good as well as bad side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described by his contemporary and superior Regnier, who was animated against him, not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard but because of Malherbe's discourtesy towards Regnier's uncle P. Desportes, whom the Norman poet had at first distinctly copied. These are the lines:--

"Cependant leur savoir ne s'étend nullement
Qu'à régratter un mot douteuse au jugement,
Prendre garde qu'un _qui_ ne heurte une diphthongue,
Epier si des vers la rime est brève ou longue,
Ou bien si la voyelle à l'autre s'unissant
Ne rend point à l'oreille un vers trop languissant.
. . . . . . . .
C'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose."

This is perfectly true, and from the time of Malherbe dates that great and deplorable falling off of French poetry in its more poetic qualities, which was not made good till 1830. Nevertheless the critical and restraining tendency of Malherbe was not ill in place after the luxuriant importation and innovation of the _Pléiade_; and if he had confined himself to preaching greater technical perfection, and especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and versification, instead of superciliously striking his pen through the great works of his predecessors, he would have deserved wholly well. As it was, his reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for the classical tragedy, and that is the most that can be said for him. His own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most part frigid and devoid of inspiration. The beautiful _Consolation à Duperier_, in which occurs the famous line--

Et, rose, elle a vécu ce que vivent les roses--

the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other pieces comprise all that is really worth remembering of him. His prose work is much more abundant, not less remarkable for care as to style and expression, and of greater positive value. It consists of some translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a very large number of interesting and admirably written letters, many of which are addressed to Peiresc, the man of science of whom Gassendi has left a delightful Latin life. It contains also a most curious commentary on Desportes, in which Malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is displayed on the great scale.

The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the _Vie de
Malherbe_ by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long _Historiette_
which Tallemant des Réaux has devoted to him. The standard edition is
the admirable one of Ludovic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris, 1862-1869). Of
the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome little issue in the
_Nouvelle collection Jannet_ (Paris, 1874). Of modern works devoted to
him, _La Doctrine de Malherbe_, by G. Brunot (1891), is not only the
most important but a work altogether capital in regard to the study of
French language and literature. Others are A. Gasté, _La Jeunesse de
Malherbe_ (1890); V. Bourrienne, _Points obscurs dans la vie normande
de Malherbe_ (1895); and the duc de Broglie's "Malherbe" in _Les
Grands écrivains français_. On his position in French and general
critical history, G. Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, vol. ii.,
may be consulted. (G. Sa.)

MALIBRAN, MARIE FÉLICITÉ (1808-1836), operatic singer, daughter of Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1808. Her father was then a member of the company of the Théâtre des Italiens, and she accompanied him to Italy and London. She possessed a soprano voice of unusual beauty and phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated by her father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take her place in _The Barber of Seville_ at Covent Garden. She was forthwith engaged for the remaining six weeks of the season, and then followed her father to New York, where she appeared in _Othello_, _The Barber of Seville_, _Don Juan_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Tancred_. Her gifts as an actress were on a par with her magnificent voice, and her gaiety made her irresistible in light opera, although her great triumphs were obtained chiefly in tragic parts. She married a French banker of New York, named Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was an unhappy one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe in 1828, when she began the series of representations at the Théâtre des Italiens, which excited an enthusiasm in Paris only exceeded by the reception she received in the principal towns of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in 1835, and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; but she died of fever on the 23rd of September 1836.

See _Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other
intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence_ (2 vols.,
1840); and M. Teneo, _La Malibran, d'après des documents inédits_, in
_Sammelbände der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft_ (Leipzig, 1906).

MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C4H6O5, an organic acid found abundantly in the juices of many plants, particularly in mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in grapes. The acid potassium salt is also found in the leaves and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid contains an asymmetric carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a dextro-rotatory, a laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid obtained in the various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It may be prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with fuming hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water at 150-200° C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic acid; and by the action of moist silver oxide on monobromsuccinic acid. It forms deliquescent crystals, which are readily soluble in alcohol and melt at 100° C. When heated for some time at 130° C. it yields fumaric acid (q.v.), and on rapid heating at 180° C. gives maleic anhydride and fumaric acid. It yields coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and phenols (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). Potassium bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid. The inactive variety may be split into the component active forms by means of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer, _Ber._, 1880, 13, 352).

MALIGNANT (Lat. _malignus_, evil-disposed, from _maligenus_), wicked, of a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word was early applied by the Protestants to the Romanists, with an allusion to the "congregation of evil doers" (Vulgate _Ecclesiam malignantium_) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In English history, during the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the Royalists by the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641 occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop (Laud) and the earl of Strafford being heads." The name throughout the period had special reference to the religious differences between the parties. In medical science, the term "malignant" is applied to a particularly virulent or dangerous form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or growth of rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and recurrence after operation.

MALIK IBN ANAS (c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite school of canon law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the precise date is not certain. He studied and passed his life there, and came to be regarded as the greatest local authority in theology and law. (For his legal system and its history see MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was one of extreme honour and dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law and acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out in his biography. When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid, rose in A.D. 762 at Medina against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a _fatwa_, or legal opinion, that the oath of allegiance to the 'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force. For this independence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor, who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a man of his standing with the people. The second episode gave equal proof of independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashid made the pilgrimage, came with two of his sons to Medina, and sat at the feet of Malik as he lectured in the mosque. The story, legendary or historical, adds that Malik had refused to go to the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come to his teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public life and even neglected plain, public duties, replying to reproaches, "Not every one can speak in his own excuse" (Ibn Qutaiba, _Ma 'arif_, 250). He is also entered among the early ascetic Sufis (cf. _Fihrist_, 183). He died in Medina, A.D. 795.

For a description of his principal book, the _Muwatta'_, see
Goldziher's _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a
Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to
Harun al-Rashid. See further, de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, ii.
545 sqq.; von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte_, i. 477 sqq.; Brockelmann,
_Gesch. der arab. Litt._, i. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, _Muslim Theology,
&c._, 99 sqq. and index; _Fihrist_, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530 sqq.
(D. B. Ma.)

MALINES (Flemish, _Mechelen_, called in the middle ages by the Latin name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an ancient and important city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559 of the only archbishopric in that country. Pop. (1904), 58,101. The name is supposed to be derived from _maris linea_, and to indicate that originally the sea came up to it. It is now situated on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp, lying about half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the religious capital of Belgium--the archbishop being the primate of the Catholic Church in that country. The archbishop's palace is in a picturesque situation, and dates from the creation of the dignity. The principal building in the city is the exceedingly fine cathedral dedicated to St Rombaut. This cathedral was begun in the 12th and finished early in the 14th century, and although modified in the 15th after a fire, it remains one of the most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its most striking external feature. The people of Malines gained in the old distich--"gaudet Mechlinia stultis"--the reputation of being "fools," because one of the citizens on seeing the moon through the dormer windows of St Rombaut called out that the place was on fire, and his fellow-citizens, following his example, endeavoured to put out the conflagration until they realized the truth. The cathedral contains a fine altar-piece by Van Dyck, and the pulpit is in carved oak of the 17th century. Another old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent for Charles V., which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a court of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (16th century) is Rubens' masterpiece "the miraculous draught of fishes," and in that of St John is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines, although no longer famous for its lace, carries on a large trade in linen, needles, furniture and oil, while as a junction for the line from Ghent to Louvain and Liège, as well as for that from Antwerp to Brussels and the south, its station is one of the busiest in Belgium, and this fact has contributed to the general prosperity of the city.

The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by Pippin the Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the 9th century Charles the Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop of Liége, and after being shared between Brabant and Flanders it passed into the hands of Philip the Bold, founder of the house of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious troubles of the 16th century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it was sacked by Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French finally removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it has been an open town.

MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Provinces, India. Pop. (1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town possessed considerable political importance, and upon the British annexation of Oudh it was selected as the headquarters of the district, but was abandoned in favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny. Saltpetre and brass utensils are manufactured.

MALLARMÉ, FRANÇOIS RENÉ AUGUSTE (1755-1835), French Revolutionist, the son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy on the 25th of February 1755. He was brought up in his father's profession, and was appointed _procureur-syndic_ of the district of Pont-à-Mousson. During the Revolution he was elected by the department of Meurthe deputy to the Legislative Assembly and the Convention, where he attached himself to the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected president of the Convention on the 30th of May 1793, and by his weakness during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the success of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an active part in the _levée-en-masse_, and in November 1793 was given the task of establishing the revolutionary government in the departments of Meuse and Moselle, where he gained an unenviable notoriety by ordering the execution of the sentence of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal on some young girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians when they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined the group of "Thermidorians" and was sent on mission to the south of France, where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse and set free a number of imprisoned "suspects." On the 1st of June 1795 he was denounced and arrested, but was soon set at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the Directory commissioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle and Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the _droits réunis_ at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hundred Days, he was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for the death of the maidens of Verdun, and lived in exile during the Restoration. He returned to France after the revolution of 1830, and died at Richemont (Seine-Inférieure) on the 25th of July 1835.

MALLARMÉ, STÉPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and theorist, was born at Paris, on the 18th of March 1842. His life was simple and without event. His small income as professor of English in a French college was sufficient for his needs, and, with his wife and daughter, he divided the year between a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks of the Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to form the thought of the more interesting of the younger French men of letters, were almost as important a part of his career as the few carefully elaborated books which he produced at long intervals. _L'Après-midi d'un faune_ (1876) and other fragments of his verse and prose had been known to a few people long before the publication of the _Poésies complètes_ of 1887, in a facsimile of his clear and elegant handwriting, and of the Pages of 1891 and the _Vers et prose_ of 1893. His remarkable translation of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, "The Raven" having been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet. _Divagations_, his own final edition of his prose, was published in 1897, and a more or less complete edition of the _Poésies_, posthumously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the 9th of September 1898. All his life Mallarmé was in search of a new aesthetics, and his discoveries by the way were often admirable. But he was too critical ever to create freely, and too limited ever to create abundantly. His great achievement remains unfinished, and all that he left towards it is not of equal value. There are a few poems and a few pieces of imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, mysterious and yet definite. His later work became more and more obscure, as he seemed to himself to have abolished limit after limit which holds back speech from the expression of the absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation in verse, and invented a new punctuation, along with a new construction, for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author has its reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more pride the self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the material world. To those who knew him only by his writings his conversation was startling in its clearness; it was always, like all his work, at the service of a few dignified and misunderstood ideas.

See also Paul Verlaine, _Les Poètes maudits_ (1884); J. Lemaître, _Les
Contemporains_ (5th series, 1891); Albert Moekel, _Stéphane Mallarmé,
un héros_ (1899); E. W. Gosse, _French Profiles_ (1905) and A. Symons,
_The Symbolist Movement in Literature_ (1900). A complete bibliography
is given in the _Poètes d'aujourd'hui_ (1880-1900, 11th ed., 1905) of
MM. A. van Bever and P. Léautaud. (A. Sy.)

MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the Indian territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces of Bio-Bio on the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the W. Area, 2973 sq. m. Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the rainy, forested region of southern Chile, and is thinly populated, a considerable part of its population being Araucanian Indians, who occupy districts in the Andean foothills. Gold placer mining has attracted some attention, but the output is small. The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising and timber-cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated at 7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province, on the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the state railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099 in 1902) in the southern part of the province is the second town in importance, and Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at 10,002 in 1902), about 20 m. E. of the last-named town, was for a time the terminal station of the main line of the railway.

MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch _Mallemugge_ (which originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light), a name given by the early Dutch Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of which the English form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors to the smaller albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in the Southern Ocean--corrupted into "molly mawk," or "mollymauk." A number of species have been identified. _Diomedea irrorata_ of West Peru is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head; _D. migripes_ of the North Pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye and at the base of the tail and bill; _D. immutabilis_ of Japan is darker but has a white head. _D. melanophrys_ of the southern oceans has been found in summer both in California, in England, and as far north as the Faeroes. According to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species of albatross inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well as the Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey, but all the rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky superciliary streak, whence its name of black-browed albatross, as also its scientific epithet, are taken. The bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow, while that of the young is dark. This species breeds on the Falkland Islands. _D. bulleri_ of the New Zealand seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump and ashy head. _Diomedea_ (or _Thalassogeron_) _culminata_ and _chlororhyncha_ of the southern seas, _D._ (or _T._) _cauta_ of Tasmania, _salvini_ of New Zealand and _layardi_ of the Cape resemble _D. bulleri_, but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its base. H. N. Moseley (_Notes of a Naturalist_, 130) describes _D. culminata_ as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge and clay, with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim--the whole being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird lays a single white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed by the skin of the abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet of _D. bulleri_ are red, of _D. chlororhyncha_ flesh-coloured, of the others yellow. (A. N.)

MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer and author, was born at Wimbledon, on the 8th of May 1825. Educated at Winchester, he obtained a cadetship in the Bengal infantry in 1842, and served through the second Burmese War. His subsequent appointments were in the civil line, the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. He retired with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I. in 1872. He died at Kensington, on the 1st of March 1898. He was a voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention being the famous "Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in 1857, when the Mutiny was at its height. He continued, and considerably rewrote the _History of the Indian Mutiny_ (6 vols., 1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished by Sir John Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are _History of the French in India_ (2nd ed., 1893) and _The Decisive Battles of India_ (3rd ed., 1888).

MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?1705-1765), Scottish poet and dramatist, the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that county, probably in 1705. In 1717 he went to the high school at Edinburgh, and some three years later to the university, where he made the friendship of James Thomson, author of _The Seasons_. As early as 1720 he began to publish short poems in the manner of the period, a number of which appeared during the next few years in collections such as the _Edinburgh Miscellany_ and Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_, in which his ballad "William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some years from 1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's sons, with whom he travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real name was Malloch; but this he changed to Mallet in 1724. In 1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. He had already made the friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in a poem on _Verbal Criticism_, in 1733; and through Pope he became acquainted with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 appointed Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in 1744, Mallet, at the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby incurring the resentment of Pope's friends. For his services as a party pamphleteer, in which character he published an attack on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from Lord Bute a lucrative sinecure in 1760. He died on the 21st of April 1765. Mallet was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy and inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he had a daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a Genoese gentleman, and was the author of several poems and plays, notably _Almida_, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in 1771.

Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were produced by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. _Eurydice_, a tragedy, with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was produced at Drury Lane in 1731; _Mustapha_, also a tragedy, had considerable success at the same theatre in 1739; in 1740, in collaboration with Thomson, he produced the masque _Alfred_, of which he published a new version in 1751, after Thomson's death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song, "Rule Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed to Mallet, although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with Thomson's name attached. His other writings include _Poems on Several Occasions_ (1743); _Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit_ (1747); another volume of _Poems_ (1762).

In 1759 a collected edition of Mallet's _Works_ was published in three
volumes; and in 1857 his _Ballads and Songs_ were edited by F.
Dinsdale with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author.

MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born on the 20th of August 1730, in Geneva. After having been educated there, he became tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was appointed professor of _belles lettres_ to the academy at Copenhagen. He was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first fruits of his researches, under the title _Introduction à l'histoire du Danemarck où l'on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des usages des anciens Danois_. A second part, more particularly relating to the ancient literature of the country, _Monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulièrement des anciens Scandinaves_, was issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 under the title of _Northern Antiquities_ (republished with additions in 1847). The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation into French of the _Edda_. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city. While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the czar Paul I.), but declined the honour. An invitation more congenial to his tastes led to his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and thence to England, where he was presented at court and commissioned to write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by the shock of the Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in exile till 1801. He died at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807.

A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at
Geneva in 1807. Besides the _Introduction to the History of Denmark_,
his principal works are: _Histoire du Danemarck_ (3 vols., Copenhagen,
1758-1777); _Histoire de la maison de Hesse_ (4 vols., 1767-1785);
_Histoire de la maison de Brunswick_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); _Histoire
de la maison et des états du Mecklenbourg_ (1796); _Histoire des
Suisses ou Helvétiens_ (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment
of J. von Müller's great history); _Histoire de la ligue hanséatique_
(1805).

MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and geologist, was born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was educated at Trinity College in that city, and graduated B.A. in 1830. Trained as an engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in 1842; he built in 1848-1849 the Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in other important works. Devoting much attention to pure science, he became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and from 1852-1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the preparation of his great work, _The Earthquake Catalogue of the British Association_ (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes, dealing with the _Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857_ and _The First Principles of Observational Seismology_. He then brought forward evidence to show that the depth below the earth's surface, whence came the impulse of the Neapolitan earthquake, was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his most important essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (_Phil. Trans._ clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled _Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to develop its True Origin and Cosmical Relations_. He sought to show that volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, contortion and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the disturbances leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more or less vertical, down which water would find its way, and if the temperature generated be sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow. He was elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the 5th of November 1881.

MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1749-1800), French journalist, of an old Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the son of a Protestant minister. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to London joined H.S.N. Linguet in the production of his _Annales politiques_ (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the _Annales_ by himself (1781-1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan changed the title of his own publication to _Mémoires historiques_ (1783). From 1783 he incorporated this work with the _Mercure de France_ in Paris, the political direction of which had been placed in his hands. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he sided with the Royalists, and was sent on a mission (1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try and secure the sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to Brussels in the Royalist interest. He published a number of anti-revolutionary pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte and the Directory resulted in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne. In 1798 he came to London, where he founded the _Mercure britannique_. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on the 10th of May 1800, his widow being pensioned by the English government. Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861) spent a useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary of the Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR LOUIS MALLET (1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board of Trade and rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the Council of India.

Mallet du Pan's _Mémoires et correspondance_ was edited by A. Sayous
(Paris, 1851). See _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (1902),
by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a biography
of his father (1900).

MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the Medway parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively 5 and 6 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), East Malling, 2391; West Malling, 2312. They are situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the valley of the Medway, and East Malling has large paper mills. At West Malling are remains of Malling Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1090 by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west front of the church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-house, gate-house (the chapel of which is restored to use), and other portions. About Addington near West Malling are considerable prehistoric remains, including mounds, single stones, stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while at Leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by the Leybourne family from the 12th to the 14th century.

MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English author, was born at Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was educated privately, and at Balliol College, Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second class in the final classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable attention by his satirical story _The New Republic_ (2 vols., 1877), in which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W. K. Clifford and others. His keen logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in later years both in fiction and in controversial works. In a series of books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely scientific data. In _Is Life Worth Living?_ (1879) and _The New Paul and Virginia_ (1878) he attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the intellectual position of the Church of England, _Doctrine and Doctrinal Disruption_ (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined creed. Later volumes on similar topics were _Religion as a Credible Doctrine_ (1903) and _The Reconstruction of Belief_ (1905). He published several brilliant works on economics, directed against Radical and Socialist theories: _Social Equality_ (1882), _Property and Progress_ (1884), _Labour and the Popular Welfare_ (1893), _Classes and Masses_ (1896) and _Aristocracy and Evolution_ (1898); and among his anti-socialist works should be classed his novel, _The Old Order Changes_ (1886). His other novels include _A Romance of the Nineteenth Century_ (1881), _A Human Document_ (1892), _The Heart of Life_ (1895) and _The Veil of the Temple_ (1904). He published a volume of _Poems_ in 1880, and in 1900 _Lucretius on Life and Death_ in verse.

MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the Blackwater, 144½ m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N. from Cork by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4542. It is a junction for lines westward to Killarney and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and Co. Waterford. The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation in a fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid mineral spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house with pump-room and baths was erected in 1828. The parish church dates from 1818, but there are remains of an earlier building adjoining it. There are manufactures of mineral water and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow received a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was originally Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by Spenser for this part of the river), and the ford was defended by a castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A bridge connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen. Mallow is a centre for the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater. The climate is very mild. The town was a parliamentary borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban district council.

MALLOW, botanically _Malva_, the typical genus of the natural order Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-celled anthers which specially characterize the _Malvaceae_ (q.v.). The petals also are united by their base to the tube formed by the coalesced filaments of the stamens. The special characters which separate the genus _Malva_ from others most nearly allied to it are the involucre, consisting of a row of three separate bracts attached to the lower part of the true calyx, and the numerous single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle around a central axis, from which they become detached when ripe. The flowers are mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves radiate-veined, and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives of Britain. The musk mallow (_Malva moschata_) is a perennial herb with five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured flowers clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and is found growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming in July and August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour diffused by the plant in warm dry weather when it is kept in a confined situation. The round-leaved dwarf mallow (_Malva rotundifolia_) is a creeping perennial, growing in waste sandy places, with roundish serrate leaves and small pinkish-white flowers produced in the axils of the leaves from June to September. It is common throughout Europe and the north of Africa, extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow (_Malva sylvestris_), the _mauve_ of the French, is an erect biennial or perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate leaves, and conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossoming from May to September. Like most plants of the order it abounds in mucilage, and hence forms a favourite domestic remedy for colds and sore throats. The aniline dye called mauve derives its name from its resemblance to the colour of this plant.

1. Flower in section.
2. Stamens showing the union of the filaments into a common tube
(monadelphous).
3. Fruit with persistent calyx. 1, 2 and 5 enlarged.
4. Same seen from the back showing the 3-leaved epicalyx.
5. Seed.]

The marsh mallow (_Althaea officinalis_), the _guimauve_ of the
French, belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous
bracts. It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the
neighbourhood of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with
somewhat woody stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves,
and delicate pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The
flowers are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh
mallow is remarkable for containing asparagin, C4H8N2O3, H2O, which,
if the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid
being developed. The root also contains about 25% of starch and the
same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum arabic in
containing one molecule less of water and in being precipitated by
neutral acetate of lead. It is used in _pâte de guimauve_ lozenges.
_Althaea rosea_ is the hollyhock (q.v.).

The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified
with Jew's mallow (_Corchorus olitorius_), a member of the closely
allied order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word [Hebrew: maluah]
implying a saline plant) with _Atriplex Halimus_, or sea orache. In
Syria the _Halimus_ was still known by the name _Malluh_ in the time
of Ibn Beitar. See Bochart, _Hieroz._ iii. 16.

MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, lying in a wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m. S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail via Eupen. It contains two Roman Catholic churches, a modern town-hall and a classical school. Its industries include tanning, dyeing and paper-making. Pop. (1900), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine abbey, founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802 the lands of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were divided between Prussia and Netherlands.

See Kellen, _Malmedy und die preussische Wallonie_ (Essen, 1897).

MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, 1ST EARL OF (1746-1820), English diplomatist, was born at Salisbury on the 21st of April 1746, being the son of James Harris (q.v.), the author of _Hermes_. Educated at Winchester, Oxford and Leiden, young Harris became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy at Madrid, and was left as _chargé d'affaires_ at that court on the departure of Sir James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards Lord Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered the intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was instrumental in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance. As a reward he was appointed minister _ad interim_ at Madrid, and in January 1772 minister plenipotentiary to the court of Prussia. His success was marked, and in 1777 he was transferred to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made his reputation, for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her predilections for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight of the Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home owing to ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be minister at the Hague, an appointment confirmed after some delay by Pitt (1784). He did very great service in furthering Pitt's policy of maintaining England's influence on the Continent by the arms of her allies, and held the threads of the diplomacy which ended in the king of Prussia's overthrowing the republican party in Holland, which was inclined to France, and re-establishing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his services he was created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on his arms, and by the prince of Orange to use his motto "Je maintiendrai." He returned to England, and took an anxious interest in politics, which ended in his seceding from the Whig party with the duke of Portland in 1793; and in that year he was sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep Prussia true to the first coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent to Brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline for the prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and Lille vainly negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797 he became partially deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but for his long and eminent services he was in 1800 created earl of Malmesbury, and Viscount Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the county of Hants. He now became a sort of political Nestor, consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign ministers, trusted by men of the most different ideas in political crises, and above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's death almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were also wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particularly, who was his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed many of his ideas on foreign policy directly to his teaching. His later years were free from politics, and till his death on the 21st of November 1820 he lived very quietly and almost forgotten. As a statesman, Malmesbury had an influence among his contemporaries which is scarcely to be understood from his writings, but which must have owed much to personal charm of manner and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland and Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a profession in which only great nobles won the prizes to a career opening the path of honour to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his son James Edward (1778-1841), under-secretary for foreign affairs under Canning; from whom the title passed to James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.).

Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account of the
Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but his
important _Diaries_ (1844) and _Letters_ (1870) were edited by his
grandson.

MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889), English statesman, son of the 2nd earl, was born on the 25th of March 1807, and educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for several years, making acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he had only just been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative, when his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political career, though not one which made any permanent impression on history, attracted a good deal of contemporary attention, partly from his being foreign secretary in 1852 and again in 1858-1859 (he was also lord privy seal in 1866-1868 and in 1874-1876), and partly from his influential position as an active Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a time when Lord Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways, moulding the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life--he survived till the 17th of May 1889--and the publication of his _Memoirs of an Ex-Minister_ in 1884, contributed to the reputation he enjoyed. These _Memoirs_, charmingly written, full of anecdote, and containing much interesting material for the history of the time, remain his chief title to remembrance. Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's _Diaries and Correspondence_ (1844), and in 1870 published _The First Lord Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820_. He was succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James (1842-1899), whose son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the 5th earl in 1899.

MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94½ m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2854. It lies on a ridge surrounded on all sides except the north-west by the river Avon and a small tributary. The church of St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is a majestic fragment consisting of the greater part of the nave (with aisles) of a Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including the clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman examples extant, both the outer and the inner doorways (especially the first) exhibiting the typical ornament of the period in remarkable exuberance. With the exception of a crypt, the monastic buildings have disappeared. In the market square stands a fine market cross of the 16th century, borne upon an octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments of a hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corporation almshouse. Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with breweries, tanneries and manufactures of silk and pillow lace. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 178 acres.