Chapter XX: Part 20

Maildulphus, a Scottish or Irish monk, who came into England about 635, built a hermitage near the site of the modern Malmesbury (_Maildulphi-urbs_, _Maldelmesburh_, _Malmesbiri_) and gathered disciples round him, thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey of which Aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot. Æthelstan, who was buried here (though his tomb in the church only dates from the 16th century), rebuilt and endowed the monastery. Round the abbey the town of Malmesbury grew up, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it had become one of the only two Wiltshire boroughs. The first charter, said to be a forgery, purports to have been given by Æthelstan. It granted to the burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the time of Edward the Elder, with many additional exemptions, in return for help rendered against the Danes. The castle built at Malmesbury during the reign of Henry I. gave a further impetus to the growth of the town during the 12th and 13th centuries. It was not incorporated, however, until 1645, when it was made a free borough under the title of "aldermen and burgesses of the borough of Malmesbury, County Wilts." By this charter it was governed until 1885. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the number was reduced to one. Finally in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the county. A grant of a yearly fair on the 31st of March, the feast of St Aldhelm, was obtained from William II., and another for three days from the 25th of July from John. In 1792 fairs were held on the 28th of March, the 28th of April and the 29th of June, but in 1891 they had ceased entirely. John also granted a weekly market on Thursday. In the 16th and 18th centuries it was held on Saturday, and in 1891 on the third Wednesday in each month. In the middle ages Malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth manufacture, and at the Dissolution the abbey was bought by a rich clothier and fitted with looms for weaving. The trade in wool still flourished in 1751.

See _Victoria County History: Wiltshire_; and _Registrum
malmesburiense_ (1879-1880).

MALMÖ, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of Malmöhus, on a small bay of the Sound, 384 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1800), 38,054; (1900), 60,857. It is connected with Copenhagen, 17¼ m. W. by N., by steam-ferry, the Sound being kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. It is also the first important station in Sweden on the Berlin-Stockholm route, which crosses the sea between Sassnitz in Rügen and Trelleborg, 20 m. S.E. of Malmö. The town, which stands upon a level plain, formerly had strong fortifications, of which only the citadel (Malmöhus) remains; in it the earl of Bothwell was imprisoned by Frederick II. of Denmark for some time after his departure from Scotland in 1567. The town-hall (1546, largely restored in 1864) contains a handsome chamber, the Knutssal, formerly used by the council of the gild of Canute. The hall fronts the central square (_Stortorg_) which is planted with trees and contains a colossal statue of Charles X. by Johan Helenus Börjeson (b. 1835) erected in 1896. The most notable church is that of St. Peter (_Peterkyrka_), dating in part from 1319. Malmö is second to Stockholm as an industrial centre. There are breweries and large works for the manufacture of machinery, among which may be mentioned the Kockum mechanical works, with yards for the construction of vessels of war, and others; of cotton and woollen goods, gloves, chocolate, sweetmeats and tobacco. A large export trade is carried on in butter and other agricultural produce, and matches. Coal is the chief import. The harborage includes an outer harbour of 22 ft. depth, and two inner basins admitting vessels of 21 ft. draught, with dry dock and patent slip. Malmö returns four members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).

Malmö (Malmhauge, Malmey, Malmöye, Malmoughe), sometimes called _Ancona Scanorum_ or _Ellenbogen_, first appears in history about the middle of the 13th century. During the Hanseatic period it was the most important commercial town on the Sound, but in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly lost ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise of its rival, Copenhagen. Its modern prosperity is largely due to the enterprise of Frans Snell, one of its merchants in the second half of the 18th century, who first constructed the harbour.

MALMSEY, a strong sweet wine, originally made at Monemvasia (Gr. [Greek: Monembasia]), Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea, Greece. The name of the place was corrupted in Med. Lat. into _malmasia_, whence the English form of the word. The corruption malvasia gives the O. Fr. _malvesie_, from which comes the alternative English form "malvoisie." The wine is now made not only in Greece but also in Spain, Madeira and the Azores.

MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO ("LANZAROTE, the 'Lancelot Maloisiel' of the French"), leader of the first of modern European oceanic enterprises. This was a Genoese expedition, which about 1270 seems to have sailed into the Atlantic, re-discovered the "Fortunate Islands" or Canaries, and made something of a conquest and settlement in one of the most northerly isles of this archipelago, still known (after the Italian captain) as Lanzarote. According to a Spanish authority of about 1345, the anonymous Franciscan's _Conosçimiento de todos los reinos_, "Lancarote" was killed by the Canarian natives; but the castle built by him was standing in 1402-1404, when it was utilized for the storage of grain by the French conquerors under Gadifer de la Salle. To Malocello's enterprise, moreover, it is probable that Petrarch (born 1304) alludes when he tells how, within the memory of his parents, an armed fleet of Genoese penetrated to the "Fortunatae"; this passage some would refer, without sufficient authority, to the expedition of 1291. Malocello's name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early _Portolani_ or scientific charts (such as the "Dulcert" of 1339 and the "Laurentian Portolano" of 1351), in which the African islands appear, for the first time in history, in clear and recognizable form. Thus Dulcert reads _Insula de Lanzarotus_ and _Marocelus_, the Laurentian map _I. de Lanzarote_, against Lanzarote Island, which is well depicted on both designs, and marked with the cross of Genoa. The _Conosçimiento_ (as noticed above) explicitly derives the island-name from the Genoese commander who perished here. Malocello's enterprise not only marks the beginning of the oversea expansion of western Europe in exploration, conquest and colonization (after the age of Scandinavian world-roving had passed); it is also probably not unconnected with the great Genoese venture of 1291 (in search of a waterway to India, which soon follows), with which this attempt at Canarian discovery and dominion has been by some unjustifiably identified.

See the _Conosçimiento_, p. 100, as edited by Marcos Jimenez de la
Espada in the _Boletin de la sociedad geográfica de Madrid_, (February
1877); _Le Canarien_ in P. Margry, _Conquête des ... Canaries_, p.
177; M. A. P. d'Avezac in vol. vi., part ii., of _L'Univers_, pp. 1-41
(_Îles africaines de l'océan atlantique_); C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of
Modern Geography_, iii. 411-413, 449, 451.

MALOLOS, a town and the capital of the province of Bulacán, island of Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Pampanga Grande river. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Barasoain and Santa Isabel, 27,025. There are thirty-eight villages, or barrios, of which eight had, in 1903, 1000 inhabitants or more. The principal language is Tagalog, but Spanish is spoken to some extent. Malolos is served by the Manila & Dagupan railway, and is a trade centre of considerable importance. The cultivation of rice is an important industry. In 1898-99, during the Filipino revolt, Malolos was the seat of the rebel government, but it was captured and reduced to desolation in March 1899. In 1904 a new municipal school building, a municipal market and a provincial building were erected.

MALONE, EDMOND (1741-1812), Irish Shakespearian scholar and editor, was born in Dublin, on the 4th of October 1741, the son of a barrister and a member of the Irish House of Commons. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1767. The death of his father in 1774 assured him a competency, and he went to London, where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He frequently visited Dr Johnson and was of great assistance to Boswell in revising and proofreading his _Life_, four of the later editions of which he annotated. He was intimate with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he sat for a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one of Reynolds' executors, and published a posthumous collection of his works (1798) with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Burke, Canning, Lord Charlemont, and, at first, George Steevens, were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by the two last he devoted himself to the study of Shakespearian chronology, and the results of his "Attempt to ascertain the Order in which the Plays of Shakespeare were written" (1778) are still largely accepted. This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary volumes to Steevens's version of Dr Johnson's _Shakespeare_, partly consisting of observations on the history of the Elizabethan stage, and of the text of doubtful plays; and this again, in 1783, by an appendix volume. His refusal to alter some of his notes to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed with Steevens's, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. The next seven years were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in eleven volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his biography of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of Henry VI., were especially valuable. His editorial work was lauded by Burke, criticized by Walpole and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the earlier editions. Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of the Rowley poems (see CHATTERTON), and in this (1782) as in his branding (1796) of the Ireland MSS. (see IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY) as forgeries, he was among the first to guess and state the truth. His elaborate edition of Dryden's works (1800), with a memoir, was another monument to his industry, accuracy and scholarly care. In 1801 the university of Dublin made him an LL.D. At the time of his death, on the 25th of April 1812, Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare, and he left his material to James Boswell the younger; the result was the edition of 1821--generally known as the Third Variorum edition--in twenty-one volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738-1816), his elder brother and executor, presented the larger part of Malone's splendid collection of books, including dramatic varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which afterwards bought many of his MS. notes and his literary correspondence. The British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of Johnson's _Dictionary_.

A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the _Prolegomena_
to the edition of 1821. See also Sir J. Prior's _Life of Edmond
Malone_ (1860).

MALONE, a village and the county-seat of Franklin county, in the township of Malone, in the N.E. part of New York, U.S.A., about 60 m. E.N.E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1890), 4986; (1900), 5935 (910 foreign-born); (1905, state census), 6478; (1910), 6467. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Rutland (N.Y. Central Lines) railways. The village has a Memorial Park, Arsenal Green, on the site of an arsenal and parade-ground sold by the state in 1850, a state armoury, the Northern New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, Franklin Academy, St Joseph's Ursuline Academy, and a detention-house for Chinamen entering the state from Canada. From Malone tourists visit the Great North Woods, in the Adirondack foothills, about 15 m. distant. Iron ore and Potsdam sandstone are found near Malone. In the surrounding region hops, potatoes, &c., are grown, and there are dairying and livestock interests. The village is a centre for the collection of hides and pelts. It manufactures woollen goods, paper and pulp, &c., and has foundry and machine shops and car repair shops. Malone, being on the line of communication between lakes Champlain and Ontario, was of strategic importance in the war of 1812, and later was twice the rendezvous of Fenians for attacks on Canada. The township of Malone was settled and erected from Chateaugay in 1805. The village was first known as Harison, was named Ezraville, in honour of Ezra L'Hommedieu, in 1808, received its present name in 1812, and was incorporated in 1853.

MALONIC ACID, C3H4O4 or CH2(COOH)2, occurs in the form of its calcium salt in the sugar beet. It was first prepared in 1858 by V. Dessaignes, who obtained it by oxidizing malic acid (_Ann._, 1858, 107, p. 251). It may also be obtained by oxidizing allylene and propylene with cold potassium permanganate solution, by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid (malonyl urea) with alkalis (A. Baeyer, _Ann._, 1864, 130, p. 143); by the hydrolysis of cyanacetic acid (H. Kolbe, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 349; H. Muller, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 352), and by the action of silver oxide on [beta]-di-chloracrylic ester at 125° C. (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1878, 193, P. 25)

CCl2:CH·COOC2H5 + Ag2O + H2O =
2AgCl + HOOC·CH2·COOC2H5.

It crystallizes in monoclinic tables, and is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. The acid melts at 132° C., and at a higher temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and carbon dioxide. When heated with bromine and water to 100° C. it forms tribromacetic acid, some bromoform being produced at the same time. Malonic acid, as well as its esters, is characterized by the large number of condensation products it can form. In the presence of a dehydrating agent (such as acetic anhydride), it combines with aldehydes to form compounds of the type R·CH:C(COOH)2, or their decomposition products (formed by loss of CO2) R·CH:CH·COOH.

Many salts of the acid are known and, with the exception of those of
the alkali metals, they are difficultly soluble in water. Many esters
of malonic acid have been prepared, the most important being the
_diethyl ester_ (_malonic ester_), CH2(COOC2H5)2, which is obtained by
dissolving monochloracetic acid in water, neutralizing the solution
with potassium carbonate, and then adding potassium cyanide and
warming the mixture until the reaction begins. When the reaction has
finished, the whole is evaporated and heated to about 130°-140° C. and
then allowed to cool. The mass is then covered with two-thirds of its
weight of alcohol, and saturated with hydrochloric acid gas. The whole
is then poured into ice-cold water, extracted by ether and the
ethereal solution distilled (L. Claisen, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 131).
It is a colourless liquid boiling at 197°.7-198°.2 C. (W. H. Perkin).
It is a most important synthetic reagent; with sodium or sodium
ethylate it forms sodio-malonic ester, which reacts readily with alkyl
halides, forming alkyl malonic esters, which are again capable of
forming sodium derivatives, that by further treatment with alkyl
halides yield the di-alkyl malonic esters. These esters are readily
hydrolysed and yield the mono- and di-alkyl malonic acids which, on
heating, are readily decomposed, with evolution of carbon dioxide and
the formation of mono- and di-alkyl acetic acids. The scheme of
reactions is shown thus:

R´I
CH2(COOR)2 --> CHN_a (COOR)2 --> CHR´(COOR)2
| NaOH
\/
CO2 + CH2R´·COOH <-- CHR´(COOH)2
R´´I
[CHR´(COOH)2NaOH --> CNaR´(COOR)2 --> CR´R´´(COOR)2
|
\/ NaOH
CO2 + CHR´R´·COOH <-- CR´R´´(COOH)2

When sodio-malonic ester is heated to 145° C., it undergoes
condensation, with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene
derivative, _phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester_. The addition of urea
to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the
formation of barbituric acid (A. Michael, _Jour. pr. Chem._, 1887 [2],
35, p. 456) The half nitrile of malonic acid is _cyanacetic acid_,
CN·CH·2 COOH, which, in the form of its ester, may be obtained by the
action of a solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid. The
solution obtained is neutralized, concentrated on the water-bath,
acidified by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. It is then
converted into the lead salt, which is decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen and the solution is carefully concentrated (Th. Meves,
_Ann._, 1867, 143, p. 201). It melts at 70° C. and at higher
temperatures decomposes, with evolution of carbon dioxide and
formation of aceto-nitrile, CH3·CN. The true nitrile of malonic acid
is _methylene cyanide_, CH2(CN)2, which is obtained by distilling a
mixture of cyanacetamide and phosphorus pentoxide. It is a crystalline
solid, which melts at 29°-30° C. and boils at 218°-219° C., and is
readily soluble in alcohol and ether.

MALORY, SIR THOMAS, translator and compiler of the famous English classic, the _Morte d'Arthur_. Previous to the publication of Professor Kittredge's monograph, _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ the identity of this writer remained an unsolved problem. Mr. Sidney Lee, in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, was compelled to admit that he could find no one of that name fulfilling the necessary conditions. Of direct evidence we have very little; in the concluding passage of the book the author asks the prayers of the reader for "Syr Thomas Maleore knyght," and states that the book was ended "the ix. yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth." Caxton, in his preface, says that he printed the book "after a copye unto me delivered whyche copye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of certeyn bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe"; in his colophon he repeats this statement, adding that he himself is responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters, and that it was printed in 1485. It will be noted that Caxton does not say that he received the book from Malory, only that he had received a copy made by Malory; from this Professor Kittredge draws the conclusion that the compiler was no longer living. The problem then is to find a Thomas Malory who was (a) a knight, (b) alive in the ninth year of King Edward IV. (Mar. 4, 1469-Mar. 3, 1470), and (c) who was no longer living in July (or June) 1485.

All these conditions Professor Kittredge finds fulfilled in the life of Sir Thomas Malory, knight, of Newbold Revell (or Fenny Newbold), M.P. for Warwickshire in 1445. The date of Sir Thomas's birth is uncertain, but he succeeded his father, Sir John, in 1433 or 1434. Previously to this he had served in France, in the retinue of the earl of Warwick, most probably during the time that that nobleman held the office of captain of Calais. It seems probable that he is also to be identified with a "Thomas Malorie, miles," who in 1468 was, on account of the part played by him in the Wars of the Roses, excluded with several others from the operation of a pardon issued by Edward IV. As, however, on the death of Sir Thomas on the 14th of March 1470, there was no difficulty as to inheritance, his estates passing to his grandson, he must, if this identification be correct, have come under the general amnesty of 1469. It will be seen, therefore, that so far as it is in our power to state the question this Sir Thomas Malory fulfils all the necessary conditions.

It is interesting to note that the career of the earl of Warwick in France was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric features which might well impress the imagination of a young retainer. John Rous, in his _Life of Richard Earl of Warwick_, tells us that at a certain tourney held near Calais at Christmastide, Earl Richard appeared three days running in different armour, overthrowing his adversary on each occasion--an exploit obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of the period.

The work with which Malory's name is connected is an abridged compilation of the great body of Arthurian romance in its latest form. The _Merlin_ (Vulgate and Suite), _Tristan_, _Lancelot_, _Queste_ and _Mort Artus_ are all represented, the only branch omitted is that dealing with the "early history" of the Grail, the _Joseph of Arimathea_ and _Grand S. Graal_. Thanks mainly to the labours of Dr Oskar Sommer, we can now assign the majority of the books to their separate sources, although certain stories, such as the adventures of Sir Gareth under the pseudonym of Beaumains, the handling of Sir Urre of Hungary, and the details of the abduction of Guenevere by Meleagaunt, still remain unidentified. But we do not yet know whether Malory himself was responsible for this selection, or whether he found it ready to hand in a MS., the "Frensshe Booke" to which he often refers. To make such a compilation at first hand, considering the extent of the ground covered, would involve an enormous amount of study and selection, and the access to a very large library--conditions which scarcely seem to fit in with the social position and activities of Sir Thomas. On the other hand it is undeniable that the medieval copyists, at the instance of their patrons, did make compilations from the various romances within their reach, such as e.g. the enormous codex 112 (_fonds Franç._) of the Bibliothèque Nationale, which includes large sections of the _Tristan_, the _Lancelot_, and the _Merlin_ Suite. Taking into consideration alike what Malory retains and what he omits, it seems most probable that he was in possession, not of complete copies of the romances, but of one or more volumes of compilations from these sources.

From the point of view of matter it must be admitted that the _Morte d' Arthur_ does not represent the Arthurian cycle at its best, but rather in the period of its decadence; nor does Malory in any way endeavour to overcome the difficulties caused by the juxtaposition of a number of independent (and often contradictory) versions. This is especially noticeable in his treatment of Gawain; in the section derived from the _Lancelot_ and _Mort Artus_ he is a good and valiant knight, "a ful noble knyghte as ever was borne," in those derived from the _Tristan_ and the _Queste_, he is treacherous, dissolute, and a murderer of good knights.

The great charm of Malory's work lies in his style; stately, earnest and dignified, it has lent to the relations between Lancelot and Guenevere a character of truth and vitality in which the French original is wholly lacking. Malory achieved a remarkable feat--he took the Arthurian story in its worst and weakest form and he imparted to it a moral force and elevation which the cycle, even in its earlier and finer stage, had, save in the unique case of Von Eschenbach's _Parzival_, never possessed. While genuine lovers of the Arthurian cycle must regret that the romances should only be known to the great majority of English readers through the versions of Malory and Tennyson, it is impossible to withhold from the _Morte d' Arthur_ the admiration due to an imperishable monument of English language and literature.

See _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ G. L. Kittredge (_Harvard Studies and
Notes_, vol. v., 1896); _Morte d' Arthur_, ed. by Dr Oskar Sommer (an
exact reproduction of the original text in 2 vols.)--vol. iii. a study
on "_The Sources of Malory._" The sections on _Lancelot_ and _Queste_
are unfortunately very inadequate; for these cf. _The Legend of Sir
Lancelot_, Grimm Library, vol. xii. (J. L. W.)

MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830-1907), French novelist and man of letters, the son of a notary, was born at La Bouille (Seine Inférieure) on the 20th of May 1830. He studied law at Rouen and Paris, but literature early absorbed his attention. He collaborated in the _Biographie générale_ of Didot, became literary critic of _L'Opinion Nationale_, and dramatic critic of the _Lloyd français_. He is the author of a long series of popular novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of domestic novels entitled _Victimes d'amour_ (1859, 1865, 1866); _Un Beau frère_ (1869); _Madame Obernin_ (1870); _Le Docteur Claude_ (1879); _Justice_ (1889). _Les Aventures de Romain Kalbris_ (1869) and _Sans famille_ (1888) are excellent stories for children. A complete edition of Hector Malot's works appeared in 1894-1897. He died at Vincennes in July 1907.

MALOU, JULES ÉDOUARD XAVIER (1810-1886), Belgian statesman, one of the leaders of the clerical party, was born at Ypres on the 19th of October 1810. He was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841, and was for some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was minister of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844, and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846, which was overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou then became a member of the senate, and his party only regained ascendancy in 1870. The extreme clerical ministry of Baron d'Anethan retired in December 1871 after serious rioting in Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not the nominal, head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de Theux and Aspremont-Lynden (1870-1878). He was wise enough to disavow the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the German victims of the _Kulturkampf_, and, retaining in his own hands the portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful administration in commercial matters, including a development of the railway system. It was only after the fall of the ministry in 1878 that he adopted a frankly clerical policy, and when he became chief of a new government in June 1884 he proceeded to undo the educational compromise of his predecessors in the Frère-Orban ministry. His legislation in favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and in October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs and Woeste, the members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly directed. Malou followed them into retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint Lambert, in Brabant, on the 11th of July 1886. He was a financier of great knowledge and experience, and his works (of which a long list is given in Koninck's _Bibliographie nationale de Belgique_) include three series (1874-1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited by him for the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on railroad proposals, mining and other practical questions. His brother Jean Baptiste Malou (1809-1864) was a well-known divine.

MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814), French publicist and politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 11th of February 1740, the son of a lawyer. He entered the civil service and was employed successively at the French embassy in Lisbon, in the administrative department of the duc de Broglie's army, as commissary in San Domingo from 1767-1774, and, after his return to France, as commissary-general of the marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of colonization in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his return to France he was well received at court, and the execution of his plans in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of the port of Toulon, and in 1789 was returned to the states-general, where he soon became well known as a defender of the monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in September, 1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to return to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to his position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as commissioner-general and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works, and the creation of a fleet. He entered the council of state in 1810, but, having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced in 1812. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine; and he died on the 7th of September 1814.

The most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are
a _Collection de ses opinions à l'Assemblée Nationale_ (3 vols.,
1791-1792); and _Collection de mémoires et correspondances officielles
sur l'administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane française
et hollandaise_ (5 vols., 1802).

MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694), Italian physiologist, was born at Crevalcuore near Bologna, on the 10th of March 1628. At the age of seventeen he began the study of philosophy; it appears that he was also in the habit of amusing himself with the microscope. In 1649 he started to study medicine; after four years at Bologna he graduated there as doctor. He at once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university, but it was not till after three years (1656) that his request was granted. A few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical medicine at Pisa, where he enjoyed the friendship and countenance of G. A. Borelli. At the end of four years he left Pisa, on the ground of ill-health, and returned to Bologna. A call to be professor primarius at Messina (procured for him through Borelli, who had in the meantime become professor there) induced him to leave Bologna in 1662. His engagement at Messina was for a term of four years, at an annual stipend of 1000 scudi. An attempt was made to retain him at Messina beyond that period, but his services were secured for his native university, and he spent the next twenty-five years there. In 1691, being then in his sixty-fourth year, and in failing health, he removed to Rome to become private physician to Pope Innocent XII., and he died there of apoplexy three years later, on the 30th of November 1694. Shortly before his death, he drew up a long account of his academical and scientific labours, correspondence and controversies, and committed it to the charge of the Royal Society of London, a body with which he had been in intimate relations for more than twenty years. The autobiography, along with some other posthumous writings, was published in London in 1696, at the cost of the Society. The personal details left by Malpighi are few and dry. His narrative is mainly occupied with a summary of his scientific contributions and an account of his relations to contemporary anatomists, and is entirely without graces of style or elements of ordinary human interest.

Malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study of
animal and vegetable structure; and his discoveries were so important
that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic anatomy. It
was his practice to open animals alive, and some of his most striking
discoveries were made in those circumstances. Although Harvey had
correctly inferred the existence of the capillary circulation, he had
never seen it; it was reserved for Malpighi in 1661 (four years after
Harvey's death) to see for the first time the marvellous spectacle of
the blood coursing through a network of small tubes on the surface of
the lung and of the distended urinary bladder of the frog. We are
enabled to measure the difficulties of microscopic observation at the
time by the fact that it took Malpighi four years longer to reach a
clear understanding of the corpuscles in the frog's blood, although
they are the parts of the blood by which its movement in the
capillaries is made visible. His discovery of the capillary
circulation was given to the world in the form of two letters _De
Pulmonibus_, addressed to Borelli, published at Bologna in 1661 and
reprinted at Leiden and other places in the years following; these
letters contained also the first account of the vesicular structure of
the human lung, and they made a theory of respiration for the first
time possible. The achievement that comes next both in importance and
in order of time was a demonstration of the plan of structure of
secreting glands; against the current opinion (revived by F. Ruysch
forty years later) that the glandular structure was essentially that
of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion exuded, he
maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal acini standing in
open communication with the ducts. The name of Malpighi is still
associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous character of the
lower stratum of the epidermis, of the vascular coils in the cortex of
the kidney, and of the follicular bodies in the spleen. He was the
first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain, and his descriptions
of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-tracts in the
cord, with their extensions to the cerebrum and cerebellum, are
distinguished by accuracy; but his microscopic study of the grey
matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular structure
and that it secreted the "vital spirits." At an early period he
applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction to the more
difficult study of the animal tissues, and he was acquainted with the
spiral vessels of plants in 1662. It was not till 1671 that he wrote
his _Anatome plantarum_ and sent it to the Royal Society, who
published it in the following year. An English work under a similar
title (_Anatomy of Vegetables_) had been published in London a few
months earlier, by Nehemiah Grew; so that Malpighi's priority as a
vegetable histologist is not so incontestable as it is in animal
histology. The _Anatome plantarum_ contained an appendix,
_Observations de ovo incubato_, which gave an account (with good
plates) of the development of the chick (especially of the later
stages) in many points more complete than that of Harvey, although the
observations were needlessly lessened in value by being joined to the
metaphysical notion of "praedelineation" in the undeveloped ovum.

He also wrote _Epistolae anatomicae Marc. Malpighii et Car.
Fracassati_ (Amsterdam, 1662) (on the tongue, brain, skin, omentum,
&c.); _De viscerum structura: exercitatio anatomica_ (London, 1669);
_De structura glandularum conglobatarum_ (London, 1689); _Opera
posthuma, et vita a seipso scripta_ (London, 1697; another edition,
with preface and additions, was published at Amsterdam in 1700.). An
edition containing all his works except the last two was published in
London in 1687, in 2 vols. folio, with portrait and plates.

MALPLAQUET, a village of France in the department of the Nord, close to the Belgian frontier and about 10 miles S. by E. of Mons, famous as the scene of the battle, September 1709, between the Allies under the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène and the French commanded by Marshal Villars, in which the former were victorious. The country to the west and south of Mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods and broken ground, through which there are only two important gaps--that of Jemappes (famous in 1792) to the west, and that of Aulnois, in which stands the village of Malplaquet, to the south. In the latter gap and the woods on either side Villars took up his position facing north-eastwards, on August 29/September 9. The forces in presence, over 90,000 on each side, were exceptionally large, and the French army in particular represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in the armies of that time. Villars was the best general in the service of Louis XIV. and the veteran Marshal Boufflers, though senior to him, had volunteered to serve as his second in command. Marlborough and Eugène lay with their army between Mons and the French camps, which were almost within cannon shot. Marlborough's own wish was for an immediate battle, but he was opposed by the Dutch deputies at his headquarters, and even by Eugène, so that it was only on August 31/September 11 that the attack actually took place. Villars had made full use of his respite. The French right stood at the fringe of the wood of Lanière, the left was strongly posted in the midst of the wood of Taisnière, and across the two and a half miles of open ground between the woods the position was entrenched with several successive lines of works. The troops were almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual, and the cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry. In the Allied army the mounted troops were also kept back, but for the most part distributed to the various infantry commands.

The intention of Marlborough and Eugène, when on the morning of the battle they examined this formidable position, was to deliver the main attack upon the French left wing, combining the assaults of several columns on its front and flanks. In this quarter the French not only held the interior of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to occupy the edges of its north-eastern salient, and upon the two faces of this salient Count Lottum (1650-1719) with the Prussians, and Count von der Schulenburg (1661-1747) with the Austrian infantry were to deliver a double attack, while farther to the Allied right a column under the English General Withers was detached to make a wide turning movement through the woods. Marlborough took command on the right, Eugène on the left. The centre, which was intended only to observe the enemy until the decision had been forced at the wood of Taisnière, consisted of Lord Orkney's British corps and the prince of Orange's Dutch contingent. These extended across the Trouée d'Aulnois as soon as the combined attack of Lottum and Schulenburg opened. The general advance was covered by a heavy cannonade, and the salient of the Taisnière wood was duly attacked on its two faces by the Prussians and Austrians about 9 a.m. They encountered a sterner resistance than in any of the battles and combats of the past seven campaigns, for on this field the defenders were fighting, not as hitherto for the interests of their king, but to defend their country, and the regiments of Picardie and Champagne which held the salient were the oldest and most famous of the French line. Lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge, again and again without success, until three British battalions had to be sent to reinforce him, and Marlborough placed himself with a corps of cavalry in close support. At last the entrenchments were stormed. Schulenburg, with the Austrians, had by this time fought his way through the woods and undergrowth, and the united force pressed back the French farther and farther into the wood. Still, so stubborn was the defence and so dense the wood that the impetus of the assault died away and the troops on both sides broke up into small disconnected bodies, fighting too fiercely to be amenable to superior control.

But the French were not reinforced from their right wing as Villars expected. The prince of Orange, far from merely observing the hostile right as he had been ordered to do, committed his corps, very early in the battle, to a serious assault upon it, which Boufflers repulsed with enormous loss. The Dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on this day, and the memory of Malplaquet was strong even at Fontenoy nearly forty years afterwards. Some Hanoverian troops which took part in this futile attack suffered equally heavily. The only advantage to the Allies--an advantage which, as it happened, counted for much--was that Boufflers did not dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left wing. Thanks to this the Austrians and Prussians, with the English detached to their aid, made steady progress in the wood of Taisnière. Villars launched the "Irish brigade" to check the advance of the Allies, and this famous corps charged into the forest. Villars, Eugène and Marlborough personally led their troops in the encounter which followed. Eugène was wounded, but refused to quit the field. Villars was more seriously hurt, and after trying in vain to direct the fighting from a chair was carried insensible from the field. At this crisis General Withers, who commanded the force that had been ordered to turn the French extreme left, and had fought his way through the forest, appeared on the scene. The British 18th regiment (Royal Irish), encountering the French _Royal Irlandais_, put it to the rout, and Villars's counterstroke was at an end. The French maintained themselves on this side only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right, and this gave the Allied centre the opportunity which the prince of Orange had so rashly anticipated. The great attack over the open was carried out, in spite of the previous repulse, with the greatest determination. Preceded by forty guns, the corps of the prince of Orange and Lord Orkney swiftly carried the first line of works. The Allied cavalry then pushed out to the front, and horse, foot and artillery were combined in the last advance. Boufflers's cavalry masses, coming into play for the first time, fought hard, and the struggle fluctuated with the arrival of successive reserves on either side, but in the end, shortly before 3 p.m., Boufflers (who had been in command since Villars's fall) decided to retreat. The Allies had no troops left intact for the pursuit, and those engaged had expended their last efforts. Moreover Boufflers, experienced soldier as he was, drew off his men before they had lost their order and discipline.

Thus this "very murdering battle" as Marlborough called it--the last and greatest pitched battle of the war--was almost barren of results. The Allies lost not less than twenty thousand men, or nearly a quarter of the whole force, the thirty battalions of the Dutch infantry losing half their numbers. On the French side there were some twelve thousand casualties. If further evidence were necessary to prove that the French fought their hardest, it could be found in the fact that whereas in almost every other battle, from 1660 to 1792, there were deserters and prisoners by the thousand, at Malplaquet only 500 of the French fell into the hands of the victors unwounded.

MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which separates it from Saarbrücken. Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies in the midst of an important coal-mining and industrial district, and is itself little more than a long and narrow row of manufactories and workmen's houses. The largest factories are engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is a large wharf on the river for the export of coal.

Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however, were
afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbrücken, and in 1818
Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint population
of only about 800. About the middle of the century the population
began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the development of the
mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway
system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to form a town.

MALT (O. Eng., _mealt_; O. Sax., _malt_; O. Teut., _maltos_; Mod. Ger., _Malz_; Scand., _malt_; probably derived from the Sanskrit _mrdu_, soft, thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft or tender), the name given to grain in which germination has been caused to proceed to a certain stage and has then been arrested by the removal of water and the application of heat. During this limited germination enzymes are developed (see FERMENTATION), and the constituents of the grain modified so that the finished malt, when ground and submitted to the mashing process (see BREWING), differs from the original raw grain in that the greater portion dissolves. This solubility is, however, a direct one to a slight extent only; it is due for the most part to the action of the malt enzymes, diastase, &c. on the constituents of the grain, the main portion of which are of themselves insoluble. Thus starch, the main constituent of all graminaceous seeds, probably exists in the same condition in raw grain and in malt. When however the malt is mashed, the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase, and converted by the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds, e.g. the crystalline sugar, maltose, and a number of gummy substances known as maltodextrins. But to a certain extent starch and other carbohydrate substances are rendered directly soluble and diffusible during the malting process, some of the products serving the respiratory needs of the growing germ, others being assimilated by the plantlet and reconverted into reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and rootlets, whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the finished malt. Similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of the grain, the proteïns, are broken down and rendered soluble by proteolytic enzymes, the products being assimilated to a certain extent by the germ and rootlets, by the cells of which they are again built up into complex proteïns, whilst others remain in their simplified form. It is now known that proteolytic enzymes exist in finished malt, and that, when the mashing process is conducted under certain conditions, these are able to degrade and render soluble some of the higher proteïns present in the malt. When germination is allowed to proceed as it does when the grain is planted in the soil, the whole of the contents are rendered soluble by degrees and in turn assimilated by the growing plantlet. By the limited germination which constitutes the malting process, however, the balance of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from 15 to 25% of the total weight of the corn.

Although other seeds of the natural order Gramineae are occasionally malted, the greater portion of malt is made from the various species of _Hordeum_, known by the name of barley (q.v.), bigg, or bere. Indeed ordinary beer derives its characteristic flavour to the greatest extent from barley malt. A small proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is sometimes used in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of beer, whilst rye, maize, and even rice are occasionally malted. Barley is, however, the grain best adapted for making malt intended for brewing beer, and accordingly some space will be devoted to a description of those varieties of this grain which are used by the brewer.

Barley belongs to the genus Hordeum, of which there are numerous species and varieties. Linnaeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species of cultivated barleys, but modern botanists usually consider all cultivated barleys as belonging to one species to which the name _H. sativum_ has been given. Körnicke regards _H. spontaneum_, a very long thin-grained two-rowed barley (see below) which grows in the East, as being the parent form; but E. S. Beaven inclines to the view that wild species of more than one form were originally used as food and subsequently cultivated. The last-named author has drawn up a scheme of classification for the varieties and races of cultivated barleys.

FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4.

/ FIG. 1.--_H. hexastichum._
| a. Three spikelets _in situ_ on the rachis, showing short
| internodes.
| b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost, and with lower awns
| removed.
Six-rowed< c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost, and with lower awns
barleys. | removed.
| FIG. 2.--_H. vulgare._
| a. Three spikelets _in situ_ on the rachis, showing long
| internodes.
| b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost.
\ c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost.

/ FIG. 3.--_H. zeocriton._
| a, d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing short internodes.
| b. Var. _zeocrithum_ (fan barley). Spike converging.
Two-rowed< c. Var. _erectum_ (Goldthorpe). Spike parallel.
barleys. | FIG. 4.--_H. distichum._
| a. d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing long internodes.
| b. Var. _nutans_ (Chevallier).
\ c. Ouchak barley.

Figures 1-4 redrawn from a paper by E. S. Beaven in _Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing_ (1902), 8. 542.]

In an ear of barley the primary axis or rachis is divided into internodes of which there may be any number up to forty. Each internode bears three single-flowered spikelets arranged alternately on either side of the rachis. In the six-rowed varieties the whole of these spikelets attain maturity, whilst in the two-rowed varieties only one on each side of the rachis, viz. the median, develops. British beer is brewed principally from the malt made from home-grown two-rowed barleys. Of late years, however, it has been found advantageous to employ a proportion of malt made from the thinner and more husky foreign barleys, mostly six-rowed varieties. The corns of two-rowed barleys are as a rule plumper than those of six-rowed barleys.

The most favourite barley for malting purposes grown in the United
Kingdom is the narrow-eared two-rowed _H. distichum_, commonly known
as Chevallier, from the name of the original cultivator, the Rev. John
Chevallier. Of late years the quantity of barley of the so-called
Goldthorpe type (_H. zeocriton_), used for malting, has increased. The
paleae or outer coverings of the corns of this variety are somewhat
"greasy" in appearance, and do not adhere so closely to the corn as in
the Chevallier. The corns of Goldthorpe barley possess a small dimple
or transverse furrow near the basal end. Further the basal bristle or
rachilla (the prolongation of the axis or point from which the corn
was originally developed) is invariably covered with long hairs,
whilst in the case of Chevallier it has generally very short hairs. In
the variety of Chevallier known as Archer, however, the rachilla has
somewhat long hairs. Further the corns of Chevallier barley lie nearly
vertical, that is almost parallel to the rachis, whereas in Goldthorpe
they are spread out at a greater angle, hence the name fan or peacock
barley given to that variety commonly known as sprat. It is believed
by some brewers that Goldthorpe barleys never yield malt of so high a
quality as do Chevallier barleys. On the other hand, when well
matured, Goldthorpes work evenly and freely on the malting floors; and
from an agricultural point of view they have the advantage of standing
up better against unfavourable weather conditions on account of their
stouter straws. Numerous fresh varieties of barley are continually
being introduced as a result of artificial cross-fertilization, but
cross-fertilization rarely if ever occurs naturally.

Hungarian two-rowed barleys are excellent as regards quality, and
command a high price. The so-called Californian Chevallier and Chilean
Chevallier contain a certain admixture of the six-rowed _H. vulgare_.

Of the imported thin barleys may be mentioned Brewing Californian,
Brewing Chilean, Danubian and Smyrna (Yerli), all for the most part
six-rowed varieties; also Ouchak, consisting principally of a
two-rowed variety. For the manufacture of grain spirit a malt of high
diastatic activity is required, and this is largely made from a very
thin barley shipped from Odessa.

In the common six-rowed English barley or Scottish bere (_H.
vulgare_), the two lateral rows of spikelets springing from one side
of the rachis, either partially or entirely intersect and overlap the
alternate lateral spikelets which spring from the opposite side of the
rachis. This has given rise to the term "four-rowed barley." Figs. 1-4
show some typical barleys in the ear.

The production of new varieties by cross-fertilization has of late
years attained a degree of almost mathematical precision by the
application of the law of inheritance first discovered by Gregor
Mendel in 1865, and brought to light in 1901 independently by de
Vries, Correns and Tschermak.

_Constitution of Barley._--A grain of barley is shuttle-shaped; the end containing the germ which was originally attached to the rachis is known as the proximal end, whilst the opposite end of the corn is called the distal end. A deep furrow runs down the more convex side, which is accordingly denoted the ventral side, the opposite side being distinguished as the dorsal side. Within the ventral furrow at the proximal end is the rachilla already referred to. The skin or husk of a barleycorn consists of two paleae, one adhering to the dorsal side (the palea inferior) and the other to the ventral side (the palea superior); the former overlaps the edges of the latter. The awn or beard is merely an elongation of the palea inferior. If the two paleae are removed from a barleycorn after soaking it in water, it will be seen that there are other skins completely enveloping the embryo and endosperm. These are the true skins, and are known as the pericarp and the testa respectively. It may here be mentioned that A. J. Brown has shown recently that the embryo and endosperm of a barleycorn are enclosed in a semi-permeable membrane, i.e. one which allows the passage of water to the interior of the corn, but not of certain salts and acids. This property appears to be associated with one of the layers of the testa. Next to these skins will be seen the triple layer of thick-walled square-shaped aleurone cells.

The histology of the barleycorn is best studied by the examination of sections under the microscope. The grain consists of two main portions, the embryo or germ, and the endosperm, the storehouse of reserve materials for the growing plant.

The accompanying illustrations show portions of longitudinal sections
of a barleycorn magnified to different degrees.