Chapter VIII: B.C. 27--A.D. 268. Period of Latest Decline of Art. The Empire

Augustus--Gallienus.

§ OF THE METALS OF WHICH COINS ARE

COMPOSED.

The coins of the ancients were of various metals, of which the following need only be specified.

1. _Gold_, distinguished in numismatic works by the abbreviation [AU] (for aurum).

2. _Electrum_, a compound of gold and silver. EL.

3. _Silver._ AR (argentum).

4. _Billon_ and _Potin_, alloys of silver and bronze. Bil. and Pot.

5. _Bronze._ Copper with a percentage of tin. Æ (æs).

§ OF THE TERMS USED TO DEFINE THE VARIOUS

PARTS OF A COIN.

The front or face of a coin is called the _obverse_. Obv.

The back is called the _reverse_. Rev.

The principal device or object represented on a coin is called the _type_.

The area or space between the type and the circumference is called the _field_.

The lower portion of the area of a coin beneath the type and separated from the rest of the field by a horizontal line is called the _exergue_. Ex.

Small objects represented either in the field or the exergue as adjuncts to the main type are called _symbols_.

Portions of a coin which are sunk below the level of the surface are said to be _incuse_.

§ OF THE TYPES OF GREEK COINS.

The types of Greek coins were from the earliest times down to the age of the successors of Alexander almost exclusively religious. The reason for this is not far to seek. In an age of simple faith the head of a god upon the coin was the best of all guarantees for purity of metal and good weight. The gods were, so to speak, invoked by the State to vouch for the good quality of its currency, in the same way as State decrees often began with the formula “_In the name of the gods_.” There is, moreover, some reason to think that the earliest coins were struck within the sacred precincts of the Temple treasuries, as being holy places, secure from plunder and inviolable.

In the most ancient period the principal or obverse type is generally some animal or object sacred to or emblematical of that god whose worship was prevalent in the city in which the coin was issued. Subsequently the head of the deity himself was usually placed upon the obverse of the coin, while the reverse side was occupied by the object emblematical of his worship. Frequently, too, the head of one principal deity appears upon the obverse, and, either the entire figure or the emblem of some other, generally local divinity, on the reverse.

The chief exceptions to the above rule are the so-called _agonistic types_, or types referring to the games such as the victorious quadriga on the money of various Sicilian cities. These types are commemorative in a general way of victories in the Olympian or other local games, but it is hardly ever possible to refer them to any particular victory.

Victories in war and political revolutions are never directly referred to on Greek coins, although the unintentional records of such events may often be traced in a sudden change of coin-types. Thus, for instance, at Syracuse when the Corinthians succeeded in liberating that city from the tyranny of the Dionysian dynasty, the coinage of Syracuse is for a time assimilated to that of Corinth; a still clearer indication of restored freedom at the same time (B.C. 345) being seen in the first introduction of the head of Zeus “the Liberator” upon the coins of Syracuse.

All through the history of free and independent Greece, the original idea of the religious character of the coinage may be traced. The coinage was everywhere placed under the auspices of the gods, and gods, heroes, and their emblems, were alone considered worthy to be represented upon it. No tyrant, however despotic, not even the great Dionysius of Syracuse, would have dreamed of placing his own head upon the coinage of the State. Even Philip of Macedon, when he had united in his single hand the whole of Northern Greece, and when he reorganized the coinage of his empire on a new model, placed on his gold money the head of Apollo and on his silver that of Zeus.

It was reserved for the successors of Alexander the Great, when the political centre of the Greek world was no longer to be found in Greece itself, but in the various capitals of the powerful semi-oriental monarchies which arose out of the ruins of the Persian empire--Alexandria, Antioch, etc.--it was reserved for these self-constituted kings and their descendants to substitute their own heads for those of the gods.

Such an innovation as this, such a complete upsetting of the ancient deeply rooted idea of the connection between the gods and the coinage could not be introduced all at once. It had to be effected by degrees. Alexander the Great even in his lifetime gave himself out as the son of Zeus Ammon, and after his death the idea of his divinity gained ground year by year. The first step towards the new fashion of placing the king’s head upon the coinage was made by Lysimachus of Thrace, who introduced on his money the portrait of the deified Alexander in the character of the son of Ammon with the ram’s horn over the ear.

Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt, the first of the dynasty which ruled Egypt for two centuries and a half after the death of Alexander, was the first monarch who placed his own head upon his coins. By slow degrees his example was followed, first in Asia and finally in Europe, where Philip V. of Macedon, B.C. 220, was the first king whose portrait in the character of a mortal, and not disguised as a demi-god, appears upon the coinage.

The influence of the old religious beliefs nevertheless maintained so firm a hold on men’s minds that the reverses of Greek coins continued to bear sacred types throughout the Roman Imperial period; and even on the money of the Byzantine emperors when Christianity had become the State religion, the figures of Christ and the Virgin, or the sign of the Cross, still bear witness that the same religious sanction in a new form continued to be invoked for the coin of the realm.

§ THE GODS AS REPRESENTED ON THE

COINAGE.

ZEUS (JUPITER). The head of this god is almost always bearded and
crowned with laurel or olive (Fig. 1). The youthful head called
Zeus Hellenios, on certain coins of Syracuse, is however
beardless, and but for the inscription which in this case
accompanies it, would be indistinguishable from a head of Apollo.

_Zeus Ammon_ (Fig. 2), frequent on coins of Cyrene, is
distinguished by the ram’s horn behind the ear. This god is
sometimes beardless.

The head of the Zeus of Dodona is represented with a wreath of
oak-leaves (Fig. 3).

The entire figure of Zeus appears in various attitudes, of which
the following are of most frequent occurrence:--

Zeus enthroned (Fig. 4), holding in one hand a sceptre, and in
the other an eagle or a victory.

Zeus standing, with eagle or victory.

Zeus advancing, with ægis on his arm and hurling his thunderbolt.

_Zeus Labrandeus_ on coins of Caria stands full draped, with the
double axe (Labrys) over his shoulder and a sceptre in his hand.

HADES (PLUTO), the king of the under world, resembles Zeus in type,
but is usually accompanied by Cerberus.

SERAPIS. The great Egyptian divinity of the Ptolemaic age is also very
like Zeus, but his head is always surmounted by a lofty modius (a
measure for corn), which is often richly ornamented.

APOLLO. The head of this god is more commonly met with on coins than
that of any other divinity. He is represented in full youthful
beauty, generally with flowing hair and almost always crowned
with laurel (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).

His full-length figure is variously delineated, usually naked,
with bow or laurel branch in his hand, either standing or seated,
often on the Delphian omphalos (Fig. 8), or else beside his
sacred tripod. When he wears a long robe reaching to the feet,
and carries a lyre, he is called Apollo Musegetes, the leader of
the Muses.

HELIOS (SOL). The Sun god is known by the rays which encircle his
head (Fig. 9). On coins of the Imperial period he is often seen
driving the chariot of the Sun.

POSEIDON (NEPTUNE). The head of this god much resembles that of Zeus,
but may usually be distinguished from it by the absence of the
laurel wreath, and by the heavy way in which the dank locks of
his hair fall about his neck (Figs. 10 and 11). Poseidon is
sometimes seated on rocks holding a trident and a dolphin or an
aplustre (Fig. 12).

Sometimes he stands resting on his trident, and sometimes he
wields it on high as if about to strike. Occasionally he is
seen on horseback armed with his trident. He is called _Poseidon
Hippios_ (Fig. 13).

DIONYSOS (BACCHUS). The head of Dionysos is either youthful or
bearded, and is encircled by a wreath of ivy (Figs. 14, 15, and
16). His full-length figure is usually naked, or with merely
a fawn skin hanging from his shoulder. He holds a wine cup
(kantharos), or a bunch of grapes or the Bacchic staff (thyrsus),
surmounted by a pine cone.

Sometimes he has bull’s horns growing from his forehead, and
on coins of Neapolis he appears as a bull with a human head
(_Dionysos Hebon_).

HERMES (MERCURY). The head of Hermes is youthful, and wears a hat
called a _petasus_ (Figs. 17 and 18), close fitting, sometimes
with a broad flapping brim and adorned with two wings.

When his entire figure is represented, he is usually clad in a
short cloak (_chlamys_), and has winged sandals (_pedilia_) on
his feet.

As the messenger of the gods and the conductor of the souls
of the dead, he carries the winged staff (_caduceus_), and
sometimes, as god of trade, a purse. HEPHÆSTUS (VULCAN).
This god is sometimes young and sometimes bearded. He wears
a conical hat (_pilos_), (Fig. 19). On coins of Lipara he is
generally seated naked on a four-legged stool, holding a hammer
in one hand and a cup (_kantharos_) in the other (Fig. 20). The
tongs and the anvil are also emblems of the worship of Hephæstus.

HERAKLES (HERCULES). The head of Herakles, youthful (Fig. 21), or
bearded (Fig. 22), is usually covered with the skin of the Nemean
Lion. Occasionally, however, he is simply laureate, and sometimes
the club at his shoulder is added as a distinctive symbol. On
reverses of coins, Herakles is represented performing his various
labours, most frequently contending with the Nemean Lion (Fig.
23). Sometimes also he is seen at rest, either standing and
leaning upon his club, or seated (Fig. 24). The infant Herakles
strangling two serpents is a less frequent type.

PAN. The head of Pan (Figs. 25, 26, and 27) has pointed ears, and is
either youthful or bearded. Sometimes also he has goat’s horns.
At his shoulder on many coins appears the shepherd’s crook
(_pedum_).

ARES (MARS). The head of Ares is of rare occurrence on coins. He is
usually bearded and helmeted, but sometimes young and crowned
with laurel like Apollo (Fig. 28), and when thus represented, as
on the Mamertine coin here engraved, his name was added in order
that there might be no mistake as to whose head was intended.

ASKLEPIOS (ÆSCULAPIUS). Representations of the god of healing belong
to a comparatively late period of art. He is bearded, amply
draped, and leans upon a staff, round which a serpent twines
(Fig. 29).

He is sometimes accompanied by his daughter _Hygieia_, the goddess
of health, or by a small figure enveloped in a cloak and hood,
who is called _Telesphorus_, and is supposed to be the genius of
convalescence.

RIVER GODS. Rivers are represented during the earlier and finer
periods of art as rushing bulls or as bulls with human heads
(Fig. 30), or again as young male figures with bull’s horns over
the forehead (Fig. 31).

In the later period the conventional River god is a bearded
reclining figure, generally half-draped, resting upon an
overturned vase from which a stream of water is flowing (Fig.
32). Less frequently the god is shown as actually swimming in the
water.

THE DIOSCURI (CASTOR AND POLLUX) wear conical hats, each surmounted
by a star (Fig. 33 _a_). Sometimes they are seen standing side by
side with palm branches in their hands, but they are more often
represented on horseback (Fig. 33 _b_).

PERSEUS. The head of the hero Perseus (Fig. 34), the slayer of the
Gorgon Medusa (Fig. 35), wears a winged helmet, while at his
shoulders is sometimes seen the short sword or knife with a hook
at the back of the blade (_harba_).

§ THE GODDESSES AS REPRESENTED ON THE COINAGE.

HERA (JUNO). The head of Hera on coins usually wears a lofty circular
crown (_stephanos_) adorned with floral or other patterns (Figs.
36, 37). She also wears sometimes a crescent-shaped crown and a
veil, and has often a sceptre at her shoulder.

PALLAS ATHENE (MINERVA). The head of this goddess is helmeted.
Sometimes the helmet is of the Corinthian pattern (Fig. 38) and
sometimes of the Athenian (Fig. 39), often richly ornamented.

She is often seen in a fighting attitude, as _Pallas Promachos_
(Fig. 40), wielding a spear and holding before her a shield or
ægis. She is also very frequently seated with a victory in her
hand and her shield beside her. The shield of Pallas is usually
distinguished by the Gorgon’s head in the centre. The attributes
of this goddess are the owl and the olive.

DEMETER (CERES) AND PERSEPHONE (PROSERPINE). These two goddesses are
known by the corn wreath which they both wear. Demeter, the
mother (Fig. 41), is generally veiled; the daughter, Persephone,
seldom (Figs. 42, 43). The beautiful head on the well-known
Syracusan medallions (see _Frontispiece_), crowned with corn
leaves, is that of Persephone. This goddess often has a poppy
either in her hair or at her breast. The torch is a frequent
emblem, especially of Demeter.

ARTEMIS (DIANA). As the goddess of Nature in her wilder aspects,
Artemis carries a bow, and at her shoulder a quiver of arrows
(Figs. 44, 45). She is often accompanied by a dog or a stag. As
the Moon goddess, _Selene_, the crescent is her symbol. On late
coins of Ephesus she appears under a totally different aspect,
viz., as the embodiment of the nourishing, life-giving forces of
nature, symbolised by her many breasts.

APHRODITE (VENUS). On the coins of Eryx, in Sicily, the goddess of
love is seated fully draped, with Eros (Cupid) as a youth
(not a child, as in Roman art) standing before her, and with a
dove in her hand. On Imperial coins of Cnidu, the famous naked
Aphrodite by Praxiteles was represented. As the goddess of heaven
(_Aphrodite Urania_), she sits upon the globe (Fig. 46 _a_), her
head surmounted by the morning star, and holding in her hand a
sceptre. On the reverse of the same coin (Fig. 46 _b_) are seen
the sun, the moon, and the five planets.

CYBELE. “The mother of the gods” wears a turreted crown. Sometimes
she rides upon a lion, at other times she is seated on a throne
between two lions. The rabbit is also symbolical of her worship,
as an earth goddess.

ISIS. This Egyptian goddess is recognised by her peculiar head-dress,
consisting of a globe or disc flanked by two cow’s horns and
surmounted by two ostrich feathers. In her hand she often holds
the sistrum (a musical instrument). As Isis Pharia (a sea
goddess) she holds a sail.

NIKE (VICTORY). (Figs. 47, 48). This divinity is almost always winged,
and often flying (_see Frontispiece_). She usually carries a
wreath; and on coins of Alexander the Great a sort of mast with
a cross-yard (the stand for a trophy of arms). Sometimes she is
nailing armour to a trophy (Fig. 48).

§ SYMBOLS.

In addition to the principal type, whether of the obverse or of the reverse, there is generally to be seen on the coins of Greek states a subordinate adjunct device, which occupies some vacant space in the field of the coin. These additions to the main type are of two kinds:--

(1) Symbols connected more or less directly with the main type: such as the sacred olive branch on the coins of Athens, and the club and bow on Fig. 24. (2) Symbols having no connection whatever with the principal type; such as the small animal on Fig. 7.

The symbols of the 1st class are naturally limited in number and more or less constant accompaniments of the main type, to which they were intended to give greater precision and definiteness of meaning. Those of the 2nd class, on the other hand, might be varied very frequently on coins of one and the same series. There can be no doubt that such symbols were the distinctive badges or signets of one of the magistrates or moneyers under whose authority the coinage was issued. The frequency with which these personal symbols were varied corresponds with the duration of the term of office of the magistrate in question, whether annual or other.

On the regal coinages from the time of Philip of Macedon onwards, in cases where a uniform coinage was issued at many mints, an adjunct symbol was very generally placed in the field of the coin as a mint-mark designating the place of issue (_e.g._ the Trident on Fig. 4). It is frequently impossible to distinguish such local mint-marks from the personal signets of the officer entrusted by the king with the supervision of the currency.

§ INSCRIPTIONS.

The inscriptions on Greek coins may be divided into the following principal classes:--

(i.) The name of the people or state.
(ii.) The name of the chief of the state, whether tyrant or king.
(iii.) The name of a magistrate.
(iv.) The name of the engraver of the die.
(v.) A legend referring to the type.

The above are written sometimes at full length and sometimes in an abbreviated form, or in the form of a more or less complicated monogram.

Those of class i., when written in full, are usually in the genitive plural, _e.g._ ΣΤΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ (Frontispiece).

Those of class ii. are also in the genitive, _e.g._, ΒΑΣΙΛΑΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ (Fig. 8).

Those of class iii. are either in the nominative (as ΠΟΛΥΚΡΑΤΗΣ, Fig. 45) or the genitive; in the latter case frequently preceded by ΕΗΙ (Fig. 12), and often also accompanied by the title of the office as ἑφι Λυσιστῥατου ἁρχοντος, ἑφι στραθηγου Διονυσἱου.

Among the magistrates most frequently mentioned on Greek Imperial coins are the following:-- The Archon, the Strategos (Prætor), the Grammateus (Secretary), the Prytanis, the Tamias (Treasurer), the Archiereus and Hiereus (High Priest and Priest), the Asiarch, the Hypatos (Consul), and the Anthypatos (Proconsul), etc., etc.

Those of class iv. are in the genitive, except when accompanied by the verb (_e.g._ ΘΕΟΔΟΤΟΣ ΕΠΟΕΙ, for ἑποἱει). This class of inscriptions is usually in very minute characters.

Those of class v. are in the nominative, as ΖΕΥΣ ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΣ (Fig. 1), or genitive, as ΑΡΕΟΣ (Fig. 28).

The names of kings, even when unaccompanied by the title ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ, hold so conspicuous a position on the reverse of the coins, that it is easy to distinguish them from the names of less important monetary magistrates.

The names of eponymous magistrates, such as archons, etc., also occupy a very prominent place on the money of certain cities; such as Ephesus, for example.

The names of less important functionaries are written in an abbreviated form or even in monogram (Fig. 40), in which latter case it is almost always impossible to say what name was intended.

On coins of the later and especially of the Imperial period, the inscriptions are much more lengthy than on those of an earlier date.

§ OF THE METHOD OF DATING COINS.

Dates are not found on Greek coins before the age of Alexander the Great, and even after his time they are of rare occurrence, except on certain Asiatic series and on the money of Egypt. They are usually placed either in the field or the exergue of the coin.

Units. A. B. Γ. Δ. E. ς. Ζ. H. Θ.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Tens. I. Κ. Λ. Μ. Ν. Ξ. Ο. Π. κοππα

10. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. 80. 90.

Hundreds. P. Σ. Τ. Υ. Φ. Χ. Ψ. Ω. σαμπι

100. 200. 300. 400. 500. 600. 700. 800. 900.

They are sometimes preceded by the word ΕΤΟΥΣ, thus, ΕΤΟΥΣ ΡΚΔ = _Anno_ 124. On the coinage of Egypt, both under the Ptolemies and under the Roman Emperors, the character [L] is used instead of the word ΕΤΟΥΣ, thus, ΛΓ = _Anno_ 33. This character was probably an ancient Egyptian symbol meaning _year_, adopted into the Greek system of numeration for the sake of brevity. The following are a few of the many epochs or _æras_ according to which coins are dated:--

The Seleucid æra begins B.C. 312.
The Pompeian " B.C. 63.
The Cæsarian " B.C. 48 or 47.
The Augustan or Actian æra begins B.C. 31.

§ OF THE DENOMINATIONS OF GREEK COINS.

The unit of account in Greece was the _drachm_. The weight of the drachm was not everywhere identical. It ranged, as a rule, between about 55 and 95 grs. troy. For purposes of calculation it may be taken in a general way as the ancient equivalent of our modern shilling or franc.

Of the various standards of weight which prevailed in different parts of the Greek world, the _Attic standard_ was the most widely diffused. The weights of the various denominations, according to this standard, are as follows:--

The Talent = 405,000 grs. troy } not { = 6,000 drachms.
" Mina (1/60 of the Talent } coined {
= 6,750 grs. troy) } { = 100 drachms.
" Tetradrachm = 270 grs. troy = 4 drachms.
" Didrachm = 135 " " = 2 "
" Drachm = 67·5 " " = 1 "
" Tetrobol = 45 " " = 4 obols.
" Triobol = 33·75 " " = 1/2 drachm or 3 obols.
" Diobol = 22·5 " " = 2 obols.
" Trihemiobol = 16·8 " " = 1-1/2 obols.
" Obol = 11·25 " " = 1 obol.
" Hemiobol = 5·62 " " = 1/2 "
" Tetartemorion = 2·81 " " = 1/4 "

The other standards are the _Æginetic_ (drachm 97 grs.); the _Phœnician_ (drachm 56 grs.); the _Rhodian_ (drachm 60 grs.); the _Persian_ (drachm 88 grs.). The other denominations of the above standards may be easily got at by multiplying or dividing the drachms as in the Attic standard.

Larger denominations than the tetradrachm are rare, but octadrachms, decadrachms, etc., etc., occur at some towns. The unit in copper was called the _chalkous_; but its weight does not appear to have been definitely fixed like that of the silver drachm.

The Attic gold money was regulated according to the same standard of weight as the silver. The gold unit of account was, however, not the drachm, but the _stater_, as it was called, equivalent in weight to the didrachm, and in value to 20 drachms of silver.

As a rule, the denomination of a Greek coin can only be determined by weighing it. Marks of value occur, however, on the copper of Italy, Sicily, etc.; but these coins follow a system foreign to Greece proper (see below).

§ OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF A CABINET OF

GREEK COINS.

Greek coins are classified in all great collections in geographical order, as follows:--The towns under each province should be arranged alphabetically, for convenience of reference. We have only space here to mention a few of the principal cities:--

EUROPE.

_Provinces._ _Cities_, _Islands_, _Tribes_, _Kings_, _etc._
SPAIN.
Lusitania Emerita.
Bætica Carteia, Gades.
Tarraconensis Emporiæ, Osca, Rhoda, etc.
GAUL.
Aquitania Arverni.
Narbonensis Massilia, Nemausus.
Lugdunensis Lugdunum.
Belgica
BRITAIN. Atrebates, etc., Camulodunum.
ITALIA.
Etruria Populonia.
Umbria Tuder.
Picenum Hatria.
Vestini
Latium Roma.
Samnium Beneventum.
Frentani Larinum.
Campania Capua, Cumæ, Neapolis, Nola.
Apulia Arpi, Cælia, Teate, Venusia.
Calabria Brundusium, Tarentum.
Lucania Metapotum, Posidonia, Thurium, Velia.
Bruttii Croton, Locri, Rhegium, Terina.
SICILY. Agrigentum, Camarina, Gela, Himera,
Leontini, Messana, Naxos, Segesta, Selinus,
and Syracuse.
_Kings, etc., of_ Agathocles, Hicetas, Hiero II., Philistis,
Gelo, Hieronymus.
Siculo-Punic Solus, Motya, Panormus.
_Islands of Sicily_ Lipara, Sardinia.
TAURIC CHERSONESE Panticapæum.
SARMATIA Olbia, Tyra.
DACIA.
MŒSIA SUPERIOR Viminacium.
MŒSIA INFERIOR Istrus, Marcianopolis, Nicopolis, Tomi.
THRACE Abdera, Ænus, Byzantium, Maronea,
Perinthus, Philippopolis.
THRACIAN CHERSONESE Cardia, Cœla, Lysimachia.
_Kings of Thrace_ Seuthes, etc., Rhœmetalces, etc.
_Islands of Thrace_ Imbros, Lemnos, Samothrace, Thasos.
PÆONIA, _Kings_ Lycceius, Patraus, Audoleon.
MACEDON, _Cities_ Acanthus, Amphipolis, Chalcidice, Lete,
Neapolis, Pella, Philippi, Pydna, Thessalonica.
_Tribes_ Bisaltæ, Orrescii.
_Kings of_ Alexander I., Perdiccas II., Archelaus I.,
Amyntas III., Philip II., Alexander the
Great, Philip III., Cassander, Lysimachus,
Demetrius I., Antigonus I. and
II., Philip V., Perseus.
THESSALY Ænianes, Crannon, Larissa, Pharsalus,
Pheræ.
ILLYRICUM Apollonia, Dyrrachium.
EPIRUS Cassope, Damastium, Nicopolis.
_Island of_ Corcyra.
_Kings of_ Alexander I., Pyrrhus.
ACARNANIA Œniadæ, Thyrreum.
_Island of_ Leucas.

ÆTOLIA Federal coins.

LOCRIS Opus, Amphissa.

PHOCIS Delphi.

BŒOTIA Coronea, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Tanagra,
Thebes, Thespiæ.
ATTICA Athens, Eleusis.
_Islands of_ Eubœa (with its towns, Chalcis, Carystus,
Eretria, Histiæa), Salamis.
MEGARA.
ÆGINA.
ACHÆA Ægium, etc., Corinth, Patræ, Phlius, Sicyon.
ELIS Elis.
_Islands of Elis_ Cephallenia, Zacynthus.
MESSENIA Messene.
LACONIA Lacedæmon.
ARGOLIS Argos, Epidaurus, Trœzen.
ARCADIA Heræa, Megalopolis, Pheneus, Stymphalus.
CRETE Cnossus, Gortyna, Hierapytna, Phæstus.
ÆGEAN ISLANDS Ceos, Naxos, Siphnos, Syros, Tenos, etc.

ASIA.

_Provinces._ _Cities, Islands, Tribes, Kings, etc._
BOSPORUS Phanagoria.
COLCHIS Dioscurias.
PONTUS Amisus, Amasia, Trapezus.
_Kings of Pontus_ } Mithradates IV., Pharnaces I., Mithradates
_and Bosporus_ } VI. the Great, etc.
PAPHLAGONIA Amastris, Sinope.
BITHYNIA Chalcedon, Cius, Heraclea (Timotheus,
Dionysius, Amastris).
_Kings of_ Nicomedes I., II., and III., Prusias I., II.
MYSIA Cyzicus, Lampsacus, Pergamus.
_Kings of Pergamus_ Philetaerus, the Attalids.
TROAS Abydos, Alexandria, Troas, Ilium, Scepsis.
_Island of Troas_ Tenedos.
ÆOLIS Cyme, Myrina, Temnos.
_Islands of Æolis_ Lesbos (Methymna, Mytilene).
IONIA Clazomenæ, Colophon, Ephesus, Erythræ,
Magnesia, Miletus, Smyrna.
_Islands of Ionia_ Chios, Samos.
CARIA Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Stratonicæa.
_Kings of Caria_ Hecatomnus, Mausolus, Hidrieus, Pixodarus.
_Islands of Caria_ Calymna, Cos, Rhodes Ialysus, Camirus,
Lindus.
LYCIA Cragus, Myra, Patara, Phaselis, etc.
PAMPHYLIA Aspendus, Perga, Side.
PISIDIA Antiochia, Sagalassus, Selge.
ISAURIA AND LYCAONIA Iconium, etc.
CILICIA Celenderis, Mallus, Soli, Tarsus, etc.
CYPRUS Paphos, Salamis.
_Kings of Cyprus_ Baalmelek, Azbaal, Evagoras, Nicocles, etc.
LYDIA Sardes, Tralles, etc.
PHRYGIA Apamea, Cibyra, etc.
GALATIA Ancyra, Pessinus, etc.
_Kings of Galatia_ Amyntas, etc.
CAPPADOCIA Cæsarea, etc.
_Kings of Cappadocia_ Ariarathes, Ariobarzanes, etc.
ARMENIA, _Kings of_ Tigranes, Artavazdes, etc.
SYRIA, _Kings of_ Seleucus I. (Nicator), Antiochus I. (Soter),
Antiochus III. (the Great), etc., etc.
COMMAGENE Samosata, Zeugma.
CYRRHESTICA Berœa, Hierapolis.
CHALCIDENE Chalcis.
SELEUCIS and
PIERIA Antioch.
CŒLE-SYRIA Damascus, Heliopolis, Laodicea ad Libanum.
TRACHONITIS with
ITURÆA Cæsarea-Paneas.
DECAPOLIS Canatha, Gadara, Philadelphia, etc.
PHŒNICE Byblus, Marathus, Sidon, Tyre.
_Island of_ Aradus.
GALILÆA Ace (Ptolemais), Sepphoris (Diocæsarea),
Tiberias.
SAMARIA Cæsarea, Joppa, Sebaste.
JUDÆA Ælia Capitolina (Jerusalem), Ascalon, etc.
_Judæa, Kings of_ Simon Maccabæus, Alexander Jannæus,
Herod the Great, Agrippa, etc., etc.
ARABIA Bostra, Philippopolis.
MESOPOTAMIA Carrhæ, Edessa (_Kings_--Mannus, Abgarus,
etc.)
BABYLONIA,
_King of_ Timarchus.
ASSYRIA Niniva (Claudiopolis).
PARTHIA, _Kings of_ Arsaces I. and his Successors.
PERSIA, _Kings of_ Darius, the son of Hystaspes, Xerxes,
Artaxerxes, etc.
BACTRIANA and Sophytes, Diodotus, Euthydemus.
INDIA Demetrius, Eucratides, Heliocles, Euthydemus
_Kings of_ II., Pantaleon, Agathocles, Antimachus,
etc., etc.
CHARACENE,
_Kings of_ Tiræus, Artabazes, Attambilus, etc.

AFRICA.

_Provinces._ _Cities, Islands, Tribes, Kings, etc._
EGYPT, _The Ptolemaic_ { Ptolemy I. (Soter),--Ptolemy XIII. and
_Kings of_. { Cleopatra.
_Alexandria, Imperial_ M. Antony,--Galerius.
_The Nomes_.
CYRENAICA Cyrene, Barca.
SYRTICA Leptis Magna, Oea.
BYZACENE Hadrumetum, etc.
ZEUGITANA Carthage, Utica, etc.
NUMIDIA, _Kings of_ Jugurtha, etc.
MAURETANIA Bocchus I., Juba II., etc.

The above list, although an outline of the barest description, may serve to give some idea of the ground which is covered by a collection of Greek and cognate coins.

It will also serve to warn the young collector against buying in a miscellaneous manner.

Let him take up some particular province; say, for example, Sicily, in which there were some fifty towns which struck coins. He will soon find that the numismatics of these fifty towns will be a field for study which will amply reward him for the labour he bestows upon it.

§ OF THE PRICES OF GREEK COINS.

The prices which Greek coins fetch at sales depend upon their rarity, their state of preservation, and their size, not much upon the artistic or the historical interest, or upon the metal of which they are composed. Thus, a gold coin of Alexander the Great, being common, may be obtained almost at metal value, while a rare copper coin of some obscure town in the heart of Phrygia may cost almost as many pounds as the gold coin of Alexander does shillings.