Chapter II: Part 2

=Sweet Flag= (_Acorus calamus_ L.) “naˈ bûgûck” [something flat]. The root of Sweet Flag is a quick acting physic, supposed to act in half a day. Bearskin cautioned the writer that no more than one and a half inches was to be used, as more would make one ill, and even this much is quite harsh. The Pillager Ojibwe recognize the Sweet Flag under the name “weˈke”, which is the same word used by another tribe for the Yellow Water-lily, and by another for the Blue Flag. John Peper said that the root was used for curing a cold in the throat or for curing a cramp in the stomach. In earlier days, among the whites, slices were candied to create a more popular form of medication. It was formerly used among the white men as a tonic for dyspepsia and for correcting flatulent colic. It was also supposed to be beneficial as a mild stimulant in typhoid cases.

=Indian Turnip= (_Arisaema triphyllum_ [L.] Schott.), “cacaˈ gomîn.”[95] The root of Indian Turnip was said by John Peper, Bear Island Ojibwe, to be used in treating sore eyes, but he did not know how to use it. One wonders if the calcium oxalate crystals so firefull to the mouth lining were equally so to the delicate membranes of the eye.

Small doses of the partially dried root have been used by the white man in the treatment of chronic bronchitis, asthma, flatulent colic and rheumatism, certainly widely different maladies. The juice of the fresh corm in lard has been used by the white man as a local application to cure ringworm.

ARALIACEAE (GINSENG FAMILY)

=Wild Sarsaparilla= (_Aralia nudicaulis_ L.) “bebamabiˈ k” [root runs far through the ground]. The Flambeau Ojibwe recognize the root of this plant as a strong medicine, but do not steep it to make tea. The fresh root is pounded and applied as a poultice to bring a boil to a head or to cure a carbuncle. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the writer found two names applied to this, one of which he thinks to be a case of mistaken identification by the informant. “O kadak” [wild carrot] is more likely to refer to _Aralia racemosa_ though no specimens were found there. They used it under this name as a special squaw remedy for blood purification during pregnancy. The root was pounded in a mortar, then boiled in hot water. Under their name “waboˈ s ûskwe” [rabbit] the root was prepared the same way and the tea was used to cure a cough.

Among the white men, this root has the same properties and uses as the Indian Spikenard (_Aralia racemosa_); namely, stimulant, diaphoretic, and alterative.

=Ginseng= (_Panax quinquefolium_ L.) “_jîssêˈns._” Evidently the word they used was an attempt to pronounce the white man’s term for it. The writer was unable to discover any medical use made of it by the Ojibwe, though they gathered it assiduously for sale to the traders. Their method of gathering was a thoughtful one. Although they undoubtedly recognized it in any stage of growth, they only gathered the root when the red berries were mature, but before they were ready to drop. Into the hole from whence the root came, they would thrust the whole fruiting top, and carefully firm the soil upon it. Knowing the location well, they would revisit the place in three to five years and find more roots than they harvested in the first instance.

According to our pharmacopoeia, the medicinal value of ginseng is almost nothing, but there is a great market for it in China, where it is worshipped as a sort of fetish, and is acclaimed as a panacea for sexual impotency, nervousness, vomiting and dyspepsia. The more nearly the root approximates the human torso, the more valuable it is to the Chinese. Thus one root in a six hundred-pound bale may be worth many times the entire remainder of the bale, and when ten dollars a pound is the price, one can realize the extreme value of such a piece.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE (BIRTHWORT FAMILY)

=Wild Ginger= (_Asarum canadense_ L. var. _acuminatum_ Ashe.) “nameˈ pîn” [sturgeon potato].[96] The Pillager Ojibwe called this a potato for sick people. They are supposed to chew the root, and then they can eat anything they desire.

The white man calls this Canada Snakeroot in his dispensatories, considering it a feeble remedy with tonic, aromatic and diuretic properties. Cases of convalescent acute febrile infections are sometimes given the extract of wild ginger root.

ASCLEPIADACEAE (MILKWEED FAMILY)

=Common Milkweed= (_Asclepias syriaca_ L.) “caboˈ sîkûn” [milk] or “înîniˈwûnj” [Indian plant], according to Flambeau Ojibwe.[97] Although the Pillager Ojibwe used this chiefly for food, the root was also used as a female remedy, but for what phase of illness, we were not able to discover. Eclectic practitioners have used the roots as counter-irritants or internally as stomachics, carminatives, or anti-spasmodics of the stimulating class.

BALSAMINACEAE (TOUCH-ME-NOT FAMILY)

=Spotted Touch-me-not= (_Impatiens biflora_ Walt.) “wesaˈ wûs gaˈskonêk” [yellow light]. Bearskin, Flambeau medicine man said that the fresh juice of this plant rubbed on the head would cure a headache. The leaves are steeped for a medicinal tea, but the ailment was undiscovered.

The herbage of this plant, under the name Wild Celadine, has been largely employed by homoeopathic physicians and eclectics. The chemical constituents are not known though the leaves apparently contain tannin. The medicinal value is questionable, though fresh applications of the juice appear to relieve skin irritations of various kinds, especially that of Poison Ivy.

BERBERIDACEAE (BARBERRY FAMILY)

=Blue Cohosh= (_Caulophyllum thalictroides_ [L.] Michx). “ociˈ gîmîc”.[98] The Pillager Ojibwe use the root for female troubles especially for cramps in the stomach during painful menstruation. The fine roots are also boiled to make a tea for emetic purposes. White people seldom use it. Eclectics have used it in the treatment of hysteria and uterine diseases. They have claimed that it will prevent abortion, by causing uterine contraction when uterine inertia is present.

BETULACEAE (BIRCH FAMILY)

=Speckled Alder= (_Alnus incana_ [L.] Moench.) “wadoˈ bîn” [root to sew a canoe]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root for its hemostatic qualities. When one passes blood in his stools, the root tea will act as an astringent and coagulant.

The white man has also used alder bark for its mild astringent properties. The eclectic practitioner in the United States and Canada employed it in a powdered condition for dusting upon chafed body surfaces.

=Paper Birch= (_Betula alba_ [L.] var. _papyrifera_ [Marsh.] Spach.) “wîgwas”. From “wîgwas” comes the word “wigwam” or house, because birch bark was used in covering the house, furnishing a waterproof roof. The root of the Paper Birch was used in medicines as a seasoner. Its sweetish, aromatic, wintergreen flavor disguised less pleasant doses. The root bark and maple sugar cooked together made a soothing syrup to alleviate cramps in the stomach. The white man has employed only the leaves medicinally as a diuretic.

=Low Birch= (_Betula pumila_ L. var. _glandulifera_ Regel.) “bîneˈ mîcins” [partridge tips]. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the Low Birch is a valued source of medicine. Although it is plentiful around the Flambeau Reservation, none of them seemed to consider it medicine, although their name agreed, “bîneˈ mîc”, without the diminutive. The Pillager Ojibwe use the tiny cones upon a plate of coals as an incense to cure catarrh. No doubt the resinous covering of the twigs and cones in this variety causes the aromatic incense. Also a tea made from the cones is drunk by women in their menses. Such tea is also accounted strengthening when the patient is enfeebled by childbirth. The leaves probably possess diuretic properties as do other species of _Betula_. No record of its use by white men has been discovered.

=Hazelnut= (_Corylus americana_ Walt.) “mûkwobagaˈ nak” [bear nut].[99] Bearskin said that the bark of the hazelnut bush is medicine. It is boiled and used as a poultice on cuts to close and heal them. No record of its medical use by white men has been discovered.

=Beaked Hazelnut= (_Corylus rostrata_ Ait.), “bagaˈn” or “bagaˈnak” [nut] Flambeau names, and “bagaˈnamijic” [nut tree], Pillager name. Bearskin assigned the same properties and uses to the bark of the Beaked Hazelnut as to the Hazelnut. The Pillager Ojibwe used only the hairs of the hazelnut husk as a medicine to expel worms. Eclectic practitioners have used it in the same manner as an anthelmintic, depending probably on the irritant effect of the tiny stickers.

BORAGINACEAE (BORAGE FAMILY)

=Hound’s Tongue= (_Cynoglossum boreale_ Fernald), “masaˈn”. Three terms are used to denote the action of such plants as this, which are burned upon live coals that the patient may inhale the fumes. They are: “abaˈ bûson”,—to revive or “head standing by smoke”; “sasaˈ bîkwat”,—to snuff it; and “nokweˈ sîkûn”,—“smell as it comes”. They are used interchangeably in designating the use of the plant. Hound’s Tongue is specifically fumed to cure a headache.

Among the whites, Hound’s Tongue has been recommended as a sedative and demulcent in the treatment of bronchial and pulmonary affections. It is said to be of value also in dysentery. The fresh leaves are used locally as a remedy for superficial burns and abraded surfaces.

CAMPANULACEAE (BELLFLOWER FAMILY)

=Marsh Bellflower= (_Campanula aparinoides_ Pursh.) Although plentiful around the Lac du Flambeau region, our informants said that this is not used.

=Harebell= (_Campanula rotundifolia_ L.) “adotaˈgons” [little bell]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root of the Harebell combined with three other unnamed roots for lung troubles. There is no record of its use by whites.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE (HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY)

=Bush Honeysuckle= (_Diervilla lonicera_ Mill.), “osawaˈ skanet” [yellow fluid]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root together with other plants such as the Ground Pine, for their most valued urinary remedy. It is also known among white men as a diuretic and a remedy to relieve itching.

=Red Elderberry= (_Sambucus racemosa_ L.), “papaskatcîksiˈganaˈtîg” [popgun wood]. According to the Pillager Ojibwe, this bark is an emetic or a purgative, depending upon how it is prepared for use. It is a last resort purgative to be used when other remedies for the same complaint are of no avail. It may be said that the Ojibwe have more plants for physic than for any other purpose, thus the Red Elder will be seen to be their most important one.

Four internodes of the stalk are taken, because four is their magic number. These sections are measured carefully from the point of the ulna to the point of the humerus. The inner bark is secured by peeling downward. This is steeped and boiled, and the resulting liquid is drunk for constipation. It is supposed to thus save the life of one threatened with serious constipation. It is reserved for extreme cases, because of the many other physics they employ, and they consider it drastic and dangerous otherwise. If these same four sticks had been peeled upwards and the resulting tea drunk, then it would have acted as a powerful emetic. The writer can testify to its strength, but notes that it works both ways at once, no matter how prepared, so that the method of preparation is doubtless superstitious.

Among the whites only the elder flowers are recognized in the New Formulary, but the inner bark has been known to produce death in children, a short time after being eaten, with symptoms similar to Poison Hemlock (_Cicuta_). In moderate doses, it is also known to produce vomiting and purging. The active alkaloid evidently works only in the fresh state, as it loses its potency in a dried state.

=Snowberry= (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_ Michx.) “anîgomijiˈ mînagaˈwûnj” [little crow bush]. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the root of the Snowberry is used to make a tea to clear up the afterbirth, and enable quicker convalescence. Among the Meskwaki Indians the same use is ascribed to the Wolfberry (_Symphoricarpos occidentalis_). There is no record of its use by white men.

=Nannyberry= (_Viburnum lentago_ L.), “atîteˈ tamînûn” or “atîteˈ tamînagaˈwûnj.”[100] The Pillager Ojibwe collect the inner bark of the trunk, down low next to the ground, to yield a tea which is used as a diuretic.

Among the white men, Nannyberry is often sold as _Viburnum prunifolium_ which is official in our pharmacopoeia. The virtues assigned to this class of medicine are as feeble as they are numerous. It has been used as a nervine, astringent, tonic, diuretic and has been said to have value as an uterine sedative and preventive of abortion.

=Highbush Cranberry= (_Viburnum opulus_ L. var. _americanum_ [Mill.] Ait.) “aˈnibîmîˈnûgaˈwûck” [anib means elm, berries, bush].[101] The Pillager Ojibwe used the inner bark as a physic, and also drank the tea to cure cramps in the stomach.

Among the white men, _Viburnum opulus_ is considered to be the same as _Viburnum prunifolium_, only less potent. It is recommended as an antispasmodic in asthma, hysteria, puerperal convulsions, and dysmenorrhea.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE (PINK FAMILY)

=White Campion= (_Lychnis alba_ Mill.) “basiˈ bûgûk” [small leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of this for a tea to physic a patient. There is no record of its use by white men.

CELASTRACEAE (STAFF TREE FAMILY)

=Climbing Bittersweet= (_Celastrus scandens_ L.) “manîdobimaˈ kwît” [spirit-twisted]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the red berries of this plant for stomach trouble.

The white man uses the berries for decorative purposes, and has used the bark for emetic, diaphoretic and antisyphilitic purposes.

COMPOSITAE (COMPOSITE FAMILY)

The composite family is represented by many species in northern Wisconsin and also in northern Minnesota. There are probably three times as many plants in this family as in any other, hence it furnishes numerous medicines.

=Woolly Yarrow= (_Achillea lanulosa_ Nutt.), “waˈ bîgwûn” [white-flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe, under the name given, use the leaves of this plant as a poultice to cure the bite of a spider. The dried flowering heads are smoked in mixture with other things, much as kinnikinnik, not for pleasure, but more for ceremonial purposes.

It has not been distinguished by the eclectic practitioner from the Common Yarrow, which was used for its bitter and aromatic principles. It was used as an emmenagogue and for various ailments of the reproductive organs. It was sometimes used to cure diseased conditions of the entire gastro-intestinal tract.

=Yarrow= (_Achillea millefolium_ L.), “adjidamoˈ anûk” [squirrel tail].[102] The Pillager Ojibwe used the florets in ceremonial smoking and placed them on a bed of coals inhaling the smoke to break a fever.

Yarrow has always been a home remedy of the white man, and the Germans still use the dried flowers in a tea, called “schafesgarbetee”, to break a fever. Other uses are the same as above.

=Pearly Everlasting= (_Anaphalis margaritacea_ [L.] B. & H.), “basiˈ bagûk” [small leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the flowers of this plant, calling attention to the fact that it smells like acorns, reducing them to a powder which is sprinkled on live coals as a “nokweˈ sîgûn” or perfume. This is inhaled by a party who has had a stroke of paralysis and is said to revive him.

The Pearly Everlasting has never been properly analyzed by white men, but the flowers have been locally used by them as soothing expectorants and are known to have more or less marked stomachic properties.

=Lesser Cat’s-Foot= (_Antennaria neodioica_ Greene) “gagîgeˈ bûg” [everlasting leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the whole herb as a valued remedy to make a tea to be given to the mother after child birth. It is to purge the afterbirth and heal them internally.

Eclectic practitioners have used this plant as a hemostatic.

=Common Burdock= (_Arctium minus_ Bernh.), “giˈ masan” [big stickers]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of burdock as one of the ingredients of a medicine for pain in the stomach. It is also supposed to have a tonic effect.

Burdock root has quite a reputation among home practitioners among the white men as a diaphoretic, diuretic, alterative, aperient and depurative. It has been used for rheumatism, gout, pulmonary catarrh, chronic skin diseases such as scrofula and syphilis, and to dissolve urinary deposits. Externally it has been used as a salve or wash for eruptions, burns, wounds, hemorrhoids and swelling.

=White Sage= (_Artemisia ludoviciana_ Nutt.) “îmbjîˈgoa” according to White Cloud, Bear Island Ojibwe, but “wîngûskw” or “bebejiˈgogaˈnji” [horse medicine] by John Peper, another Bear Islander. Peper said the Pillager Ojibwe used it as a horse medicine, but the Sioux smoked it.

Miners and frontiersmen prized it in their treatment of “mountain fevers.”

=Large-leaved Aster= (_Aster macrophyllus_ L.), “naskosiˈ îcûs”. The Flambeau Ojibwe consider this a feeble remedy but also good as a charm in hunting. Young roots were used to make a tea to bathe the head for headache. The informant giving this latter use called it “megîsiˈ bûg” [eagle leaf]. There is no record of its use by the whites.

=Ox-eye Daisy= (_Chrysanthemum leucanthemum_ L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe had no name for this, as they said it was from the south, and they do not use it.

=Canada Thistle= (_Cirsium arvense_ [L.] Scop.) “masaˈ nûck” [prickly]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the plant for a bowel tonic. Canada Thistle is one of the worst American weeds, and white men have used the dried plant for a diuretic and tonic.

=Common Thistle= (_Cirsium lanceolatum_ [L.] Hill), “jiˈ masaˈnûck”. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of this for alleviating stomach cramps in both men and women. The dried plant has been used by the whites as a diuretic and tonic.

=Philadelphia Fleabane= (_Erigeron philadelphicus_ L.) “mîcaoˈgacan” [odor of deer hoof]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the flowers to make a tea to break fevers. The smoke of the dried flowers is inhaled to cure a cold in the head. The disk flowers, pulverized, were snuffed up the nostrils to cause the patient to sneeze and thus loosen a cold in the head. The whites have used the Canada Fleabane as a remedy in the pharmacopoeia, and also have used the Philadelphia Fleabane locally, but for different purposes. It is diuretic rather than astringent.

=Daisy Fleabane= (_Erigeron ramosus_ [Walt.] BSP). The Flambeau Ojibwe do not assign this plant a special name but class it as a “nokweˈ sîgûn” or perfume for curing sick headache. Several species of _Erigeron_ have been substituted by white men for the Canada Fleabane, which is used as a diaphoretic and expectorant.

=Joe-Pye Weed= (_Eupatorium purpureum_ L.), “bûˈ gîsowe” [bathing]. The Flambeau Ojibwe make a strong solution of the root, with which to wash a papoose up till the time he is six years old. This is supposed to strengthen him.

Joe-Pye is officinal but not official among white men. Official designates that it is authorized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia while officinal means that it is regularly kept for sale in drug stores. Officinal remedies are much used by eclectic practitioners. The root has the odor of old hay and is diuretic, stimulant, astringent and tonic. It has been used in chronic urinary disorders, gout, rheumatism, and hematuria.

=Tall Blue Lettuce= (_Lactuca spicata_ [Lam.] Hitchc.), “dadocaˈbo” [milk]. The Flambeau Ojibwe employ the plant to make a tea given to women with caked breasts to render lactation easier. A dog whisker hair is used to pierce the teat. Among white men _Lactuca_ was formerly employed as a soporific and sedative.

=White Lettuce= (_Prenanthus alba_ L.), “wecaˈ wûs waˈ ckwînêsk” [yellow light]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the milk of the White Lettuce as a diuretic, especially in female diseases. The root is also used as a female remedy.

White men have used the root decoction internally for dysentery. Old time herb doctors gave the milk of the plant internally, and used the leaves, steeped in hot water, as a poultice for the bite of a snake.

=Black-eyed Susan= (_Rudbeckia hirta_ L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe claim that this plant is adventive from the south and have no name or use for it. It has been used by the white men as a diuretic.

=Golden Ragwort= (_Senecio aureus_ L.).

=Entire-leaved Groundsel= (_Senecio integerrimus_ Nutt.) Both of these plants are considered adventive by the Pillager Ojibwe and neither was named nor used.

Under the name squaw weed, white men have exploited the Golden Ragwort as a female regulator, claiming diuretic, pectoral, diaphoretic and tonic properties. It is also said to be useful in treating gravel and other urinary affections.

=Indian Cup Plant= (_Silphium perfoliatum_ L.), “asasaˈ weskûk” [square stem]. According to John White Feather, of the Flambeau Ojibwe, this root was carried from Iowa and transplanted on the Lac du Flambeau Ojibwe Reservation. They all accept it as great medicine. A tea is made from the root for lumbago and some other kinds of rheumatic pains in the back. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, gave it the same Indian name and said that an old Indian had brought it to Bear Island from Iowa a hundred years ago, and had planted it in his field, whence it escaped to the south end of the island. He said they use it for stomach trouble, and hemorrhage. White men have used the Indian Cup Plant root for its tonic, diaphoretic and alterative properties. It has also been used in intermittent fevers, ulcers, liver affections and debility. The resinous gum collected from the stem has been used by the whites as a stimulant and antispasmodic.

=Fragrant Golden-rod= (_Solidago graminifolia_ [L.] Salisb.), “wasaˈ waskwûneˈk” [yellow light]. Besides being of use in hunting medicine, the flowers in infusion were used by the Flambeau Ojibwe for a pain in the chest.

Golden-rod leaves and flowers have at times held a rather important place in materia medica, for their carminative, and antispasmodic properties. They have also been used as an intestinal astringent.

=Tansy= (_Tanacetum vulgare_ L.) “muckikiˈwît” [medicine]. The Flambeau Ojibwe have no distinctive name for this plant, claiming it came from the south and they were told it was good for fevers.

Among white men, it is deemed tonic, emmenagogue and diaphoretic. It has been used in a cold infusion in convalescence from exhausting diseases, dyspepsia, hysteria and jaundice.

=Dandelion= (_Taraxacum officinale_ Weber) “wesaˈusakwûnek” [yellow light].[103] While the Flambeau Ojibwe do not use this plant, the Pillager Ojibwe give it a name and use the root for a tea for heartburn. It was found growing at the north end of Bear Island in Leech Lake, Minnesota.

Among the whites, the virtues of the root are much overrated. The dried root is steeped in boiling water and is used as a stomachic and tonic, with slight diuretic and aperient action.

=Cocklebur= (_Xanthium commune_ Britton), “sakatiˈkomûk” [stickers]. Although giving it a name, the Flambeau Ojibwe did not use it. It has been used by white men in intermittent fevers, also as a diuretic, diaphoretic and sialagogue.

CORNACEAE (DOGWOOD FAMILY)

=Alternate-leaved Dogwood= (_Cornus alternifolia_ L. f.) “mosoˈmîc” [moose tree].[104] The Pillager Ojibwe use the inner bark for an emetic. Although other species of _Cornus_ are officinal with white men, there is no record of the use of this species.

=Bunchberry= (_Cornus canadensis_ L.) “odeˈ imînîdjiˈ bîk” [strawberry root, or heart-berry root]. The Bunchberry or Dwarf Cornel somewhat resembles the Wild Strawberry. The Flambeau Ojibwe make a tea from the root, which is used to cure babies of colic. There is no record of its medicinal use by the whites, though it has been eaten by them.

=Panicled Dogwood= (_Cornus paniculata_ L’Her.), “meskwabiˈ mîc” [red bush]. It is peculiar that the Flambeau Ojibwe would call this a red bush, for the branches are distinctly gray. Only the fruit stalks or pedicels are bright red. The bark is used as a tea for flux. An aggregate of this bark compressed into a stopper shape is forced into the anus as a treatment for piles. There is no record of its use by the whites.

CRUCIFERAE (MUSTARD FAMILY)

=Tower Mustard= (_Arabis glabra_ [L.] Bernh.), “misodjidamoˈ anûk” [black squirrel tail]. Although the Pillager Ojibwe have a name for this plant, they say it is from the south, and they do not use it. There is no record of its use by white men.

=Marsh Cress= (_Radicula palustris_ [L.] var. _hispida_ [Desv.] Robinson), “wabîgwûn” [yellow flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe name for Marsh Cress is not very distinctive although it does have yellowish flowers. They have no use for the plant as it came in from the south, according to them. Neither have white men.

=Tansy-mustard= (_Sisymbrium canescens_ Nutt.) The Pillager Ojibwe do not know this plant, which they consider to be adventive from the south and do not use it. Aside from the fact that the seeds have a volatile oil similar to mustard seed, the whites do not use it.

CUCURBITACEAE (GOURD FAMILY)

=Squash= (_Cucurbita maxima_ Duchesne.) “ogwîssiˈmaun oˈwasokwûneˈk” [threads like hair; yellow light]. The Flambeau Ojibwe used the seed tea as a diuretic. There is no distinctive medicinal use of squash among the whites.

=Wild Balsam-apple= (_Echinocystis lobata_ [Michx.] T. & G.) “nîgîtîniˈ gûnûk” or “mîtcigiˈ mênûk” [man in the ground], shown in plate 69, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root tea as a bitter medicine for stomach troubles and as a tonic. The root is certainly bitter enough. On the west coast, the root has been employed by white men as a simple bitter.

CYPERACEAE (SEDGE FAMILY)

=Hare’s Tail= (_Eriophorum callitrix_ Cham.) “bîweeˈ ckînûk” [fuzz of fruit]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the matted fuzz as a hemostatic. Under the name “mesadiˈ wackons” [little catkins from popple], the Pillager Ojibwe refer to it, but none of them knew any use for it. There has been a limited use of its tannic properties as an astringent by white men.

EQUISETACEAE (HORSETAIL FAMILY)

=Field Horsetail= (_Equisetum arvense_ L.) “gîjiˈ bînûsk,” [duck round].[105] The Pillager Ojibwe use the whole plant to make a tea to cure the dropsy. The plant has been used indefinitely chiefly in domestic practice by the whites.

=Wood Horsetail= (_Equisetum sylvaticum_ L.), “sibaˈ mûckûn”. The Pillager Ojibwe use the whole plant to make a tea to cure kidney trouble and dropsy. It has not been much used by the whites, except as a domestic remedy for gravel.

ERICACEAE (HEATH FAMILY)

=Bog Rosemary= (_Andromeda glaucophylla_ Link.), “bîneˈ mîkci” [swamp partridge berry]. The plant was found on the Flambeau Ojibwe Reservation, but was not used medicinally. Among the whites, it is credited with poisonous properties.

=Prince’s Pine= (_Chimaphila umbellata_ [L.] Nutt.), “gaˈ gîgeˈbûg” [everlasting leaf].[106] The Flambeau Ojibwe pronounce the name of Prince’s Pine nearly the same as the Menomini Indians, and use it for the same purposes, namely a tea for treating stomach troubles. _Chimaphila_ is official with white men as a tonic and diuretic. It stimulates the mucous membrane of the genito-urinary tract, and has been used in renal dropsy, scrofulous conditions, chronic ulcers and skin lesions. It is employed both internally and as an embrocation.

=Wintergreen= (_Gaultheria procumbens_ L.), “wînîsiˈ bûgûd”, [dirty leaves], shown in plate 75, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves to brew a tea to cure rheumatism and “to make one feel good.” The white man discovered the properties of this plant from the Indians, and originally wintergreen was the chief source of methyl salicylate. Aspirin is synthetically the same thing. Birch twigs were later used as a source and finally it was made from coal tar dye. Like other volatile oils, methyl salicylate was used as an antiseptic, analgesic, carminative and flavoring agent. It was added to liniments for rubbing muscular rheumatism, and similar complaints. Overdoses of the pure oil on the skin produce drowsiness, congestion and delirium.

=Cranberry= (_Vaccinium oxycoccus_ L.) “mûckiˈ mînagaˈ wûnj” [swamp berry bush]. A tea for a person who is slightly ill with nausea. White men have used the bitter, astringent leaves in diarrhea and diabetes and for purifying the blood.

=Blueberry= (_Vaccinium pennsylvanicum_ Lam.), “minûgaˈ wûnj” [berry bush]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves of this common blueberry for a medicinal tea as a blood purifier. White men have employed it in the same manner.

EUPHORBIACEAE (SPURGE FAMILY)

=Flowering Spurge= (_Euphorbia corollata_ L.), “cabosîˈ kûn” [milky bitter root]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root for a physic. A half inch of the root is pounded and steeped in a cup of water, which is drunk before eating. The resinous, milky juice of the root has been employed by eclectic practitioners as an emetic, but its use has been practically abandoned because of its irritant and uncertain qualities.

FAGACEAE (BEECH FAMILY)

=Bur Oak= (_Quercus macrocarpa_ Michx.), “mîtîgoˈ mîc” [wooden tree], shown in plate 64, fig. 1. The bark is an astringent medicine to the Pillager Ojibwe. They also use it to bandage a broken foot or leg. All oaks are noted among the whites for their astringent properties. Eclectic practitioners used it for gargles in cases of inflammation of the tonsils and pharynx. It was also used in treating leucorrhea and piles.

=Red Oak= (_Quercus rubra_ L.), “mîtîgoˈ mîc”, [wooden tree], shown in plate 64, fig. 2. The bark,—“mîtîgoˈ mîc wenaˈ gêk”. The bark is a medicine for heart troubles and bronchial affections among the Flambeau Ojibwe. Its use by white men was approximately the same as Bur Oak.

FUMARIACEAE (FUMITORY FAMILY)

=Golden Corydalis= (_Corydalis aurea_ Willd.), “tîpotîeˈ kwason,” [looks like pants]. The Pillager Ojibwe place the root on coals and inhale the smoke for clearing the head and reviving the patient. There is no record of its use by white men.

FUNGI

The Ojibwe have evidently had disastrous experiences with mushrooms in the past and do not use them as a food. The children often gather the common brackets (_Fomes applanatus_) and draw pictures on them, using them as toys.

=Giant Puffball= (_Calvatia craniiformis_ Schw.) shown in plate 61, fig. 2, “oskweˈtûk”. This is kept on hand in the mature stage. The inner part has an organized mass of threads and does not break down entirely into spores as do the smaller puffballs. The substance is snuffed up the nose to stop nose bleed.

The Ojibwe also made use of an unidentified fungus matte material, found in the windshake spaces of down timber. This is the matted vegetating mycelium of some timber fungus, such as _Fomes_, _Trametes_, _Polyporus_ or _Pholiota_. This made a good tinder for use in the fire base block, and when the fire stick was rapidly twirled against this material, it caught fire and was blown into a blaze that became the basis of their fire. In all medicine lodge ceremonials, the fire was kindled in this manner and thus deemed a sacred fire. Things cooked over this fire were ceremonial, and the calumet or pipe used in the ceremonies was always lighted from a coal of the sacred fire.

GERANIACEAE (GERANIUM FAMILY)

=Wild Geranium= (_Geranium maculatum_ L.), “oˈ sawaskwîniˈ s” [yellow light].[107] The Pillager Ojibwe use the astringent root for the treatment of flux, and also for healing a sore mouth. Eclectic practitioners have also used it as a mild internal astringent, useful for infants and people who have a delicate stomach, because it is not irritating. It is valuable in serious diarrheas. It has also been used by white men for rectal and vaginal injections to tone up weak muscles.

GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY)

=Rattlesnake Grass= (_Glyceria canadensis_ [Michx.] Trin.), “anagoneˈ wûck” [fern]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the roots of this as a female remedy, but it is difficult to understand why they call it a fern. There is no record of its use by white men.

HYDROPHYLLACEAE (WATERLEAF FAMILY)

=Virginia Waterleaf= (_Hydrophyllum virginianum_ L.),[108] “neˈ bîneankweˈ ûk” according to the Pillager Ojibwe White Cloud on Bear Island, Leech Lake, Minnesota, but “anîmûcîdeˈ bîgons” [dog feet medicine], according to John Peper, of the same island. It furnishes a root that may be used to keep flux in check. He states that it is good for man, woman or child. It was used for the same purpose among the Meskwaki Indians, but there is no record of its use by whites.

IRIDACEAE (IRIS FAMILY)

=Blue Flag= (_Iris versicolor_ L.), “naˈ bûkûck”.[109] The Flambeau Ojibwe use a half inch of the root boiled in water as a quick physic. Under the name “caboˈsîkûn” [milk root], the Pillager Ojibwe use a little piece of the root in boiling water, drinking a tablespoonful and a half as an emetic and physic.

Blue Flag root has been accounted one of the most valuable remedies by the eclectic practitioner. It is alterative, cathartic, sialagogue, vermifuge and diuretic. It has been used in scrofula and syphilis, chronic hepatic, renal and splenitic affections.

LABIATAE (MINT FAMILY)

=Wild Mint= (_Mentha arvensis_ L. var. _canadensis_ [L.] Briquet), “nameˈ wûckons” [little sturgeon plant].[110] Among the Flambeau Ojibwe a tea is brewed from the entire plant, to be taken as a blood remedy. It is also used by them in the sweat bath, “akûskati”. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, made an especial trip to find this on the lake shore but calls it “andegoˈ bîgons” [little crow leaf] and says that they use it as a tea to break fevers. This species of mint was rarely used by white men for carminative, stimulant and anodyne affects.

=Wild Bergamot= (_Monarda fistulosa_ L.), “wecaˈ wûs wackwîˈ nek” [yellow light].[111] The Flambeau Ojibwe gather and dry the whole plant, boiling it in a vessel to obtain the volatile oil to inhale to cure catarrh and bronchial affections. In some sections, the whites use it as a domestic antiperiodic and diaphoretic.

=Catnip= (_Nepeta cataria_ L.) “tciˈ nameˈ wûck” [big sturgeon plant].[112] The Flambeau Ojibwe brew a tea of catnip leaves for a blood purifier. The mint water obtained by steeping the herb in lukewarm water is used to bathe a patient, to raise the body temperature. The plant is employed by the whites as an emmenagogue and antispasmodic. It has been used as a carminative to allay flatulent colic in infants, and is supposed to be useful in allaying hysteria.

=Heal-all= (_Prunella vulgaris_ L.), “basiˈ bûgûk” [partridge leaf]. The root is used by the Flambeau Ojibwe in combination with others for a female remedy. It has been used by eclectic practitioners as a pungent and bitter tonic and antispasmodic. It has vermifuge properties and is slightly diuretic. It has also been used for obstructions of the liver, cramps and fits.

=Marsh Skullcap= (_Scutellaria galericulata_ L.), “tcatcabonûˈ ksîk” [refers to the way the stem comes up through the leaves]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this for medicine, having something to do with heart trouble, but we could get no definite information upon it. There is no record of its use by white men, although a similar species, _S. lateriflora_ has been used as a nervine, tonic and antispasmodic in chorea, convulsions, fits, delirium tremens and all nervous affections.

LEGUMINOSAE (PULSE FAMILY)

=Creamy Vetchling= (_Lathyrus ochroleucus_ Hook.) “bûgwaˈ dj ûk pîniˈ k mîneˈ bûg” [unusual potato, berry, leaf]. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, said that the foliage was fed to a pony to make him lively for a race. The Flambeau Ojibwe call it “basiˈ bûgûk” [partridge leaf], in common with several other plants, and say that the Creamy Vetch is used for stomach trouble. By the white men, it is considered one of the loco weeds, bad for horses.

=Marsh Vetchling= (_Lathyrus palustris_ L.), “bebejîgogaˈnji mackiˈ ki” [horse medicine]. The Pillager Ojibwe feed this to a pony that is sick and claim it will make him fat. There is no record of its use as medicine by white men.

=White Sweet Clover= (_Melilotus alba_ Desr.). The Flambeau Ojibwe claim that this plant is adventive and so they do not use it. There is no record of its use as medicine by white men.

LICHENS

=Reindeer Moss= (_Cladonia rangiferina_ [L.] Hoffm.) “asaˈ gûniñkˈ” [moss].

The Ojibwe boil this moss and use the water to wash a new born baby. They declare it is the same as if you were putting salt into the water. So far as is known, it has never been utilized as a medicine by the white man.

LILIACEAE (LILY FAMILY)

=Northern Clintonia= (_Clintonia borealis_ [Ait.] Raf.), “gînoseˈ wibûg” [muskellunge leaf].[113] The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root tea as a remedy to help parturition. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe called it “adotaˈgons” [little bell] and said that the dogs use it to poison their teeth so that they can kill their prey. Should they bite a person, then it would be necessary to procure the same root and put it on the bite to draw out the poison. This curious superstition was also encountered in another tribe,—the Menomini. There is no record of its medicinal use by white men.

=Canada Mayflower= (_Maianthemum canadense_ Desf.), “agoñgosiˈ mînûn” [chipmunk berries], shown in plate 71, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe recognize that this is somewhat different from Spikenard (_Smilacina racemosa_), but give it the same name and uses, namely to keep the kidneys open during pregnancy, to cure sore throat and headaches. It is also used to make smoke for inhaling. The Pillager Ojibwe do not know or use it.

=Small Solomon’s Seal= (_Polygonatum biflorum_ [Walt.] Ell.) “nanîbîteˈodeˈkîn”, [grows in a row], shown in plate 72, fig. 2. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root as a physic and it is also cooked to yield a tea to treat a cough. White men have used it as a substitute for _Convallaria_ for the same purposes, namely the treatment of dropsy.

=False Spikenard= (_Smilacina racemosa_ [L.] Desf.), “agoñgoˈ sîmînûn” [chipmunk berries], shown in plate 71, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this root in combination with Spreading Dogbane (_Apocynum androsaemifolium_) to keep the kidneys open during pregnancy, to cure sore throat and headache. It is also used as a reviver, “abaˈbûsûn”. Convallarin is the important constituent of Spikenard and it is classed the same as Solomon’s Seal and Canada Mayflower.

=Star-flowered Solomon’s Seal= (_Smilacina stellata_ [L.] Desf.) The Pillager Ojibwe have no name nor use for this root.

=Carrion-flower= (_Smilax herbacea_ L.), “gîneˈ bîgomînagaˈwûnj” [snake berry bush], shown in plate 73, fig. 2. The root of this plant was used in lung troubles according to the Pillager Ojibwe. It has been used by eclectic practitioners as an alterative.

=Twisted Stalk= (_Streptopus roseus_ Michx.), “nanibîteˈ odeˈ kîn”, [grows in a row], shown in plate 72, fig. 1. This plant is called by the same name as _Polygonatum biflorum_ among the Pillager Ojibwe, but this particular one is always referred to as the squaw, while _Polygonatum_ has always been called the man. It is used for a physic or to make tea for a cough. There is no record of its medicinal use by white men.

=Large Flowered Bellwort= (_Uvularia grandiflora_ Sm.), “wesawabiˈ kwonêk” [yellow light][114], the name applied to the plant, but the root is called “wabûckadjiˈ bîk” [white root]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root for stomach trouble. The trouble is described as a pain in the solar plexus, which may mean pleurisy. It has been used by eclectic practitioners for erysipelas, ulcerated mouth, etc.

LYCOPODIACEAE (CLUB MOSS FAMILY)

=Ground Pine= (_Lycopodium complanatum_ L.), “gîjiˈk gandoˈ gûng” [cedar-like]. The dried leaves are used by the Flambeau Ojibwe as a “nokweˈsîkûn” or reviver. _Lycopodium_ spores are used by the white man as a surgical dusting powder.

=Ground Pine= (_Lycopodium obscurum_ L. var. dendroideum [Michx.] D. C. Eaton) “cigonaˈ gan” [evergreen], shown in plate 61, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this plant in combination with Bush Honeysuckle roots (_Diervilla lonicera_) as a diuretic. The spores are the only part used by the white man for medicine. They are an antiseptic dusting powder.

MENISPERMACEAE (MOONSEED FAMILY)

=Canada Moonseed= (_Menispermum canadense_ L.), “bîmaˈ kwît waˈ bîgons” [twisted pod or stick]. White Cloud, Pillager Ojibwe of Bear Island, did not know the use of this root, but assured the writer that other Ojibwe knew it and used it. Moonseed root is used by eclectic practitioners as a tonic and alterative, and has been employed as a substitute for Sarsaparilla.

MYRICACEAE (BAYBERRY FAMILY)

=Sweet Fern= (_Myrica asplenifolia_ L.), “gibaimeˈ nûnaˈgwûs” [coverer]. Sweet fern is called “a coverer,” because it is used to line the blueberry pails and cover the berries to keep them from spoiling. The word is almost the same as that used by the Menomini and means the same. The Flambeau Ojibwe consider the leaves too strong for a beverage tea, but make a medicinal tea to cure the flux and cramps in the stomach. The white man uses Sweet Fern as a stimulant and astringent; sometimes using it to relieve colic and check diarrhea. It has also been used in a fomentation to relieve rheumatic pains.

NYCTAGINACEAE (FOUR-O’CLOCK FAMILY)

=Heart-leaved Umbrella-wort= (_Oxybaphus nyctagineus_ [Michx.] Sweet) “gokoˈ coadjiˈ bîk” (pig root). The Pillager Ojibwe say that the pig is fond of the roots of this plant because they are large and succulent, hence call it “pig root”. The root is used by them to reduce sprains and swellings. There is no record of its use among the whites.

NYMPHAEACEAE (WATER LILY FAMILY)

=Sweet White Water Lily= (_Castalia odorata_ [Ait.] Woodville & Wood.), “odîteˈabûg waˈ bîgwûn” [flat heart leaf, white flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root as a cough medicine for those who have tuberculosis. The roots have been used by white men in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery and leucorrhea.

=Yellow Water Lily= (_Nymphaea advena_ Ait.), “ogaˈ da mûn” [standing on legs]. The Flambeau Ojibwe word is a bit different in spelling but means the same as the Menomini word for this plant. The Ojibwe call the leaves, “odîteˈabûg” [flat heart leaf]. The root is the only medicinal part and is grated to make a poultice for sores. Other ingredients such as Skunk Cabbage root are added to this poultice. The Ojibwe gather goodly quantities of the large underwater stems; which we are prone to call roots, dry them and reduce them to powder. The powder alone is supposed to heal cuts and swellings. The roots have been used by white men in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery and leucorrhea.

OLEACEAE (OLIVE FAMILY)

=Red Ash= (_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_ Marsh), “aˈ gîmaˈk” [snow-shoe wood]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the inner bark in combination with other things for a tonic. The inner bark is official with white men as a bitter tonic and astringent. It is also said to be valuable as an antiperiodic.

ONAGRACEAE (EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY)

=Great Willow-herb= (_Epilobium angustifolium_ L.), “oˈ ca cadjiˈ bîkes” [slippery or soap root], shown in plate 69, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe say that the outer rind of this root lathers in water and they pound it to make a poultice. This is used to draw out inflammation from a boil or a carbuncle. With white men, it is a demulcent, tonic and astringent. It has been used internally for its tonic effect on mucous surfaces and its value in intestinal disorders.

=Evening Primrose= (_Oenothera biennis_ L.) While the Flambeau Ojibwe have no Indian name for this, still they use the whole plant soaked in warm water to make a poultice to heal bruises. Because of its antispasmodic properties, the white man has used it internally in the treatment of whooping cough, hiccough and spasmodic asthma.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE (ADDER’S TONGUE FAMILY)

=Virginia Grape Fern= (_Botrychium virginianum_ [L.] Sw.), “gîckênsîneˈ namûkûk” [man, squaw and baby], shown in plate 66, fig. 2. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, hunted a long time for this plant around Leech Lake, Minnesota, because his mother said it was good for lung trouble and consumption. He called attention to the fact that one always finds two stems together in the proper plant to use, which he described as the man and squaw, with the little one or fruiting frond, in the center. There is no record of its use by white men.

ORCHIDACEAE (ORCHIS FAMILY)

=Yellow Ladies’ Slipper= (_Cypripedium parviflorum_ Salisb. var. _pubescens_ [Willd.] Knight), “maˈ kasîn” [moccasin].[115] Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the root of this species is said to be a good remedy for female troubles of all kinds. The white man has used it as a gentle tonic for the nerves, a stimulant and antispasmodic, similar to Valerian, only less powerful.

=Rein Orchis= (_Habenaria bracteata_ [Willd.] R. Br.), “gokoˈcgûnda mînêskweˈ mîn” [pig-woman enticer root]. The Ojibwe Pillager would smuggle this into food as an aphrodisiac, which they considered a bad use and not to be talked about or countenanced. There is no record of its use by the white men.

=Adder’s Mouth= (_Microstylis unifolia_ [Michx.] BSP.) “aîaˈ nîkotciˈ mîn” [twisted berry]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the tiny root of this plant to mix with Bush Honeysuckle bark (_Diervilla lonicera_) as a diuretic. There is no record of its use by white men.

PAPAVERACEAE (POPPY FAMILY)

=Bloodroot= (_Sanguinaria canadensis_ L.)[116] “meskwaˈ djiˈ bîkûk” [red root]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the orange-red juice of the Bloodroot to cure sore throat. The juice is squeezed out on a lump of maple sugar, and this is retained in the mouth until it has melted away. They also use the juice to paint the face for the medicine lodge ceremony or when on the warpath.

_Sanguinaria_ is official only in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and in small doses it produces a sense of warmth in the stomach and stimulates gastric secretion. It is given as an expectorant and in larger doses as an emetic.

PINACEAE (PINE FAMILY)

=Balsam Fir= (_Abies balsamea_ [L.] Mill), “jîngoˈ b” [any kind of fir tree name], shown in plate 62, fig. 1. While the Flambeau Ojibwe call the tree “jîngoˈ b” as a short term, the full name of the Balsam Fir according to them is “jîngoˈ b pîkewaˈ ndag”. They claim that the liquid balsam is used direct from the bark blister upon the eyes, for sore eyes. The leaves are a reviver or “abaˈ bûsûn” and are also used in combinations as a wash. The Pillager Ojibwe call it “jîngoˈ bandag”, and use the balsam gum for colds and to heal sores. This corresponds to the way the Hudson Bay Indians use the bark. The needle-like leaves are placed upon live coals and the smoke is inhaled for colds. They are also used as a part of the medicine for the sweat bath.

The sweat bath is taken in a small hemispherical wigwam, like the regular abode, but entirely covered with mats or nowadays with canvas. The medicines are coiled into wreaths to fit into large iron kettles. Water is added and finally hot rocks which cause steam. The Indian taking the sweat bath may be taking it for ceremonial reasons, for cleansing, but most likely as a medicated steam bath. He sits naked within until there is no more steam and his body is entirely dried again. He then puts on all clean clothes and will not wear the discarded clothes until they have all been thoroughly washed. The candidate for degrees in the medicine lodge, must undergo the sweat bath in a ceremonial way. Usual plants employed to medicate the steam are White Pine leaves, Hemlock leaves, Arbor Vitae leaves, Wild Bergamot plant, Balsam needles, Peppermint plants, and the like. They are undoubtedly very beneficial to the health. Canada balsam is accounted the same medicinally as turpentine, but its principal value to the white man today is its perfect transparency and peculiar optical properties, which fit it for use in mounting microscopic specimens.

=Tamarack= (_Larix laricina_ [Du Roi] Koch), “mûckîgwaˈ tîg” [swamp tree], shown in plate 60, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the dried leaves as an inhalant and fumigator, “nokweˈsîkûn”. Larch bark has been highly valued in the past in chronic bronchitis with profuse expectoration, in chronic inflammation of the urinary passages, and in phases of hemorrhage.

=White Spruce= (_Picea canadensis_ [Mill.] BSP.), “gawaˈ ndag”, shown in plate 62, fig. 2. The leaves of White Spruce are used in the same manner as Larch, as a “nokweˈsîkûn”, an inhalant or fumigator. The needle oil is considered about the same as turpentine, by white men.

=Black Spruce= (_Picea mariana_ [Mill.] BSP.), “jingwûp”. If the bark is meant as a medicinal salt, then its name is “jingwûˈ p gawaˈ ndag” but if the leaves are the part meant for a reviver, “aba busun”, then it carries only the name “jingwup”. The needle oil is used by white men the same as turpentine.

=Jack Pine= (_Pinus banksiana_ Lamb.), “gîgaˈ ndag”. The leaves are used as a reviver,—“nokweˈ sîkûn” according to the Flambeau Ojibwe. There is no record of its medicinal use by the white men.

=Norway Pine= (_Pinus resinosa_ Ait.), “abakwanûg iˈmûg” [bark in plates], shown in plate 63, fig. 2. The Norway Pine is used in all particulars by the Flambeau Ojibwe, just as the White Pine.

=White Pine= (_Pinus strobus_ L.), “jîngwak kweseskweˈ tûk” according to Bearskin of the Flambeau Ojibwe, shown in plate 63, fig. 1, “jîngwak waceskweˈdo” according to Charley Burns of the Flambeau Ojibwe. The bark medicine is, “jîngwak onaˈ gêk” and is gathered in the same manner as by the Menomini, with a song to grandmother Earth, and the placing of tobacco on the ground. The cones, when boiled and likewise the bark of the young tree trunk yield a pitch which is medicine, called “jîngwak bûgîo.” The dried leaves are powdered and used as a reviver or inhalant. There are three names referring to this sort of treatment, as said before,—“nokweˈ sîkûn”, “sasaˈ bîkwat” and “abaˈ bûsûn”. Of these three terms, “sasaˈ bîkwat” is the proper one to use when White Pine needles are employed in this manner. White Pine is a very valuable remedy with all Ojibwe, but Norway Pine is sometimes substituted for it. White Pine bark is used in making cough syrup, by white men, but it possesses only feeble properties as an expectorant.

=Arbor Vitae= (_Thuja occidentalis_ L.), “giˈ jîkandag” [sky or cedar tree].[117] The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves as a perfume, “abaˈ bûsûn” and also as a tea for headache. During ceremonies of the medicine lodge, it is necessary to purify sacred objects and the hands and persons of participants. A plate of live coals is used and dried Arbor Vitae leaves placed upon them. The servitor wafts the incense over sacred objects by fanning the smoke with his hands. Others hold their hands over and in the smoke, waving it upon their persons.

The Pillager Ojibwe call it by the simple name “giˈ jîk” [sky or cedar]. They also use it as a purifying incense, and as an ingredient for the sweat bath with White Pine, Balsam, Hemlock and other plants. They drink the boiled leaves claiming that the steam goes through the blood and purifies it. This treatment cures coughs.

The U. S. Pharmacopoeia formerly required that leaves for medicinal use be in a fresh state but the new formulary only requires them to be recently dried and leafy. Internally it has been used for an emmenagogue, for fevers, bronchial catarrh, rheumatism and to remove intestinal worms. Externally it is applied in ointment to treat ulcers, warts and cancerous growths.

=Hemlock= (_Tsuga canadensis_ [L.] Carr.), “gagagiˈ wîc” [raven tree]. The Flambeau Ojibwe medicine man puts the leaves in his medicinal tea to disguise the taste. The bark is used for healing cuts and wounds, and for stopping the flow of blood from a wound. The bark is rich in tannin and naturally quite astringent. White men have used the bark and its resulting pitch as substitutes for burgundy pitch in making plasters. These have been used as external remedies for lumbago, chronic rheumatic pains, chronic bronchitis and pleurisy.

PLANTAGINACEAE (PLANTAIN FAMILY)

=Common Plantain= (_Plantago major_ L.), “cecaˈ gûskiˈ bûge sînk” [leaves grow up and also lie flat on the ground].[118] The Flambeau Ojibwe soak the leaves in warm water then bind them on bruises, sprains or sores as a poultice. It is also a healing and soothing remedy for burns, scalds, bee stings, and snake bites. The Flambeau Ojibwe also refer to it as “pakwan”. The Pillager Ojibwe use it in the same manner but call it “jimûckiˈ gobûg” [sort of swamp leaf]. Although plantain is a feeble remedy, it has been ascribed potency in many diseases by eclectic practitioners. They still use it to some extent in treating inflammation of the skin, malignant ulcers, intermittent fevers, etc. The leaves are of some value in arresting hemorrhages when applied to the bleeding surfaces. The writer cured a badly swollen and lacerated hand, which swelled to three times its normal size, probably because dirt from a sewer was ground into it, with the simple leaf bound upon the hand.

POLYGONACEAE (BUCKWHEAT FAMILY)

=Carey’s Persicaria= (_Polygonum careyi_ Olney). The Ojibwe have no name or use for this, nor have white men.

=Swamp Persicaria= (_Polygonum muhlenbergii_ [Meisn.] Wats.), “agoñgoˈ simînûn” [chipmunk berries]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this plant for a tea to cure a pain in the stomach. It is also hunting medicine. Several of the polygonums have been used by eclectic practitioners for their astringent properties.

=Curled Dock= (_Rumex crispus_ L.) “ciˈobûg” [twisted leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root, which contains considerable tannin, for closing and healing cuts. White men have used it for its astringent properties.

POLYPODIACEAE (FERN FAMILY)

=Shield Fern= (_Aspidium cristatum_ [L.] Sw.), “anaˈ ganûck” [fern]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root tea for stomach trouble. Among the white men, this fern has been found to have almost the same value as Male Fern as a teniafuge. Great care is exercised in the size of the dose and to see that no part of the drug remains in the system after it has performed its task of killing intestinal worms, as fatalities have been known to occur.

=Female Fern= (_Asplenium filix-femina_ [L.] Bernh.), “anaˈ ganûck” [fern]. The Flambeau Ojibwe grate the dry root into a powder which is used as a healing powder for sores. The Pillager Ojibwe call it “nokomiˈ skînûn” [grandmother?]. The root is made into a tea to cause milk flow in patients with caked breast. There is a record of its medicinal use by white men to alleviate backache.