Chapter XVIII: Babylon (2)

Thus, recent discoveries in Upper Egypt seem to prove beyond doubt that there was intercourse between the two countries in prehistoric times and that, as a result of this early communication, wheat was first introduced from the valley of the Euphrates to that of the Nile. Another consequence of the intercourse between the two lands was that the Egyptians became acquainted with the Babylonian system of irrigation--a system which had rendered the soil of Babylonia the most productive in the then known world. Babylonian engineers, there is reason to believe, introduced into Egypt the shadoff and the sakieh or water wheel, both of which were Babylonian inventions, as is clearly attested by early Assyrian bas-reliefs and by still earlier Sumerian inscriptions.

Yet more exhaustive researches regarding the early script used in the two countries and the relations of the language of Babylonia, which was a Semetic tongue, to that of Egypt lead to the same conclusion as do investigations respecting the introduction of wheat from the land of the Euphrates, where it still grows wild, into that of the Nile, and the identity of the irrigation machines which have been in continuous use in both lands for thousands of years.

It may, indeed, be admitted that no one of these facts is, of itself, sufficient to demonstrate that the culture and the engineering science of Egypt were Babylonian in origin; but, when they are all found to point in the same direction, the argument based on them has a cumulative force that is quite unassailable. Dr. Sayce gives judgment in a single sentence when he declares “it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the Semitic-speaking people who brought the science of irrigation and the art of writing to the banks of the Nile came, like the wheat they cultivated, from the Babylonian plain.”[531]

Those, however, who are interested in this fascinating theory, which ascribes to Babylonia not only Egyptian civilization but also the ancestors of the historical Egyptians, should read the remarkable work on the subject by Professor Hommel--a work[532] of profound scholarship and one which has convinced many of the most eminent Orientalists that there can no longer be any doubt that the civilization and culture of Egypt came originally from Babylonia.

But interesting as are the discoveries respecting the cultural relations between the two countries in question, no notice of Babylonia would be complete without some reference to her contributions to the science of astronomy. Here we have more positive information than has hitherto been available regarding the primeval intercourse between the peoples of the Euphrates and the Nile. As one might expect, however, in dealing with subjects carrying us back into the mists of antiquity, we find that the question of Babylonian astronomy is one that is deeply involved in myth and legend, but such myths and legends as help to corroborate the findings of historians and archæologists concerning the labors of the astronomers of old Chaldea.

Even in the question regarding the origin of astronomy, as in that concerning the beginnings of civil engineering in Egypt, we note the same old debate among the learned as to who were the more ancient astronomers, the Egyptians or the Babylonians. The people of the Nileland boasted that Hermes or Osiris was the founder of their astronomical system, while the Chaldeans, that is the Babylonians, claimed that the first astronomer was Belus,[533] the son of Nimrod, who was the grandson of Noah and the reputed builder of the Tower of Babel. This tower, often confused with the tower of Bel described by Herodotus, was, according to Chaldean legend, the first astronomical observatory.

It was not, however, thousands of years before the Christian era, as certain writers would have us believe, that Chaldean astronomy became an exact science. This was not possible and for a very simple reason--the absence of a strict chronology to which the Chaldean observers of the heavens did not attain until 747 B. C., when they adopted what is known as the era of Nabonnassar. Previously there could be no certainty regarding the calculation of time. Not, indeed, until the first recorded eclipse, March 21, 721 B. C., was astronomy raised to the dignity of an exact science.

In fact, during the first twenty or thirty centuries of
Mesopotamian history [writes the distinguished Belgian savant,
Franz Cumont] nothing is found but empirical observations,
intended chiefly to indicate omens, and the rudimentary
knowledge which these observations display is hardly in advance
of that of the Egyptians, the Chinese or the Aztecs.[534]

It is only during the last quarter of a century that we have been able to determine the advances made by astronomy at different periods of Babylonian history and we owe this knowledge almost entirely to the persistent labors of three Jesuits, Fathers Epping, Kugler, and Straszmaier.[535] By a long and careful study of the cuneiform inscriptions bearing on astronomy, many of which they have deciphered, interpreted, and published, they have, for the first time, put the history of Babylonian astronomy on a firm, scientific basis. And they have at the same time completely dissipated the poetical fancy of “Chaldean shepherds discovering the causes of eclipses while watching their flocks” and the oft repeated fable that it was Babylonian astronomers who discovered the precession of the equinoxes--an achievement that was due to the genius of Hipparchus of Nicæa.

Thanks, however, to the researches of the three savants named, it must now be conceded that certain discoveries which have hitherto been attributed to Hipparchus should be credited to the astronomers of Babylonia. Among these were discoveries regarding the inequalities of the lengths of the seasons, the methods of determining in advance the phenomena of the five known planets, the duration of their synodic revolutions, and the dates of the phases and eclipses of the moon. In a remarkable cuneiform inscription, dated as early as 523 B. C., is given what is practically a monthly ephemeris not only of the sun and moon and eclipses but also the more notable phenomena of the planets. With reason does Father Kugler consider this “the oldest known document of the scientific astronomy of the Chaldeans.” And so greatly is he impressed by the marvelous astronomical tables which were constructed by the priest astronomers of Babylonia that he declares:

One does not know which to admire the more, the extraordinary
accuracy of the periods which is implied by the drawing up of
each of the columns of figures or the ingenuity with which
these old masters contrived to combine all the factors to be
considered.[536]

Recent research has also shown that some of the very accurate calculations of lunar periods which, from the time of Ptolemy, have been attributed to Hipparchus, should in reality be ascribed to the astronomers of Babylonia.[537] That these ancient observers, who had none of the instruments of precision which are now available in our observatories, should have been able to make so exact calculations is marvelous in the extreme.

Equally noteworthy were the discoveries of the hellenized Chaldean, Seleucus, who proved that the movement of the tides is due to the action of the moon and who, contrary to the view which then generally prevailed, taught the helio-centric theory of the solar system--nearly two thousand years before the epochal achievements of Copernicus and Galileo.

The foregoing paragraphs clearly evince that it was the Babylonians who laid the foundations of astronomy, and not, as Buckle, Draper, and others would have us believe, the Arabians under the Caliphate. “The place of honor in science, therefore,”--a place which for ages was conceded to the Babylonians and which, through Father Epping’s studies, has been won for them anew--“will henceforth remain to them uncontested and incontestable.”[538]

In order, however, to have a correct idea of the far-reaching influence of Babylonian civilization, one must know more about it than its contribution to science, art, and literature. One must know something about the social condition of the people and of their manners and customs as described in their history and reflected in their laws. For this a few words will suffice and these will be based on the wonderful code of Hammurabi, the king who ruled over Babylonia more than two thousand years before our era and who was the real founder of her greatness.[539]

It is true that the great legal code which bears his name was, like all other ancient codes, based to a great extent on precedent and on earlier collections of laws, some of which, there is reason to believe, antedated Hammurabi’s great compilation by more than a thousand years. But it is because it is chiefly a codification of preëxisting laws that the great code of the Babylonian King is so valuable and instructive. We find that, unlike the warlike Assyrians, the Babylonians were not only a peaceable and intelligent but also a very humane and deeply religious people. In the words of one who has made a special study of the history and laws of the people over whom Hammurabi bore rule for forty-three years:

It is startling to find how much that we have thought distinctly
our own has really come down to us from that great people who
ruled the Land of the Two Streams. We need not be ashamed
of anything we can trace back so far. It is from no savage
ancestors that it descends to us. It bears the “hall mark”
not only of extreme antiquity but of sterling worth.... A
right-thinking citizen of a modern city would probably feel more
at home in ancient Babylon than in mediæval Europe.[540]

Among the laws of the great Babylonian legislator that are especially remarkable are those which safeguard the rights and privileges of married women. That such laws should have been enacted and enforced more than four thousand years ago shows better than anything else the high plane of social progress to which the Babylonians had thus early attained. To quote from the distinguished Orientalist, L. W. King, they “throw an interesting light on the position of the married woman in the Babylonian community, which was not only unexampled in antiquity but compares favorably in point of freedom and independence with her status in many countries in modern Europe.”[541]

One of the many results of the discovery of Hammurabi’s Code was, curiously enough, completely to demolish a favorite argument of certain Biblical critics respecting the laws of Moses. So elaborate a legislative code as that attributed to the Jewish lawgiver was, they contended, quite improbable at the early date assigned to it, and it must, therefore, have had its origin at a subsequent period when society was more highly organized. It must, then, the critics maintained, have been the work of the Jewish priesthood in the later days of Israel, who, in order to give it the necessary sanction, falsely attributed it to Moses. What then must have been their surprise and confusion, on the appearance of Father Scheil’s translation of Hammurabi’s Code, to find that it was more than five hundred years older than that of Moses, and that with its two hundred and eighty-two enactments it revealed a more elaborate social organization than that described in the violently attacked Book of Exodus? But this is only one of many similar surprises which the Higher Critics have found in the monuments of Babylonia. And in proportion as the cuneiform inscriptions continue to disclose their long-withheld secrets, so also, we may feel sure, will they, in all essential matters, be found to verify and corroborate the declarations of the Sacred Text.

Our last bird’s-eye view of the abomination of desolation that was Babylon was from the highest accessible point of the great royal palace on the Kasr. It was at the hour when the noonday sun was pouring his irradiating beams on the scattered and crumbling ruins of temples and palaces and citadels, which seemed to have been blasted by the lightnings of a wrathful heaven and to be lying under a major anathema maranatha of an offended Deity. In this accursed haunt of serpents and scorpions,--and the Arabs add--dragons and satyrs--the earth was absolutely verdureless. No four-footed thing trod the earth; no winged creature circled through the air; not a tree or a shrub adorned the brown, sun-baked mound. Where once stood the Hanging Gardens that were the glory of an arrogant potentate and the wonder of a marveling world; where once were gorgeous halls, with throne of ivory and gold; where kings and nobles feasted in bejeweled robes; where loud choruses swelled to the joyous notes of harp and cymbal and psaltery; where brazen bacchanals drank to Bel from golden goblets looted from Salem’s desecrated temple, there now was the silence and the vacuity and the oblivion of the tomb. Desolation was everywhere made desolate. Of a truth has Babylon the great, “the mother of the abominations of the earth,” “been thrown down and shall be found no more at all.”[542]

We stood on a spot which must have been near that occupied by Nebuchadnezzar when, in the pride of his heart, he exultantly exclaimed:

Is not this the great Babylon which I have built to be the seat
of the kingdom, by the strength of my power and in the glory of
my excellence?

And while the word was yet in the King’s mouth a voice came down
from heaven: To thee, O King Nebuchadnezzar, it is said: Thy
kingdom is taken from thee.[543]

But before this word was uttered the Prophet Jeremias, speaking with all the detail of an eye-witness, had foretold what would be the fate of the proud and wicked city on the Euphrates. How literally true are his predictions, let the reader judge from the following verses:

Thus saith the Lord of hosts: That broad wall of Babylon shall
be utterly broken down, and her high gates shall be burnt with
fire, and the labors of the people shall come to nothing, and of
the nations shall go to the fire and shall perish.[544]

And Babylon shall be reduced to heaps, a dwelling place for
dragons, an astonishment and a hissing, because there is no
inhabitant.[545]

Thou shalt say: O Lord, thou has spoken against this place to
destroy it; so that there shall be neither man nor beast to
dwell therein, and that it should be desolate forever.[546]

Reading these graphic words of the inspired prophet in the presence of the ruins of Babylon as they appear to-day, one can but exclaim with the Royal Psalmist:

“Forever, O Lord, thy word standeth firm in heaven.”[547]

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INDEX

“Aaron the Just,” 418

Abbasside Caliphate, the, 172

Abd-el-Kader, Algerian ruler, 249

Abd-er-Rahman I, 473

Abdul Hamid I, Sultan, 110, 159

Abdul Hamid II, Sultan, 50, 110, 268

Abgar, King, 285, 296

Abraham, Patriarch, 253, 275, 294

Abydas, Strait of, 77

Abyssinia, 312

Achilles, Ashes of, 36

Adadinari IV, 386

Adana, commercial center, 197

Aegean Sea, 90

Afium-Kara-Hissar, 122

Agamemnon, “King of Men,” 87

Agostino, Padre, 263

Aimée Dubuc de Rivery, 110

Albertus Magnus, 6

Alcæus, 105

Aleppo, 255, 263

Alexander I, of Russia, 78

Alexander the Great, 27, 46, 78, 83, 194, 217, 400

Alexandria, 289

Alfold, great central plain of Hungary, 19

Ali, first legitimate Caliph, 445

Al-Khader, 260

Allah, 237

Al-Mamun, Caliph, 420

Al-Mansur, founder of Bagdad, 409

Ameghino, Dr., 453

America, does not know or care about the truth about Turkey, 211

Ammianus Marcellinus, 297

Amru, 316

Amuita, Queen, 488

Anadoli Kavak, 45

Anathema Maran-atha, 327

Anatolia, 183
life of the Osmanlis, 121
ruins of, 106

Anatolian Railway, 99, 121, 157

Anazarbas, 199

Andrae, Dr. Walter, 379

Angel de Villarubbia, Fra, 292

Anglo-French press, hostile to Bagdad railway, 166

Antakia, 255

Anthimos VII, Œcumenical Patriarch, 336

“Antioch the Beautiful,” 218, 255, 289

Antipater, 201

“Apostle and Proto-Martyr among Women,” 172

“Apostle of the Gentiles,” St. Paul, 202

Arabian horses, 441

Arabians, life of the, 442

Arab robbers, protection against, 266

Aracca, the Erech of Scripture, 461

Aramaic language, 272

Aratus, 201

Archimedes, 201

Argonauts, 42

_Argos_, 44

Arianism, 232

Aristarchus of Samothrace, 106

Aristotle, 83

Armenian question, 208

Armenians, business ability of, 271
massacre of 1909, 205
responsible in great part for massacres, 207

Arrians, 101, 305

Artemidorus, 201

Ashbelkala, 380

Ashurnasirpal III, 380

Asia Minor, 183
great trouble of, 149
rich in natural resources, 184

Aspasia, wife of Pericles, 104

Asshur, city of, 294

“Association Laws,” 292

Assuerus, King, 353

Asur, builder of Nineveh, 345, 379

Assyrian Empire, 347

Astronomy, foundations and practice of, by Babylonians, 501

Asurbanipal, the Grand Monarch of Assyria, 353

“A Thousand Nights and a Night,” 261

Attica, 104

Attila, 23

Augustine of Hippo, 369

Augustus, Emperor, 11

Aurelian, Emperor, 217

Babil, mound of, 475, 477

Babylon, 471–508
bird’s-eye view of desolation of, 506
descriptions of, by ancient writers, 483
great wall of, 483
hanging gardens of, 282, 494
present day, 486
tower of, 491

Bagdad, 41, 260, 402–436
ancient glories of, 412
bazaars of, 432
Carmelite priests of, 403
etymological names of, 410
fall of, 425
founding of, 409
modern, 427
periodically visited by the plague, 431
population one-fourth Jewish, 432
the future of, 435
the women of, 432

Bagdad railway, 151
aim and purpose of, 168
completion of, held up by World War, 370
Germany gets concession for, 158
meeting of Czar and Kaiser in 1910 in regard to, 164
source of far-reaching political cataclysm, 169
splendidly built, 167
tunnels of the, 255

Balkan peninsula, 22
peoples of, hated one another, more than the Turks, 22

Barbarossa, Frederick, 78, 121

Barmecides, Slaughter of the, 419

Barnabas, 171

Basra, 264

Bayazid I, Sultan, 46

Bazaars of Bagdad, 432

Beaconsfield, Earl of, 63

Beames, William, 265

Bedouins, 268
life of, 442

Beirut, 310

_Beith Allah_, house of God, 235

Belgrade, 19

Belus, first astronomer, 501

Benjamin of Tudela, 414, 480

Berosus, priest of Bel, 348

Berlin, 1

Bessarion, Cardinal, 335

Bethsabee, 275

Bianca Capello, 110

Bilejik, 122

Bir, 281

Birs-Nimrud, 477

Black Forest, 5

Black Obelisk of Salmanasar II, 200

Black Sea, 30

Black Stone, worshiped by Mohammedans, 235

“Blue Mosque,” 175

Bohadin, 417

Borsippa, 480

Bosphorus, 161
plan for tunnel under, 166
proposed bridge over, 166

Bossuet of Meaux, 369

Botta, Paul Emil, 349

Bourse, the, 163

Bozanti Khan, 188

Bralia, 31

Bréau, Quaterfages de, 456

Bronze Horses of Lysippus, 58

Bruin, Cornelius de, 358

Brusa, 94

Budapest, 18

Bukcovitz, Stephen, 114

Bukharest, city of, 29

Bulgar Dagh, the, 189

Burckhardt, discovers black basaltic block, 275

Burnouf, Eugène, 362

Byron, Lord, 43

Byzantine liturgy, 313

Byzantines, 305

Byzas, son of Neptune, 67

Cæsaropapism, 326

Caetani, Prince, 466

Caliphs, triumphs of the, 281

Callicolone, 87

Calmet, Dam, the Benedictine, 459

Calycadnus, the, 191

Camels, trains of, 185

Canals,
Danube-Elbe, 34
Danube-Oder, 34
Danube-Salonica, 34
Ludwig, 33
Suez, 153

Canon law of Mohammedanism, 244

Cantacuzenos, introduces the Osmanlis into Europe, 113

Capistrau, St. John, 20

Capuchins, the, 291

Caravans, 186
kept in communication with friends by homing pigeons, 267
protection against Arab robbers, 266
trade, 264

Carchemish, the, 276, 282

Carmelite priests, of Bagdad, 403

Cassandra, 91

Castle of Simeon, 256

Catherine de Medici, 110

Catherine II, of Russia, 61, 383

Caulaincourt, French Ambassador, 79

Cerularius, Michael, 325

Chalcedon, 97

Chaldean church, 307

Champollion, Jean François, 356

Chansans de Geste, untruths in, concerning Mohammedanism, 222

Chardin, Jean, 358

Charlemagne, 10, 324

Chateaubriand, 52

Chesney, Colonel, 152

Chilat, 298

Chosroes I, 194, 281, 287

Christianity,
in relation to Mohammedanism, 247
need of change of attitude of the West toward the East, 251

Chrysopolis, the golden city, 96

Chrysostom, St. John, 71

Churches of the East, 303–340

Church of Holy Wisdom, 56

Cicero, 171

Cilician Plain, or _Cilicea Campestris_, 189
population of, 198
the Garden of Eden, 214
three decisive battles of the world fought on, 194

Citadel, at Aleppo, 273

“City of Delight,” the, 29

“City of the Blind,” the, 97

“City of the Saints,” Bagdad, 260

Cleopatra, 204

Code of Hammurabi, 345, 364, 504

Coffee, great beverage of the Moslems, 179

Coffeehouse, Oriental, 181

Columbus, 452

Comnena, Princess Anna, 72

Conquest of Constantinople, 328

Constantine IX, Emperor, 325

Constantine Paleologus, 68

Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 414

Constantine the Great, 68, 321

Constantinople, 51
people of, 65

Constanza, 37

Consul Lirius, 84

Coptic church, 312

Copts, of Egypt, 312

Corinth, 217

Cos, 105

Council of Florence, 327

Crassus, 297

Creation, one of the oldest accounts of, discovered, 462

Crescent and the Cross, 27

Crimean War, 99

Crœsus, King of Lydia, 184

Cross and the Crescent, 27

Crusaders,
castles built by, 257
in Phrygia and Lycaonia, 187
in the footsteps of the, 171
route of the, 257

Crusade, Fourth, 327
time has come for a new but different, 252

Cunaxa, battle of, 375

Cyaxares, 345

Cydnus, 203

Cydnus, the, 190

Cyrus, Bishop, 297

Cyrus the Great, 433
army of, 171

Cyrus the Younger, 281

Dacia, 26

Dacians, the, 30

Damascus, 289, 313

Damoclean sword, 331

Dandolo, Henricus, 68

Dante Alighieri, 247, 295

Danube, 4, 31

Darius, 194, 281

Darius Hystaspes, 31

“Dates of Akkad,” 472

Dati, Leonardo, 457

David, King, 275

Dawson, J. W., 463

Debora, nurse of Rebecca, 298

Deggendorf, 8

De Lesseps, and the Suez Canal, 165

Delitzsch, Friedrich, 363, 369, 448

Delta of the Nile, 317

Dervishes,
dancing or whirling, 173
howling, 96

_Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft_, 387

Devil’s Wall, 9

Diana, Temple of, 217

Diering, Professor, on the Germans, 168

Diocletian, 100

Diodorus Siculus, 201, 483

Dionysides, 201

Dioscur, Patriarch of Alexandria, 315

Disraeli, and the Suez Canal, 153

Djerabis, 282

“Doctrine of Addai,” 286

Dominican Sisters of the Presentation of Tours, 308

Dominicans of Mosul, 307

_Drang nach osten_, Trend toward the East, 155

Duke Leopold, of Austria, 10

Dunkelboden, 7

Earthquakes, 218

Eastern Churches, 303–340
reunion with the Mother Church, 334

Edessa, 284
legend connected with, 284
school of, 297

Egyptian monophysites, 312

Eldred, John, 265, 478

El Farruch, Earth-Divider, 74

Elgin, Lord, 57

Endocia, Empress, 257

Enoch, the Hermes Trismegistes of the Orientals, 284

_Entente Cordiale_, 165

Ephesus, 103

Epicureans, 201

_Ermeni Millet_, 318

Eski Bagdad, old Bagdad, 398

Eski-Shehr, 122

Etchimiadzin, monastery of, 311

Eudocea, Empress, 71

Euphrates, the, 278, 488

Eusebius of Cæsarea, 285

Eutyches, 309

Eutychianism, 309

Euxine Sea, 5, 35

Father Damien, 247

“Father of Medicine,” 105

Fatihah, first chapter of the Koran, 96

Feringees, 319

Figueroa, Don Garcia de Sylva y, 357

Fourth Crusade, 327

Fra Diavolo, 195, 196

Fragistan-Europe, 319

France, as a protector of Turkey, 160
fate of the French railway in Near East, 160
has always encouraged scientific research, 349
not willing to give recommendations to Bagdad railway project, 163
on friendly terms with Ottoman Government, 155

Franciscan friars, 262

Francis I, of France, 155

Frankish States, 328

Fra Oderic of Pordenone, 39

Galambocz, 24

Galata, 65

Galatz, 31

Garden of Eden, 214
location of, 447
motoring in the, 437
one of the oldest accounts of creation discovered, 462

Gargar, valley of, 298

Genghis Kahn, 113

Germans, determined to build Bagdad railway unaided, 166

Germany, dream of world power in the East, 155
gets concession for Bagdad railway, 158

Ghazzali, 417

Girgenti, ruins of, 475

Gisdhubar, 281

Giurgero, 29

Gladstone, William, 64

Glaser, E, 465

Glorietta of Schönbrunn, 12

Godefroy de Bouillon, 121

Golden Fleece, 44

Golden Horn, 47

Gordianus III, 297

Goths, the, 217

Gourea, Antonio de, 357

“Granary of Northern Syria,” 278

Grand Opera House, of Paris, 55

“Great Assassin,” Abdul Hamid, 159

Great Britain and the Gold Coast, 250
attitude toward Bagdad railway, 160
attitude toward Turks, 159
does not wish to know the truth about Turkey, 211
fear of protectorate over Turkey by Teutonic powers, 162
not willing to give recommendation to Bagdad railway project, 163

Great Cemetery, 96

Great Chimu, 497

“Great Idea,” 332

“Great Schism,” 325

Great Sweet Water, 48

Great Wall of China, 483

Greece, people of, in ancient days, 274

Greeks, business ability of, 271

Gregorians, 310

Gregory of Nyssa, 369

Grotefend, Georg Friederich, 360

Hadj, annual pilgrimage to Mecca, 244

Haidar Pasha, military hospital, 98

Hainburg, 14

Halicarnasus, 217

Halil Halid, the Anatolian, 210

Hamme, Frère Lieven de, 263

Hammurabi, Code of, 345

Hanging gardens of Babylon, 282, 494

Hannibal, 94

Haran, city of, 293

Harem, explanation of, and meaning, 126–129

_Haremlik_, 126

Harnack, Professor, 338

Harpies, 44

Harum-al-Rashid, 46, 417

Hazret, Mevlana, 175

Hebron, 275

Hedja railroad, 267

Hellespont, the Thacian, 77

Heraclius, 194, 281

Herbert, Thomas, 358

Hergenroether, Cardinal, 229

Herodotus, 281, 347, 488

Hieron, city of, 46

Higden, Ralph, the Benedictine, 449

Hillah, village of, 349, 471

Hincks, Edward, 362

Hipparchus of Nicæa, 105, 502

Hippocrates, 105

Hippodrome, in Constantinople, 58

Hissarlik, hill of, 86

Hittites, language of undecipherable as yet, 276
third great empire with Egypt and Babylonia, 275

Hogarth, David G., on the Armenian question, 208

Holy City of Jerusalem, 187

Holy Directing Synod, 331

Homer, 36, 81

Hommel, F., 465

Howling Dervishes, 96

Hudibras, 450

Huet, Pierre Daniel, 460

Hugo, Victor, on the Danube, 5

Hulagu Khan, 426

Hunyady Janos, 20

Ibrahim, 117

Iconium, now Konia, 122, 151

Iconoclasts, doctrine of, 102

Ida, 87

_Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, 81

Illock, 20

Imam, the, 236

Iman Dura, town of, 397

Imperial Museum of Constantinople, 273

Independent Church of the Monastery of Mount Sinai, 331

Indicopleustes, 450

International Commission, for regulation of traffic, 33

Io, priestess of Hera at Argos, 45

Ionia, 104

Irene, Empress, 102

Iron gate, 26

Irrigation, of Babylon, 499

Isaac, 295

Ishtar gate, 494

Islam, creed of, 227
liberal policy of, 116
not opposed to influence of foreign science, law or theology, 243
past and present, 220
“the lay religion par excellence,” 233

Island of Achilles, 36

Ismid, 100

Italy, recent campaigns in Tripoli, 250

Jacobites, 309

Jacob, Patriarch, 284

Janissaries, corps of, 114

Jappa, Gate of Jerusalem, 262

Jason, 44

Jebel Hamrin, 389

Jebel Makhul, 389

Jebel Sinjar, 300

Jelal-ed-din-Rumi, tomb of, 172

Jenghiz Khan, 216

Jerablus, 278

Jerusalem, 263

Jinn, land of the, 261

Joachim III, Œcumenical Patriarch, 334

Joan of Arc, 247

Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, 61

Joseph of Burgos, Fra, 292

Judas Iscariot, 295

Julian, the Apostate, 10

Julius Cæsar, 84

Justinian, 321

Kaaba at Mecca, the, 235

Kadi Keni, town of, 97

Kaempfer, Engelrecht, 358

Kaffa, city of, 41

Kaif, favorite pastime of the Moslems, 138

Kalah Sherghat, mound of, 378

Kalat el Gebbar, 389

Kalat Makhul, 389

Kapist, Count, 154

Katholicos, head of the Nestorian church, 306

Kelek, a trip down the Tigris on a, 370–401

Kerbela, sacred shrine of, 444

“Key of the Danube,” the, 24

Khabur, valley of, 298

Khanikin, 154

Khatti, the, 275

Kheta, the, 275

Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, 217

Kohl, J. G., 17

Koldewey, Dr. Robert, 379, 475

Konia, 151
ancient Iconium, 122
inhabitants of, 176
situation and climate of, 174

Koran, 96, 116
contains many beautiful things, 248

Kublai Khan, 40

Kufah, 466

Kurdish race, 208

Kurdistan, 306

Kutchuk Ali Uglu, 194

Kuyunjik, 365

Lane-Poole, Stanley, 243

Language of Babylonia, 500

Latin Empire in Constantinople, establishment of, 327

Latin, language of Hungary for many years, 16

_Latin Millet_, 318

Layard, Austen Henry, 350

Leah, 294

Lebanon, 313

Lebanon Range, 294

“Legend of Abgar,” 285

Lemnos, 87

Lenormant, François, 456

Leo, the Mathematician, 423

Leo XIII, Pope, 334, 338

Lesbos, 105

_Liberator of Bulgaria_, 29

Library of Asurbanipal, 354

Linschoten, John Huyghen Van, 265

Little Sister of the Poor, 248

Little Sweet Water, 48

Lloyd George, David, 64

Lombard, Peter, 449

Loti, Pierre, on the Turks, 140, 144

Louis VII, of France, 121

Lucian, the Greek Voltaire, 346

Lucullus, 297

Ludwig I, of Bavaria, 6

Ludwig Kanal, 33

Lully, Raymond, 252

Mahmud II, Sultan, 110, 156

Malabar, 310

Malik al-Ashraf, 217

Mandeville, Sir John, 378, 451, 482

Manzoni, 8

Marco Polo, 39, 304, 412

Marcus Aurelius, 14

Mardin, city of, 304

_Mare Magnum_ or _Majus_, 39

Margaret de Valdemar, Queen of Norway, Sweden and Denmark, 383

Maria Theresa, Queen, 15

Marie-Joseph, Father, 405

Mark Anthony, 204

Marmora, Sea of, 77

Maronites, 313

Marquise de Pompadour, 110

Marracci, Padre Lodovico, 221, 226

Mar Shimum, Lord Simon, 306

Mar Yohannan, 308

Mausolus, King of Caria, tomb of, 184

Mayo, M., 453

McGahan, Januarius A, 27, 28

Mecca, hadj, or annual pilgrimage to, 224

_Medak_, or story-teller, 177

Medes, the, 345

Mehemet Ali, 189

Melchites, 310

Merodach, temple of, 490

Mesopotamia, 283

Metz, Gautier de, 449

Mevlana, tomb of, 172

Meyer, Professor Wilhelm, 361

Michael Cerularius, 325

Michael Prellos, 326

Midas, King of Phrygia, 184

Moawiah, Saracen, 61

Mohammed, accomplishments of, 230
and his followers, 224
creed of, 227
erroneous notions concerning, 224
preaches monotheism, 230
reformation of his countrymen by, 229

Mohammedanism, campaign of vilification against, 225
changeless in doctrine, 242
Christianity in relation to, 247
has a reverence for our Saviour, 249
much to respect and admire in, 270
not on the wane, 240
“the lay religion par excellence,” 233
theologians comment on, 238

Mohammed II, Sultan, 57, 68, 108, 311, 321

Mohammed V, Sultan, 125

Monogamy, 125

Monophysitism, 309

Monotheism, preached by Mohammed, 230

Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, on the Turkish women, 181

Mopsuestia, city of, 197, 199

Moslems, by law not allowed to erect tombstones, 259
characteristics of, 134
creed of the, 227
forbidden tobacco, 178
great use of coffee, 179
of a deeply religious nature, 221
orthodox, do not like the dervishes, 173
piety and devotion of, 124
prayers, 237
regard paintings and statues as impious, 175
women, their place in things, 129

Mosques, the, 234

Mosul, 298, 299, 303

Mount Athos, community of, 331

Mummius, 217

Murad II, Sultan, 108

Muslin, derivation of the word, 298

Mustansiriyah College, 417

Nabonnassar, era of, 501

Nabopolassar, 345

Nahr Belikh, 293

Napoleon, 78

Nazienzus, St. Gregory, 71

Near East question, modified by the Bagdad railway, 151

Nebuchadnezzar II, 281, 397, 490

Nehi Yunus, 365

Nejef, sacred shrine of, 444

Nestor, 201

Nestorianism, 297, 305

Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 305

Nibelungenlied, 11

Nicæa, 101

Nicene Creed, 102

Nicomedia, 101

Niebuhr, Carsten, 349, 358, 480

Nightingale, Florence, 98

Nimrod, 284

Nimrod’s tower, 478

Nimroud, general aspect of, 376
ruins of, 376

Nineveh, 341–369
built by Asur, 345
early history of, 345

“Niobe of nations,” 310

Nippur, ruins of, 364

Nisibis, 289, 296

Nitocris, Queen, 488

Nizamiyah College, 417

Noachian deluge, 351

Nod, land of, 462

Novatians, 305

Norris, Edwin, 362

“Oak of Weeping,” 298

Obbanes, 281

Œcumenical councils, 102

Œcumenical Patriarchs, 330

Olympus, 90

Omar Khayyám, 417

Opis, 400

Oppert, head of French expedition to Mesopotamia, 482

_Orientalium Dignitas Ecclesiarum_ of Pope Leo XIII, 340

Orkhan, second ruler of the Osmanlis, 95
son of Osman, 107

Orthodox churches, 320

Osman, founder of the Osmanli dynasty, 107

Osmanlis, characteristics of, 133
great sin, one of omission rather than commission, 219
plea for more tolerance to, 150

Oshœne, kingdom of, 284

Ottoman women, 49

Pæstum, ruins of, 475

Pagans, 304

Palace of the Star, 49

Paleologus, Theodore, 114

Palgrave, on Mohammedanism, 241

Palmyra, 217

Pan-Islamism, a force which Christianity must reckon with, 243
greater missionary force than ever, 244
the strengthening of, 268

Parthenon, 57

Parthian Kings, 491

Parthians, 297

Passau, 7

Patriarch of Alexandria, head of the Copts, 312

_Patriarchus Antiochenus Maronitarum_, 314

Paulinists, 305

Paul-Simon, Father, 403

Perez, Father, 403

Pergamus, kingdom of, 185

Peripatetics, 201

Persepolis, 356

Persian Gulf, 466

Persian Kings of the Achæmenian dynasty, 356

Persian satraps, 310

Persian shiites, 445

Persians, school of the, 290

Pescennius Niger, 194

Peter the Great, 331

“Peuteringian Table,” 298

Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, 232, 252

Petervarad, 20

Phanar, the Vatican of the Orthodox church, 330

Philetism, love of one’s race, 330

Photius, 71, 323

Phrygian language, 171

Pietro della Valle, 263

Pillars of Hercules, 325

Pinches, T. F., 462

Plague, in Bagdad, 431

Platonists, 201

“Plato the Divine,” 172

Pliny the Younger, 94

Polygamy, 125

_Pontus Axenus_, 39

Pool of Abraham, 291

Porter, Robert Ker, 480

Potsdam, meeting at, in 1910 of Czar and Kaiser, 164

Poverello of Assisi, 142

Pozsony, 18

_Præclara_, 335

Prayer, of the Moslems, 237

Priam, city of, 88

Primate of the Melchites, 313

Princes Islands, 99

Prophet Daniel, 375

Prophet Jonas, mound of, 352

Prophet Zephaniah, 345

Psametik, King of Egypt, 171

_Pylæ Ciliciæ_, or Cilician Gates, 188

_Pylæ-Tauri_, gate of Taurus, 189

“Queen of the East,” 194

Rachel, 294

Railway, construction of, across Mesopotamia, 152

Rameses II, the greatest of the Pharaohs, 274

Ramsay, Lady, 129

Ramsay, Sir W. M., 129

Raphael’s Madonna of San Sisto, 3

Rashid ud Din, 413

Rassam, Ormuzd, 351

Ratisbon, city of, 3

Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 361, 411

Rebecca, 294

Reign of Terror in France, 212

Rhazes, Mussulman physician, 416

_Rhenus Superbus_, 8

Rhine, river, 11

Richard Cœur de Lion, 10

Rich, Claudius James, 349, 480

Ricouard, Marie, 404

Rio de Janiero, 66

“Rite of Malabar,” 314

Robinson, Reverend Paschal, 141

Romans, road builders of antiquity, 254

Roumania, 26

Roxalana, the Muscovite, 109

Royal Art Gallery of Dresden, 3

“Royal Road,” 121, 253

_Rum Millet_, 318

Russia, attitude toward the Bagdad railway, 160
campaigns in the Transcaucasia, 250
waives all share in Bagdad railway, 164

Russian Nihilist, Armenian revolutionists inspired by, 206

Russians, 28

Safia, the Venetian, 110

St. Athanasius of Alexandria, 335

St. Augustine, 228

St. Basil’s liturgy, 340

St. Bernard, 299

St. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, 315

St. Dominic, Sons of, 341

St. Ephrem, 290

St. Francis, Sons of, 142

St. George and the dragon, 24

St. Gregory Mazienzen, 333

St. Gregory the Illuminator, 310

St. Jerome, 232, 299

St. John of Chrysostom, 333

St. John of Damascus, 231

St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of, 217

St. Mary of Kanobin, 314

St. Paul, 171, 189
life and career of, 202–205

St. Peter of Alcantara, 406

St. Prosper of Aquitaine, 216

St. Simeon Stylites, 257

St. Stephen, cathedral of, 12

St. Thecla, 172

St. Theodore of Studium, 339

St. Theresa, 247

St. Thomas, church of, in Malabar, 314

St. Vincent de Paul, 247

Sainte-Thérèse, Father Bernard de, 404

Saladin, Sultan, 223
birthplace of, 393

Salmanassar I, 376

Salmanassar II, black obelisk of, 200

Salmanassar III, 386

Sammuramat, or Semiramis, 381

Samothrace, 87

San Marco, Cathedral of, 58

San Stephano, treaty of, 63

Santa Sophia, church of, 53

Sapor I, 297

Sappho, 105

Saracens, 317

Sardanapalus, 203

Sargan II, 386

Sarzec, M. Ernest de, 363

Satyrs, 476

Saulcy, M. de, 362

Schneider, Siegmund, German engineer, 166

Scholarios, George, 328

School of Edessa, 297

“School of the Persians,” 290

Schrader, Eberhard, 363

Second Council of Lyons in 1274, 327

See of Constantinople, 325

_Selamlik_, 127

Seleucia, city of, 491

Seleucia-Ctesiphon, 305

Seleucids, the, 316

Seleucus Nicator, 491

Seleucus, the Chaldean astronomer, 503

Selim I, Sultan, 108, 117

Seljuk Sultans of Rum, 172

Semiramis, 381
family and connections of, 386

“Semiramis of the North,” the, 61

Sennacherib, 375

Septimus Severus, 14, 194, 297

Serbians, against the Turks, 148

Serpent Column from Delphi, 59

Seven Sleepers, legend of the, 197

Shamsi-Adad V, 380

Simeon, castle of, 256

“Siren of the Nile,” 205

Sister of Charity, 247

Sisters of St. Francis from Lons, 292

Skobeleff, General, 28

Smith, George, 351

Sobieski, John, 13

Solyman the Magnificent, 108

Solyman Pasha, 78

Sons of St. Dominic, 303

Sons of St. Francis, 142

Sanusiyahs, the, 246

Stamboul, 48

Stanley, Dean, 337

Stoics, 201

Stone of Nebi Yunus, 352

Strabo, 201

Suez Canal, 153

Sunnites, the, 445

Syrians, the, 272

Syrian Uniates, 310

Tabriz, city of, 41

Tallyrand, 34

Tarsus, 190, 202
once the center of Greek thought and knowledge, 201

Tartars, 306

Taurus Mountains, 183

Tekrit, 392

Telloh, city of, 364

Temple of Fame, 6

Tenedos, 87

Ten Thousand Greeks, the, 171

Terrestrial Paradise, dispute as to, 447

“Testament of Leo XII,” 335

Teufelsmauer, Devil’s Wall, 9

Teutonic Powers, 162

Thaddée, Father, 403

Thapsacus, 281

Thare, 294

“The Great River” of the Jews, 282

Theodora, daughter of Cautacuzenos, 114

Theodora, Empress, 102

Theodosius II, Emperor, 257

“The Round City,” 411

“The Terrible Turk,” 148

Thévenot, Jean de, 391

“Thirty pieces of silver,” 295

Thracian Hellespont, 77

Tiglath-Pileser I, King of Assyria, 293, 386

Tigris, the, 278

Timok River, 27

Timur, 113, 216

Tobacco, use of, forbidden by Moslems, 178

Tomi, 37

Tonietti, Sig. A., 154

Tower of Babel, mound of Babil not the, 479

Trade routes of the Near East, 253

Trajan, Emperor, 298

Trampe, Herr, 168

Treaty of San Stephano, 63

Trojan War, 319

Troubadours, the, 222

Troy, glory of, immortal, 93
plain of, 88

“Turk,” applied by Osmanlis when referring to a brutal man, 112

Turks, propaganda against, 123
treatment of the women, 131

Turkey, Great Powers cannot, without trouble, treat, as pariah
nation, 213

Tyre, city of, 217

Uniate Copts, 313

Uniates, 308

Urban VIII, Pope, 404

Urfa, 284

“Uriah the Hittite,” 275

Ur of the Chaldees, 294

Vale of Bozanti, 188

Valle, Pietro della, 357, 478

Vasco da Gama, 73, 264

Venice, 58

_Via Sacra_, of Babylon, 497

Vienna, 13

Villamil, Emeterio, 453

Violet, M. H., 399

Vladimir, King of Russia, 339

Volga River, 32

Voltaire, 269
on the Koran, 225

von Bieberstein, Baron Marschall, 158

von Hammer-Purgstall, 304

von Moltke, 156

von Pressel, Wilhelm, German engineer, 166

von Siemens, Dr. George, 156

Wahabis, the, 179

Wallachians, 114

Whirling dervishes, 173

“White City” of Serbia, 21

Whitman, Sidney, on the Turks, 147

Wiseman of Westminster, 369

_Wo Lag das Paradies_, 466

Wolf of the Capitol in Rome, bronze, 59

Worship, freedom of, allowed by the Turks, 145

Xenocrates, 97

Xenophon, 46, 189, 281

Xerxes, 59, 77, 83

Yashmak, veil worn by Moslem women, 128

Zab, the, 388

Zenobia, “Queen of the East,” 194

Zeno, Emperor, 201, 297

Zeus, 45, 91

Zikr ul Aawaze, 376

Zobeide, tomb of, 440

Zoroaster, religion of, 256

FOOTNOTES:

[1] When in meditation during the solitary night, I contemplate the waves, there arises in the bright moonlight the pretty water nymph from the Danube, from the beautiful blue Danube.

[2] He loved to wander over unknown places and to see unknown rivers, his curiosity lessening the fatigue.

[3] _Le Rhin_, Letter XIV.

[4] Ovid, _Metamorphoses_, IV, 294, 295.

[5] 01., III, 13–15.

[6] _The Danube_, p. 71 (by W. Beattie, London, 1843).

[7] _Cf._ _A History of the Life of Richard, Coeur de Lion, King of England_, Vol. II, p. 419 (by G. P. James, London, 1854).

[8] Adventure XXII.

[9] _History of the House of Austria from the Foundation of the Monarchy by Rhodolph of Hapsburgh to the Death of Leopold the Second_, Vol. IV, pp. 440, 441 (by W. Cox, London, 1820).

[10] _Cf._ Voltaire’s _Précis du Siècle de Louis_ XV, Chap. VI (Paris, 1828). The application to Maria Theresa of the title _Rex_--King--instead of _Regina_--Queen--was in accordance with a peculiar custom in Hungary which required that her signature on all public documents should be Maria Theresa Rex.

[11] Fraser’s _Magazine_, Vol. XXII, p. 692. Another Englishman declares: “The Latin is so common in Hungary that during my travels I frequently heard the servants and the postillions converse and dispute with great fluency in that language.” Cox, _op. cit._, Vol. V, p. 440.

[12] _Tour of Austria_, p. 372 (London, 1844).

[13] Another saying frequently accompanies this, to wit: _Nullum vinum, nisi Hungaricum_--Hungarian is the only wine.

[14] Nevill Forbes, in _The Balkans, A History of Bulgaria, Servia, Greece, Roumania, Turkey_, p. 48 (Oxford, 1915).

[15] _The Balkans_, p. 6 (Oxford, 1915).

[16] It is curious to remember that Attila’s first attack upon the Roman Empire “was delivered at the very spot upon the Danube where the Germanic powers in August, 1914, began their offensive. Attila directed his armies upon the frontiers of modern Servia at the point where the Save joins the Danube, where the city of Singidunum rose then and where to-day Belgrade stands.” _Cf._ _Attila and the Huns_, p. 37 (by Edward Hutton, New York, 1915).

[17] See the _Life of Cardinal Mezzofanti_, pp. 411–419 (by C. W. Russell, London, 1858).

[18] _Cf._ _Historical Geography of Europe_, p. 70 (London, 1881).

[19] Ibid., p. 71.

[20] While I knew the honesty and truthfulness of McGahan too well ever to question his statements regarding the cruelties of the Turks which he so vividly described, I have never had any doubt that most of the atrocities that so shocked the world at the time were provoked by the people of the Balkans themselves. Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks had organized a systematic propaganda for the dismemberment of Macedonia and “when those methods flagged a bomb would be thrown at, let us say, a Turkish official by an _agent provocateur_ of one of the three players, inevitably resulting in the necessary massacre of innocent Turks, and an outcry in the European press.” _Cf._ Nevill Forbes, _op. cit._ p. 66.

“The Bulgarian Atrocities,” according to another well-informed writer, “were a clever and unscrupulous piece of diplomacy on the part of the Russian Foreign Office and of the Pan-Slavist Committees. In May, 1876, the Bulgarian Committees at Bukharest and Odessa organized an insurrection which broke out simultaneously in many of the large towns of Bulgaria, accompanied by abominable atrocities on Moslems, ‘designedly committed by the insurgents as being the means best calculated to bring on a general revolution in Bulgaria, by rendering the position of the Christians, however peaceably inclined, so intolerable under the indiscriminate retaliation which the governing race were sure to attempt, as to force them in self-defence to rise.’” W. E. D. Allen in _The Turks in Europe_, p. 166 (London, 1919).

[21] “Of all the men,” writes Forbes, “who have gained reputation as war correspondents I regard McGahan as the most brilliant.” “He used to be called ‘The Cossack correspondent’ because of the swiftness of his movements. Frank Millet names him ‘Will-o’-the-wisp of war writers.’ George Augustus Sala pronounced him one of the most cosmopolitan men he had ever met--‘a scholar, a linguist, a shrewd observer, a politician wholly free from party prejudice, a traveler as indefatigable as Schyler, as dashing as Barnaby, as dauntless as Stanley.’” “No man of his age in recent years,” avers his friend, Lieutenant Greene, “has done more to bring honor on the name of America throughout the length and breadth of Europe and far into Asia.--I suppose that he and Skobeleff stood at the head of their respective professions.

“Year after year the praises of this bold adventurer and vivid writer are chanted in rude verse by the peasants of the Balkans, and every year the anniversary of his premature death is commemorated by the singing of a requiem mass in the cathedral at Tirnovo, the ancient capital of Bulgaria. When he was riding among the Bulgarian villages in war time the peasants used to crowd about and kiss his hands, hailing him as their liberator, and there were many of the Bulgars who agitated for the choice of this wandering writer as the head of the principality whose creation his dispatches had done so much to establish.” _Cf._ _Famous War Correspondents_, Chap. IV (by F. L. Bullad, Boston, 1914).

[22] After Trajan had conquered the Dacians he established in the newly acquired territory a large body of Roman colonists. But they were by no means all of Latin blood, for they were drawn, according to Eutropius, from all parts of the Roman Empire--_ex toto orbe romano_. Numerous votive inscriptions found in the country show that among the colonists besides those from Italy, were representatives from Gaul, Germany, Dalmatia, Phrygia, Galatia, Africa, Egypt, and far-off Palmyra, But, notwithstanding this complexity of ethnical stock, it was always those of Latin blood and Latin speech that dominated.

[23] For an illuminating account, with a map, of this much discussed campaign of Darius against the Scythians, see _The Geographical System of Herodotus_, Vol. I, sec. 7, 8 (by J. Rennell, London, 1830). _Cf_. also _The Five Great Monarchies_, Vol. III, pp. 434, 435 (by G. Rawlinson, New York, 1881); _The History of Herodotus_, Melpomene, 87–143; E. H. Bunbury’s _A History of Ancient Geography Among the Greeks and Romans from the earliest Ages till the Fall of the Roman Empire_, Vol. I., pp. 202–206, 217 (London, 1883).