Chapter XVIII: Babylon (3)

[24] _Cf._ _Le Danube, Aperçu historique, économique et politique_, Chap. II (by C. I. Baicoianu, Paris, 1917).

[25] See _Encyclopædia Britannica_ (11th ed.).

[26] _Cf._ _The Orient Question_, Appendix C (by Prince Lazarovich-Hebelianovich, New York, 1913).

[27] _Cf._ Baicoianu, _op. cit._, p. 14. See also for an illuminating discussion of this same subject _La Question du Danube, Histoire Politique du Bassin du Danube; Études des divers régimes applicables à la navigation du Danube_ (by G. Demorgny, Paris, 1911).

[28] A venerable legend has it that Achilles met here the shade of Helen of Troy whom he had loved in life, by hearsay, although he had never seen her.

[29] These alleged appearances of Achilles and the Dioscuri, referred to by Arrian, were evidently the lambent electrical discharges known as St. Elmo’s Fires. They are also called corposant, Helena, and, when in pairs, the Dioscuri--namely, Castor and Pollux.

[30] _Tristia_, Lib. III, _Elegia_, III.

[31] _Tristia_, Lib. II, _Elegia_, IX.

[32] For the various names of the Euxine or Black Sea, _cf._ _The Book of Ser Marco Polo_, Vol. I, p. 3 (trans, by H. Yule, London, 1903); _Cathay and The Way Thither_, Vol. II, p. 98 (printed for the Hakluyt Society, London, 1913).

[33] So paramount from the twelfth to the fifteenth century was the commerce of Genoa and Venice that an Italian writer does not hesitate to declare that, “during four centuries, the Genoese and Venetians were the arbiters of the destinies of Europe; that they alone thronged the trade-routes of Asia and Africa; that they alone controlled the commerce of these continents; that they alone civilized their barbarous inhabitants and dispelled the darkness of the Middle Ages.” _Nuova Istoria della Repubblica di Genova, del Suo Commercio e della Sua Letteratura dalle Origini all’ Anno 1797_, Vol. I, p. 7 (by Michel-Giuseppe Canale, Florence, 1858).

In marked contrast to this division of the commerce of the world between Genoa and Venice, the Venetian author, Fabio Mutinelli, would claim a mercantile monopoly for his countrymen. “To them alone,” he writes, “are earth and sea equally open; they alone are the channel of all the riches and the furnishers of all the world which poured into their hands all the money which it possessed.” _Del Commercio dei Veneziani_, p. 126 (Venice, 1835).

For interesting accounts of the Euxine trade routes during the period in question the reader may consult with profit _Histoire du Commerce de la Mer Noire_ (by Elie de la Primaudaie); _Le Danube_, Chap. II (by C. I. Baicoianu, Paris, 1917); _Intercourse Between India and the Western World from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Rome_ (by H. G. Rawlinson, Cambridge, England, 1916); _Travels of Marco Polo_, Vol. I, Bk. I, Chap. IX (by Henry Yule, London, 1903). This masterly work is specially valuable for its numerous maps indicating the routes of Marco Polo, as well as those of the elder Polos through Asia. See also _Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter_, Vol. II, pp. 76, 78, 158 ff. (by Wilhelm Heyd, Stuttgart, 1879).

[34] Canto V, strophe v. Compare Byron’s graphic description of a storm on the Euxine with that given by Ovid in which he vividly portrays the struggling winds as they furiously rush against one another from all points of the compass.

[35] The Sweet Waters of Asia and the Sweet Waters of Europe on the Upper reaches of the Golden Horn are so called in contradistinction to the salt waters of the Bosphorus.

[36] _Constantinople_, Vol. I, p. 136 (by E. A. Grosvenor, Boston, 1895).

[37] Among the Ottomans and other eastern peoples the capital of Turkey is usually known as Stamboul, or Istamboul, a corruption of Constantinople. It is also called Constantineh. Frequently it is referred to as _Roma Nova_--New Rome. In the official documents of the Greek Patriarch this name is still retained. The Slavs love to speak of it as Tsargrad--the Castle of Cæsar. To Mohammedan poets, who are prodigal in the epithets which they apply to it, it is the City of Islam, the Portal of Felicity, the Gate of Happiness, the Mother of the World.

The municipal government of Constantinople embraces all the cities and villages fringing the Bosphorus from the Euxine to the Sea of Marmora, including the Princes Islands. But, although the superficial extent of the municipality--counting the water expanse of the Strait, the Golden Horn and the northern part of the Marmora--is quite large, its actual land area is comparatively restricted.

[38] _Voyage en Orient_, Tom. III, p. 190 (Brussels, 1835).

[39] _Through South America’s Southland_, Chap. IV (New York, 1916).

[40] For an elaborate account of Justinian’s marvelous temple see _The Church of Sancta Sophia Constantinople_, Chaps. III, IV, XI (by Lethaby and Swainson, London, 1894).

[41] _Annalium_, Pars V, p. 498 (by M. Glycas, Bonn).

[42] _History of Architecture_, Vol. II, p. 321 (London, 1867).

[43] Byron, “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage,” Canto II, Stanza 77.

[44] The name given by the Italians to the official residence of the Grand Signor in Constantinople. The Turks use the word _Serai_, which is derived from the Persian serai, signifying palace--a word which is applied to any residence of Sultan. In English seraglio is frequently, but erroneously, confused with harem.

[45] _The Eastern Question_, p. 139 _et seq._ (by J. A. R. Marriot, Oxford, 1917). Whatever may be said regarding the genuineness of the famous “Political Testament” of Peter the Great “there can be no question that it accurately represented the trend and tradition of Russian policy in the eighteenth century. Constantinople was clearly indicated as the goal of Russian ambition. The Turks were to be driven out of Europe by the help of Austria; a good understanding was to be maintained with England and every effort was to be made to accelerate the dissolution of Persia and to secure the Indian trade. Whether inherited or not these were the principles which for nearly forty years inspired the policy of Peter the Great’s most brilliant successor on the Russian throne, Catherine II.” Marriot, _op. cit._, p. 138.

[46] _Cf._ _Napoleon et Alexandre Ier_, Vol. I, p. 268 (by Albert Vadal, Paris, 1869). The famous Field Marshal von Moltke expressed a similar opinion when he wrote, in 1846, “Rom wurde eine Weltstadt durch seine Männer, Konstantinople durch seine Weltstellung”--Rome was a world-city because of her men, Constantinople because of her world location. _Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwürdigkeiten des General-Feldmarschalls_, Tom. I, p. 165 (by Grafen Helmuth von Moltke, Berlin, 1892). Mr. D. G. Hogarth, in his valuable work, _The Nearer East_, declares: “No other site in the world enjoys equal advantages, nor perhaps ever will enjoy them. For the Isthmus of Suez is beset by deserts, and that of Panama has a climate not to be compared. Constantinople not only has an open and most fertile environment and easy access to the interior of both Europe and Asia, but its position between two seas and exposure on the side of Russia gives it an almost northern climate. Add to this a dry, sloping site, a superb harbor, an admirable outer roadstead, easy local communication by way of the Bosphorus and an inexhaustible water supply, and it is easy to agree that those who founded Chalcedon but left Byzantium to others, were indeed blind.” Pp. 240, 241 (New York, 1902).

[47] Beaconsfield boasted on his return from Berlin to England that he had secured “peace with honor.” McGahan, the brilliant war correspondent, declared as soon as he read the treaty, that “it was not worth the paper on which it was written.” An English writer, forty years later, stigmatized it as a treaty that “was concluded in a spirit of shameless bargain, with a sublime disregard of elementary ethics and in open contempt of the right of civilized peoples to determine their own future. It was essentially a temporary arrangement concluded between rival imperialist states. And it sowed the seeds of the crop of ‘Nationalist’ wars in which the Balkan peoples were to be embroiled for the next half century.” _The Turks in Europe_, p. 179 (by W. E. D. Allen, London, 1919).

[48] _Cent Projects de Partage de la Turquie_, 1281–1913 (by T. J. Djuvara, Paris, 1913).

[49] The distinguished Russian scholar, Prince Eugène Nicolayevich Trubetskoy, expresses in a single sentence the dominant idea of his countrymen when he declares: “The possession of the Straits”--the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles--“may become indispensable for Russia in order to secure her daily bread; the possession of Tsargrad as the condition of her power and importance as a State.” See his lecture _Saint Sophia, Russians’ Hope and Calling_, p. 8 (London, 1916).

[50] “The eternal Eastern Question,” writes the historian Freeman, “will never be settled till the Greek nation once more has its own. We claim for that nation that whole extent of land in Europe and Asia where the Greek race and speech is the race and speech of the Christian population; and with that we claim for them their own ancient capital, the city of the Constantines, the Leos, and the Basils. We claim all this on the score of simple justice, on the score of that general philanthropy which, when Greeks are concerned, is not ashamed of the name of philhellenism.”

Again, he declares: “The fact that Constantinople has been and is and ever must be the head of South-eastern Europe is a practical fact which stares us in the face. And while this fact may, with those who look below the surface, awaken some fears which do not lie on the surface, allay some fears which do. Constantinople can never be the head of a province; it must be the head of an empire. But it does not follow that it can now be the head of an universal empire. Its annexation by a distant power would, in all moral certainty lead to the dismemberment of the power that annexed it.” _Historical Essays, Third Series_, pp. 376, 277 (London, 1879).

[51] _Syria, the Desert and the Sown_, p. X (by G. L. Bell, London, 1908).

[52] _Constantinople_, Vol. I, p. 403 (by E. A. Grosvenor, Boston, 1895).

[53] This tragic event is vividly pictured by the poet Shelley when in his lyrical drama, Hellas, he sings:

_A chasm_
_As of two mountains, in the wall of Stamboul;_
_And in that ghastly breach the Islamites,_
_Like giants on the ruins of a world,_
_Stand in the light of sunrise. In the dust_
_Glimmers a kingless diadem, and one_
_Of regal part has cast himself beneath_
_The stream of war. Another proudly clad_
_In golden arms spurs a Tartarian barb_
_Into the gap, and with his iron mace_
_Directs the torrent of that tide of men._
_And seems--he is--Mohamet._

[54] According to the eminent Austrian historian, Von Hammer-Purgstall, the city sustained, from the time of its foundation until its capture by Mohammed II, no fewer than twenty-nine sieges. _Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman_, Tom. II, pp. 428, 521–523 (Paris, 1835).

[55] _Op. cit._ p. 251.

According to Augier de Busbecq, the scholarly Flemish diplomat, who, in the middle of the sixteenth century, spent eight years at the Ottoman Court, Constantinople “is a city which nature herself has designed to be the mistress of the world. It stands in Europe, looks upon Asia, and is within reach by sea of Egypt and the Levant on the south and the Black Sea and its European and Asiatic shores on the north.” _Letters_, Vol. I, p. 123 (trans. by D. Forster, Paris, 1881).

[56] Frederic Harrison, _The Fortnightly Review_, June, 1919, pp. 840, 841.

[57] Became a Greek by ceding to the Pastor. Paradiso, XX, 57.

[58] Frederic Harrison, _The Fortnightly Review_, April, 1894, pp. 439, 440.

[59] _Cf._ the author’s _Great Inspirers_, p. 16 (New York, 1917).

[60] _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, Vol. V, Chap. LIII.

[61] _Op. cit._, Vol. VI, Chap. LXVI. “Indeed,” declares a recent writer, “when we consider that this state--the Byzantine Empire--was for a thousand years the defence of Europe against Asiatic invaders, which beat back the Arabs and Seljouks, and checked for a century the advance of the Ottomans, when at the height of their power; that during this period it represented civilization in the midst of barbarism, and maintained a wide commerce by land and sea; that by its missionaries both the Russians and the South Slavonic peoples were evangelized, and the Cyrillic alphabet invented; that to its care in preserving and multiplying manuscripts the existence of a great part of our classical literature is due; and finally, that it was the birthplace of Italian painting, and that its architecture has exercised a greater power than any other style, reaching in its effects from Spain to India; we can hardly overestimate its influence on the world’s history.” _History of Greece From Its Conquest by the Romans to the Present Time, B.C. 146 to A.D. 1864_, Vol. I, p. vii (by George Finlay, Oxford, 1877).

[62] Among the more distinguished Hellenists besides Lascaris and Chrysoloras, whose labors in Italy contributed enormously towards initiating and developing the work of the Renaissance, and who reflected undying honor on the Greek name, must be mentioned Theodore Gaza, Gemistus Plethon, John Argyropoulos, George of Trebizond, Demitrius Chalcondyles, and Cardinal Bessarion--who were all, as Hody, the noted Hellenist of Oxford, declared, “_viri nullo ævo perituri_.”

[63] Marriott, _op. cit._, Chap. II.

[64] _Napoleon et Alexander I, L’Alliance Russe sous Le Premier Empire_, Tom. I, p. 306 _et seq._ (by Albert Vandal, Paris, 1896).

[65] Note to “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage,” Canto III, strophe XCI.

[66] How different is now the condition of the Trojan plain from what it was in ancient times! Then according to Schliemann it contained “eleven flourishing cities, all of which were probably autonomous and of which five coined their own money. If we consider further that the eleven cities, besides two villages, existed here simultaneously in classical antiquity and that one of these--the city of Ilium itself--had at least seventy thousand inhabitants, we are astounded and amazed how such large masses of people could have found the means of subsistence here, whilst the inhabitants of the present seven poor villages of the plain have the greatest difficulty in providing for their miserable existence. And not only had these ancient cities an abundance of food but they were also so populous and so rich that they could carry on wars and, as their ruins prove, they could erect temples and many other public buildings of white marble; Ilium especially must have been ornamented with a vast number of such sumptuous edifices.” _Troja, Results of the Latest Researches and Discoveries on the Site of Homer’s Troy_, pp. 345, 346 (New York, 1884).

[67] “The main contention was that the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ were a collection of songs composed at different times and of very unequal values and that, like the _Niebelungen Lied_, they could be resolved into shorter lays, each celebrating the deeds of individual heroes. The more famous of these heroes, Achilles for example, like Siegfried, had, it was maintained, their ultimate origin in mythological personages, once worshiped as divine.” _Schliemann’s Excavations, an Archæological and Historical Study_, p. 17 (by C. Schuchhardt, London, 1891).

[68]

_Troy--O horror!--the common grave of Europe and Asia,_
_Troy--the untimely tomb of all heroes and heroic deeds._
LXVIIIA.

[69] Herodotus. Book VII, 43.

[70] Troy, or Ilium, as the excavations of Schliemann and Dörpfeld have shown, was destroyed and rebuilt no fewer than seven times. During the Roman period it was known as _Ilium Novum_ and was honored as the city of Æneas and consequently, as the parent of Rome. It was because of this fabulous origin of the Romans that Constantine first planned to establish the seat of empire on the plain of Troy instead of locating it on the site occupied by Byzantium between the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn. Fortunately he gave his preference to the spot where has since stood the noble city which still bears his name.

_Ilium Novum_ was for a long time the seat of a bishopric, but, since it was plundered by the Turks, in the beginning of the fourteenth century, it has lain in ruins.

For illuminating accounts of Schliemann’s epoch-making investigations see, besides the _Troja_ above mentioned, his _Troy and its Remains_ (New York, 1876); _Ilios, the City and Country of the Trojans_ (New York, 1881); and Schuchhardt’s work already quoted.

Dr. Schliemann has justly been acclaimed the creator of prehistoric Greek archæology. “He has introduced,” writes Oxford’s distinguished Orientalist, “a new era into the study of classical antiquity, has revolutionized our conceptions of the past, has given the impulse to that ‘research of the spade’ which is producing such marvelous results throughout the Orient and nowhere more than in Greece itself. The light has broken over the peaks of Ida and the long-forgotten ages of prehistoric Hellas and Asia Minor are lying bathed in it before us. We now begin to know how Greece came to have the strength and will for that mission of culture to which we of this modern world are still indebted. We can penetrate into a past of which Greek tradition had forgotten the very existence. By the side of one of the jade axes which Dr. Schliemann has uncovered at Hissarlik, the _Iliad_ itself is but a thing of yesterday. We are carried back to a time when the empires of the Assyrians and the Hittites did not as yet exist, when the Aryan forefathers of the Greeks had not as yet, perhaps, reached their new home in the south, but when the rude tribes of the neolithic age had already begun to traffic and barter, and travelling caravans conveyed the precious stone of the Kuen-lun from one extremity of Asia to another. Prehistoric archæology in general owes as much to Dr. Schliemann’s discoveries as the study of Greek history and Greek art.” Professor A. H. Sayce, in the introduction to Dr. Schliemann’s _Troja_, pp. viii, ix.

[71] According to Suetonius and Horace both Julius Cæsar and Augustus, like Constantine the Great, contemplated making Ilium--Troy--the capital of the Roman Empire.

Lucan not only makes Julius visit the Ilium of his day and “each story’d place survey”--

_Circuit exustæ nomen memorabile Trojae_--

but also has him register a solemn vow to restore Priam’s city to its ancient state and honors--

_Restituam populos, grata vice mœnia reddent_
_Ausomidæ Phrygibus, Romanaque Pergama surgent._

So proud, indeed, were the Romans of Ilium and of their descent from Æneas that their countrymen, under the command of Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, on getting their first view of the home of their forefathers from the Trojan shore, were so moved, Virgil informs us, that they exultingly exclaimed:

_O patria, O divom domus Ilium et incluta bello_
_Mœnia Dardanidum!_

“The dignity and power of Ilium being thus prodigiously enhanced we must find it but natural,” observes Grote, “that the Ileans assumed to themselves exaggerated importance as the recognized parents of all conquering Rome.” _History of Greece_, Vol. I, p. 328.

[72] Purgatorio, XXII, 102.

[73] _Troy, Its Legend, History and Literature_, p. 122 (by S. G. Benjamin, New York, 1916).

[74] _Highlands of Turkey_, Vol. I, p. 22 (by H. F. Tozer, London, 1869). (2) Odyssey, Vi, 51 _et seq._

[75] So impressed was Kinglake, after visiting the Trojan plain, with the accuracy of the poet’s description of the most salient features of the landscape that he declared: “Now I know that Homer had _passed along here_.” _Eothen_, Chap. IV.

[76] “He who would understand the poet must visit the poet’s country.” Regarding Homer’s birthplace an anonymous poet long ago wrote:

_Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenæ,_
_Orbis de patria oertat, Homere, tua._

But in whichever of these place the immortal bard was born, if in any of them, it is quite evident to even the casual visitor to Troy that the poet was thoroughly familiar with its environment which he describes with such marvelous precision.

[77] _Iliad_, XI, 89, 90.

[78] Thus the distinguished geographer, Elisée Reclus, in speaking of the Mysian Olympus, says positively: “West of the Galatian Olympus, this is the first that has received the name of Olympus, and amongst the fifteen or twenty other peaks so named, this has been chosen by popular tradition as the chief abode of the gods.” _The Earth and Its Inhabitants_. _Asia_, Vol. IV, p. 261 (New York, 1885). “This,” declares another writer, “is ‘the Olympus crowned with snow’ up ‘whose lofty crags the everliving gods mounted, Jove first in ascension.’” _The Sultan and his subjects_, Vol. II, p. 226 (by R. Davey, New York, 1897). _Cf._ also _Constantinople_, Vol. I, p. 30 (by R. W. Walsh, London, 1836). Lady Mary Wortley Montague calls the Mysian Olympus:

_The Parliament seat of heavenly powers._

[79] Ibid., XIV, 251–257.

[80] Ibid., XIV, 317.

[81] Mr. Gladstone, that enthusiastic student of Homer and of

“_Immortal Greece, dear land of glorious lays_,”

in his preface to Dr. Schliemann’s notable work on Mycenæ does not hesitate to declare: “There is no preliminary bar to our entertaining the capital question whether the tombs now unearthed and the remains exposed to view are the tombs and remains of the great Agamemnon or his compeers who have enjoyed through the agency of Homer such a protracted longevity of renown.... The conjecture is that these may very well be the tombs of Agamemnon and his company.”

Dr. Schliemann, writing on the same subject, tells us: “I have never doubted that a King of Mycenæ, by name Agamemnon, his charioteer Eurymedon, a princess Cassandra and their followers were treacherously murdered either by Ægisthus at a banquet, ‘like an ox at the manger,’ as Homer says, or in the bath by Clytemnestra, as the later tragic poets represent; and I firmly believed that the murdered persons had been interred in the Acropolis” of Mycenæ.... “My firm faith in the traditions made me undertake my late excavations in the Acropolis and led to the discovery of the five tombs with their immense treasures.” _Mycenæ; a Narrative of Researches and Discoveries at Mycenæ and Tyryns_, pp. 334, 335 (London, 1878).

[82] Plinii _Epistulae_ No. 97. “_Nequi enim dubitabam, qualecumque esset quod faterentur, pertinaciam certe et inflexibilem obstinationem debere puniri._”

[83] _The Koran: Commonly called the Alcoran of Mohammed_, p. I (Philadelphia, 1870).

[84] The reason why the Ottoman whose home is on the West of the Bosphorus desires to be buried in the cemetery of Scutaria is that “he considers himself a stranger and a sojourner in Europe and the Moslem of Constantinople turns his last lingering look to this Asiatic cemetery where his remains will not be disturbed when the Giaour regains possession of this European city, an event which he is firmly convinced will sometime come to pass. Thus the dying Turk feels a yearning for his native soil; like Joseph in the land of Egypt he exacts a promise from his people that ‘they would carry his bones hence’ and like Jacob, says ‘bury me in my grave which I have in the land of Canaan.’” _Constantinople_, p. 13 (by R. Walsh, London, 1836).

[85] Mohammed enjoined his followers to visit graveyards frequently. “Visit graves,” he says, for “of a verity they shall make you think of futurity.” Again, he declares: “Whoso visiteth the graves of his two parents every Friday, or one of the two, he shall be written a pious child, even though he might have been in the world, before that, disobedient to them.”

[86] The world has long admired the noble qualities of heart and mind of Florence Nightingale but admiration for her has been greatly enhanced by the recent publication of certain letters of hers, previously unknown, which she wrote to one of her associates in the care of the sick and wounded soldiers of the Crimean War. I reproduce a part of one of which she addressed to the Mother Superior of a band of Catholic sisters who were her collaborators in the great work of mercy to which she devoted herself with such sublime self-abnegation:

“Your going,” she writes, “is the greatest blow I have yet had. But God’s blessing and my love and gratitude go with you, as you well know. You know well, too, that I shall do everything I can for the Sisters whom you have left me. But it will not be like you. Your wishes will be our law. And I shall try to remain in the Crimea for their sakes as long as any of us are here. I do not presume to express praise or gratitude to you, Reverend Mother, because it would look as if I thought you had done the work not unto God but unto me. You were far above me in fitness for the General Superintendency, both in wordly talent of administration, and far more in the spiritual qualifications which God values in a superior. The being placed over you in our unenviable reign in the East was my misfortune and not my fault. Dearest Reverend Mother what you have done for the work no one can ever say. But God rewards you for it with Himself. If I thought that your valuable health would be restored by a return home, I should not regret it. My love and gratitude will be yours wherever you go. I do not presume to give you any tribute but my tears.” The letter concludes with the words, “The gratitude of the Army is yours.” Dublin _Review_, October, 1917.

[87] Anatolia is from the Greek word 'Ανατολπ which, like the Latin _Oriens_, signifies the eastern land, the land of sunrise. It is the modern name of Asia Minor which the Ottomans call _Anadoli_.

[88] For an interesting account of the two œcumenical councils of Nicæa see Hefele’s scholarly _Histoire des Conciles_, Tom. I, Livre II and Tom. III, Livre XVIII (trans. by Dom H. Leclercq, Paris, 1910).

[89] _Cf._ _The Historical Geography of Asia Minor_, p. 93 (by W. M. Ramsay, London, 1890).

[90] “The fate of these cities,” observes a recent traveler in Anatolia, “is that of numerous others whose names are a part of classic history. Everywhere throughout Asia Minor decaying ruins mark the sites where art and culture were united with barbaric power. Everywhere are evidences of past refinement, splendor and greatness. And over all the prostrate columns and broken entablatures, the domed mosques and black-green cypresses, the fertile valleys and the great desert, the dark-visaged men and the silent, veiled women lingers the spell, undefinable but wondrously fascinating, of Asia; the cradle of the human race, the land of luxurious magnificence, the abode of mighty empires that rose and crumbled long before the western world had emerged from darkness; the birthlace, too, of subtle mysticism and of every religion that has soothed the soul in anguish and comforted it with hope.” _Asia Minor_, p. 317 (by W. A. Hawly, London, 1918).

[91] See the author’s _Woman in Science_, p. 12 _et seq._ (New York, 1913).

[92] _Ionia and the East_, pp. 8, 9 (by D. G. Hogarth. Oxford, 1907). Another eminent Orientalist, H. R. Hall, expresses substantially the same view when he tells us that “It was in Ionia that the new Greek civilization arose; Ionia, in whom the old Ægean blood and spirit most survived, taught the new Greece, gave her coined money and letters, art and poesy, and her shipmen, forcing the Phœnicians from before them, carried her new culture to what were then deemed the ends of the earth.” _The Ancient History of the Near East from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Salamis_, p. 79 (London, 1916).

[93] _The Story of Turkey_, p. 78 (by Stanley Lane-Poole, New York, 1888).

[94] The historian Hammer-Purgstall tells us that the ablest generals and statesmen under the reigns of Selim and Solyman the Magnificent--those who raised the Ottoman Empire to its acme of prosperity--were renegades. During this period no fewer than eight out of ten of the grand viziers were likewise apostates. “Si donc la puissance ottomane foula aux pieds tant de nations, ce resultat ne doit pas être attribué au caractère indolent et grossier des Ottomans, mais à l’esprit de ruse et de finesse qui distingue les peuples grecs et slaves, a la témérité et a la perfidie des Allanais et des Dalmates, à la persévérance et à l’opiniâtreté des Bosnien et des Croates, enfin à la valeur et aux talents des renégats des pays conquis.” _Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman_, Tom. VI, p. 452–454 (Paris, 1835).

[95] _The Story of the Barbary Corsairs_, p. 66 (by Poole and Kelly, New York, 1893).

[96] _Op. cit._, Tom. I, p. 18.

[97] _Op. cit._, p. 346 _et seq._

[98] _Tableau Général de l’Empire Ottoman_, Tom. II, p. 217 (Paris, 1790).

[99] _The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire_, p. 117 (by H. A. Gibbons, New York, 1916).

[100] Freeman writes to the same effect when he declares “between renegades, Janissaries and the mothers of all nations, the blood of many a Turk must be physically anything rather than Turkish.” _Op. cit._, p. 187.

[101] _A History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to the Present Time_, Vol. III, p. 475 (Oxford, 1877). Among these causes Finlay indicates three which deserve special attention. “_First_, the superiority of the Ottoman tribe over all contemporary nations in religious convictions and in moral and military conduct. _Second_, the number of different races which composed the population of the country between the Adriatic and the Black Sea, the Danube and the Ægean. _Third_, the depopulation of the Greek Empire, the degraded state of its judicial and civil administration and the demoralization of the Hellenic race.”

[102] Gibbons, _op. cit._, p. 173.

[103] No one is more familiar with the Ottoman people or their history than Professor William Ramsay who does not hesitate to declare: “It has almost always been by the strength and skill of Christian allies that the Turks have vanquished the Christians:

_But Turkish force and Latin fraud_
_Would break their shield, however broad._”

_Impressions of Turkey During Twelve Years Wandering_, p. 271 _et seq._ (London, 1897).

“The Christians were crushed by the arts and arms of their own brethren; Constantinople fell, not before the Saracen or the Turk but before warriors of Greek and Slavonic blood.” _Op. cit._, p. 272.

[104] Gibbons, _op. cit._, p. 302.

[105] Ibid., p. 123.

[106] H. A. Gibbons, _op. cit._, p. 81.

[107] Sura II, 257.

[108] Sura X, 99, 100.

[109] The erudite Assemani, Librarian of the Vatican Library, writing of certain persecutions of the Christians by Mohammedans, declares: “Non raro persecutionis procellam excitarunt mutuæ Christianorum ipsorum simultates, sacerdotum licencia, præsulum fastus, tyrannica magnatum potestas, et medicorum præesertim scribarumque de supremo in gentem suam imperio altercationes.” _Biblotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana_, Tom. III, Pars, II (Rome, 1719–1728).

[110] _The Preaching of Islam, a History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith_, pp. 422, 423 (by T. W. Arnold, London, 1913).

[111] Ibid., pp. 79, 80.

Of all who have made a careful study of the character and religion of the Mohammedans of Asia, no one probably, is better qualified to express an opinion on the subject under consideration than M. A. de Gobiñeau. As the result of thorough investigation during several years residence among them, he does not hesitate to declare that if one separates religious doctrines from political necessity which has often spoken and acted in its name, there is no religion that is more tolerant, one might almost say more indifferent regarding mens’ faith than Islam. “Cette disposition organique est si forte qu’en dehors des cas ou la raison d’État mise en jeu a porté les gouvernments mussulmans à se faire arme de tout pour tendre à unité de foi, la tolerance la plus complète a été la regle fournie par le dogme.... Qu’on ne s’arrête pas aux violences, aux cruautés commises dans une occasion ou dans une autre. Si on regarde de prés, on ne tardera pas à y découvrir des causes toutes politiques ou toutes de passion humaine et de tempérament chez le souverain ou dans la population. Le fait religieux n’y est invoqué que comme pretexte et, en réalité, il reste en dehors.” _Les Religions et les Philosophies dans l’Asie Central_, pp. 24, 25 (Paris, 1865).

What has been said of the tolerance of the Osmanlis or of the peoples of Central Asia the distinguished Orientalist, Prince Caetani, claims for the Arabian followers of the Prophet. “Gli Arabi,” he writes in his monumental work _Annali dell’ Islam_, Vol. V, p. 4 (Milan, 1912), “nei primi anni non perseguitarono invece alcuno per ragioni di fede, no si diedero pena alcuna per convertire chicchessia, sicche sotto l’Islam, dopo le prime conquiste, i Christiani Semiti goderono d’una tolleranza religiosa quale non si era mai vista da varie generazioni.”

[112] _L’España Sagrada, Teatro Geografico de la Iglesia de España_, Tom. XXXVII, p. 312. Cardinal Hergenröther hold the same view when he declares that Islam was a _Strafe_--punishment--for the degenerate Christians of the Orient whose moral corruption, religious schism, and desecration of sacred things through arbitrary state-power had paved the way for it. _Handbuch der Allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_, Tom. I, p. 748 (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1884).

The distinguished historian, F. X. Funk, expresses a similar opinion when he writes: “The Carthaginians were safely gathered under the standard of the Prophet and the conquerors were free to continue their victorious march on the Barbary States and the West of Africa, the many divisions and enmities to which Christological disputes had given rise among the Eastern Christians greatly facilitating their task.” _A Manual of Church History_, Vol. I, p. 132 (London, 1909).

[113] “Estimates of population,” observes Marriott, “are notoriously untrustworthy, but it seems probable that at a time when Henry VIII ruled over about four million people the subjects of Sultan Suleiman numbered fifty million.” _The Eastern Question_, p. 89 (Oxford, 1917).

“After the conquest of Constantinople,” writes Finlay, “the Ottomans became the most dangerous conquerors who have acted a part in European history since the fall of the western Roman Empire. Their Dominion, at the period of its greatest extension, stretched from Buda on the Danube to Bussora on the Euphrates. On the north, their frontiers were guarded against the Poles by the fortress of Kamenietz, and against the Russians by the walls of Azof; while to the south the rock of Aden secured their authority over the southern coast of Arabia, invested them with power in the Indian Ocean, and gave them the complete command of the Red Sea. To the east, the Sultan ruled the shores of the Caspian, from the Kour to the Tenek; and his dominion stretched westward along the southern coast of the Mediterranean, where the farthest limits of the regency of Algiers, beyond Oran, meet the frontiers of the empire of Morocco. By rapid steps the Ottomans completed the conquest of the Seljouk sultans in Asia Minor, of the Mamlouk sultans in Syria and Egypt, of the fierce corsairs of northern Africa, expelled the Venetians from Cyprus, Crete, and the Archipelago, and drove the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem from the Levant, to find a shelter at Malta. It was no vain boast of the Ottoman sultan that he was the master of many kingdoms, the ruler of three continents, and the lord of two seas.” _History of Greece_, Vol. V, p. 6 (Oxford, 1877).

[114] _The Historical Geography of Asia Minor_, p. 23 (by W. M. Ramsay, London, 1890).

[115] _L’Islamisme et la Science_, p. 19 (Paris, 1883).

[116] Count Henry de Castries, in _L’Islam, Impressions et Études_, p. 121 (Paris, 1912).

[117] “It is an amusing fact,” writes an English woman who had an intimate knowledge of Turkey, “that an idea of impropriety is attached by Europeans who have never visited the East, to the very name of harem, while it is not less laughable they can never give a reason for their prejudice. How little foundation exists for so unaccountable a fancy must be evident at once when it is stated that harem, or woman’s apartment, is held so sacred by the Turks themselves, that they remain inviolate even in cases of popular disturbance, or individual delinquency; the mob never suffering their violence to betray them into an intrusion on the wives of their victims; and the search after a fugitive ceasing the moment that the door of the harem separates him from his pursuers.” Julia Pardoe, in _The Bosphorus and the Danube_, p. 126 (London, 1839).

Another English woman, Grace Ellison, who is familiar with the life of the harem and who has given public lectures in London on Turkish life, was seriously told by the secretary of a certain society: “You must not put the word ‘harem’ on the title of your lecture. Many who might come to hear you would stay away for fear of hearing improper revelations, and others would come hoping to hear those revelations and go away disappointed!” _Cf._ _A Turkish Woman’s European Impressions_, p. 16 (by Zeyneb Hanoum, Philadelphia, 1913).

[118] For an illuminating account of an Assyrian harem in the time of Sargon, more than seven centuries B. C., see _Histoire de l’Art dans Antiquité_, Tom. II, p. 435, _et. seq._ (by G. Perrot and Chipiez, Paris 1884). See also the account of the prehistoric palace of the Kings of Tiryns, as given in Schliemann’s _Tiryns_, p. 239, _et. seq._ (New York, 1885). According to Dr. Dörpfeld and other eminent archæologists this palace, the oldest in Greece, is distinctly oriental in plan and its smaller megaron was obviously a harem. _Cf._ also Schuchardt’s _Schliemann’s Excavations_, p. 31. For interesting descriptions of visits to harems in Turkey and Syria, consult the _Bosphorus and the Danube_, p. 125, _et seq._ (by Julia Pardoe, London, 1839), and the _Inner Life of Syria_, Chap. XI (by Lady Isabel Burton, London, 1884). Both of these women during their sojourn in the East, had exceptional opportunities for studying the real life of the harem where they were always cordially welcomed by its inmates.

The custom of wearing the veil, it may here be remarked, dates back almost as far, if not fully as far, as the harem. _Cf._ Genesis, xxii:65, and Isaiah, iii:23. Nor is the wearing of the veil in the Orient to-day confined entirely to Moslem women. Christian and other non-Moslem women wear it and have worn it from time immemorial. How erroneous, therefore, is the statement, so often made, that it was Mohammed that imposed the veil on the women of the Orient and inhumanly incarcerated them in the harem!

[119] _Observations on the Mussulmans of India_, p. 168 (London, 1917).

[120] _Everyday Life in Turkey_, p. 108 (London, 1897).

The Princess Christina Belgiojoso who spent three years in making a careful study of the people of Asia Minor writes: “The household of the Turkish peasant resembles that of the Christian peasant and, I am sorry to add, the former would often serve as a model for the latter. With equal fidelity, the advantage is in favor of the Turk, for his fidelity is neither imposed on him by civil or religious law, nor by public opinion, nor by local manners, customs and usages; he is led to it simply through the goodness of his nature to which any idea of causing grief to his associate would be repugnant.

* * * * *

“The Turkish peasant cherishes his companion as parent and as lover; never does he knowingly or willingly oppose her; there is no provocation to which he will not cheerfully submit through love for her.... I have seen women old, decrepit, infirm and hideous, led, comforted and adored by fine old men with long, flowing, silvery beards, strong, serene eye and as erect as mountain firs.” _Oriental Harems and Scenery_, p. 108–110 (New York, 1862).

[121] A well-known English journalist, Sidney Whitman, who was long on terms of intimacy with some of the most distinguished men of the Ottoman Empire, tells us that “The stranger, whatever his opportunities, only comes into contact with one-half of the Mohammedan population; the other is barred from his observation, from his very sight. In the course of all my visits to Turkey I never had an opportunity of approaching a Turkish woman within speaking distance.” _Turkish Memories_, p. 267 (London, 1914).

Writing from Constantinople, where she made a special study of the Turks, their manners and customs, the gifted and brilliant Lady Mary Wortley Montague, tells her correspondent in England, “It is a particular pleasure to me here to read the voyages of the Levant which are generally so far removed from the truth and so full of absurdities. I am very well diverted with them. They never fail giving you an account of the women whom it is certain they never saw and talking wisely of men, into whose company they are never admitted, and very often describe mosques which they dared not even peep into.” _Letters_, Vol. II, p. 5 (London, 1793).

As wife of the British ambassador to the Porte, Lady Mary had the _entrée_ of the homes of the Turks, rich and poor, where she was always cordially received and hospitably entertained. Besides this, she was familiar with the language of her hostesses of the harems which she visited and was thus able to become far more intimately acquainted with the people than those who must needs depend on unreliable interpreters. For these reasons her sprightly pictures of the life of the Turkish women have always had special value and one can easily understand her admiration for them and for many of their customs which are so different from those of her own country--England. She would have fully endorsed what her distinguished countrywoman, Lady Isabel Burton wrote many years afterwards: “As a rule I met with nothing but courtesy in the harems and much hospitality, cordiality and refinement.” _The Romance of Isabel Lady Burton: The Story of Her Life Told in Part by Herself and in Part by W. H. Wilkins_, Vol. II, p. 452 (New York, 1897).

[122] _Turkey and the Turks_, p. 84, _et seq._ (by Z. D. Ferriman, New York, 1911).

“There has been,” writes an American woman who has had exceptional opportunities for studying the condition of women in Turkey, “a vast amount of pity wasted upon the Moslem woman. It may surprise even the woman suffragist to learn that the laws of Mohammed confer upon women a greater degree of legal protection than any code of laws since the middle Roman law. The more recent liberties and protection granted to married women by the laws of divorce and the exclusive property rights now in the United States alone can be properly compared to those in force in, Turkey.” _In the Palaces of the Sultan_, pp. 448, 449 (by Anna Bowman Dodd, New York, 1903).

[123] Ibid.

[124] _The Evil of the East, or Truths about Turkey_, p. 42 (London, 1888).

[125] See the _North American Review_.

[126] Lieutenant Wood in his “Journey to the Source of the Oxus,” p. 194 (London, 1872), writes: “Nowhere is the difference between European and Mohammedan society more strongly marked than in the lower walks of life. The broad line that separates the rich and poor in civilized society is as yet but faintly drawn in Central Asia. Here unreserved intercourse between their superiors has polished the manners of the lower classes and, instead of this familiarity breeding contempt, it begets self-respect in the dependent.... Indeed, all the inferior classes possess an innate self-respect and a natural gravity of deportment which differs as far from the suppleness of a Hindustani as from the awkward rusticity of an English clown.” These characteristics of the people of Central Asia, which so impressed the gallant explorer of the Oxus, are much more striking in the inhabitants of Anatolia.

Another author writes: “The fine manners of all classes of Mohammedans in Constantinople were a constant source of admiration to me. It was as if the grace and dignity of past times--of Courts of the eighteenth century--had taken refuge in Stamboul. Your Caiquejee, your Cafeje and the very boot-blacks, if they are Mohammedans, know how to be unobtrusively polite and well-bred towards each other, and even towards the Giaour himself, if he treats them civilly. The older fashioned, the more prejudiced, the Turkish gentleman, the finer are his manners, the more gracious and delightful his welcome.” _The Sultan and His Subjects_, Vol. I, pp. 280, 281 (by Richard Davy, New York, 1897).

[127] “The houses of the great Turkish ladies,” declares that keen observer, Lady Montague, “are kept clean with as much nicety as those in Holland.” _Letters_, Vol. II, p. 24 (London, 1793).

[128] _Destruction of the Greek Empire_, p. 524 (London, 1903).

[129] _Diary of a Turk_, p. 64 (London, 1903).

Writing to the poet, Pope, Lady Montague declares: “I can assure you that the Princesses and great ladies pass their time at their looms embroidering veils and robes, surrounded by their maids, which are always very numerous, in the same manner as we find Andromache and Helen described.” _Op. cit._, Vol. I, p. 110.

[130] _Op. cit._, pp. 54, 55, 98, 99.

[131] _Letters_, Vol. I, p. 104.

[132] The noted traveler and Orientalist, Sir Richard Burton, graphically defines the meaning of the word Kaif, so frequently heard in the Near East as “The savoring of animal existence; the passive enjoyment of mere sense; the pleasant languor, the dreamy tranquillity, the airy castle-building which in Asia stands in lieu of the vigorous, intensive, passionate life of Europe. It is the result of a lively, impressible, excitable nature and exquisite sensibility of nerve--a facility for voluptuousness unknown to northern regions where happiness is placed in the exertion of mental and physical powers; where niggard earth commands ceaseless sweat of brow; and damp, dull air demands perpetual excitement, exercise or change, or adventure, or dissipation for want of something better. In the East man requires but rest and shade; upon the banks of a bubbling stream or under the cool shelter of a perfumed tree he is perfectly happy smoking a pipe, or sipping a cup of coffee, or drinking a glass of sherbert, but, above all things, deranging his body and mind as little as possible; the trouble of conversations, the displeasures of memory and the vanity of thought being the most unpleasant interruptions to his _Kaif_. No wonder that _Kaif_ is a word untranslatable in our mother-tongue.” _Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Meccah_, pp. 23, 24 (Boston, 1859).

[133] _Ferriman_, _op. cit._, p. 334. Professor W. M. Ramsay, than whom no one has a more intimate knowledge of the Osmanlis, writes: “Whenever any work has to be done for which absolute honesty is required, there is always a Turk employed; they are human watchdogs whom everybody employs and trusts.” _Impressions of Turkey During Twelve Tears Wanderings_, p. 43 (London, 1897).

Dr. Schliemann bears the same testimony to their honesty and trustworthiness in his _Troja_, pp. 10, 11.

[134] _Turquie Agonisante_, p. 49 (Paris, 1913).

[135] _Les Massacres d’Arménie_, pp. 19, 20 (Paris, 1918).

[136] _Ansayrii_, Vol. II, p. 144 (London, 1851). _Cf._ Schliemann’s _Troja_, p. 338.

[137] _The Odyssey_, XIV, 57, 58.

[138] _Don Quixote_, Part I, Chap. XL.

[139] _Cf._ Pierre Loti in _Turquie Agonisante_, p. 49 (Paris, 1913).

[140] _A History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to the Present Time_, Vol. V, p. 161 (Oxford, 1877). Finlay gives the following quotation from the _Turco-Græcia_, p. 487, of Crusius who writes as vigorously in favor of the Osmanlis as Knolles or Pierre Loti.

“Et mirum est inter barbaros in tanta tantæ urbi colluvie nullas cædes audiri, vim iniustam non ferri, ius cuivis dici. Ideo Constantinopolin Sultanus refugium totius orbis scribit: quod omnes miseri ibi tutissime lateant: quodque omnibus, tam infimis quam summis, tam Christianis quam infidelibus iustitia administretur.” Could the verdict of history be more explicit than in the remarkable statements here quoted?

[141] See also his informing brochure, _Les Massacres D’Arménie_ (Paris, 1918).

[142] In Persia, according to the eminent traveler and Orientalist, Arminius Vambery, “Inferior officials cheat the people, and the latter again avail themselves of every opportunity to cheat the officials. Every one in that country lies, cheats and swindles. Nor is such behavior looked upon as anything immoral or improper; on the contrary, the man, who is straightforward and honest in his dealings is sure to be spoken of contemptuously as a fool or madman.” _The Life and Adventures of Arminius Vambery, written by Himself_, p. 284 (London, 1914).

How the Persians have degenerated since the days of Cyrus and Darius! Then, according to Herodotus, their sons were carefully instructed from their fifth to their twentieth year in three things alone--to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth--“παιδεύονσι δε τους πᾶιδας, απ πενταετέος αρξάμενοι μέχρι εικοσαέτεος, τρία μουνα, ἱππεύειν καὶ τοξεύειν καὶ άληθίξεσθαι.” I, 136.

[143] It is interesting to note here that in the Treaty of Amity and Commerce which was concluded in 1535 between France and the Sublime Porte one of the articles reads: “It is forbidden to molest the French in matters of their religion which they have full liberty to practice.” This guarantee of religious freedom included the Christians of all other nations--a guarantee with which the Ottoman government has always faithfully complied. _Cf._ _Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman_, Tom. I, p. 171, 173 (by the Vicomte de la Jonquière, Paris, 1914).

[144] Quoted from _Turkey and the Ottomans_, p. 142, _et. seq._ (by Lucy M. Garnett, New York, 1911).

[145] _Cf._ _Turkish Memories_, p. 128, _et passim_ (by Sidney Whitman). See _Through Armenia on Horseback_, Chap. VIII (by G. H. Hepworth, New York, 1918), and _In the Palaces of the Sultan_, pp. 426, 427 (by Anna Bowman Dodd).

[146] _Op. cit._, p. 108.

[147] Ibid., p. 116.

[148] _Op. cit._, p. 231.

[149] November 29, 1912.

[150] _Le Chemin de Fer de Bagdad_, p. 226 (Paris, 1915).

[151] _Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition carried on by Order of the British Government during the years 1835, 1836 and 1837_, p. 360 (London, 1868).

[152] Ibid., p. viii.

[153] Lord Palmerston, it is interesting to observe in this connection, did not hesitate to declare in Parliament that the construction of the Suez Canal, as planned by De Lesseps, was physically impracticable and that the project was but a trap set for gullible capitalists.

[154] “Ismaili to Koweit Ry.,” _National Review_, p. 464, May, 1902.

[155] _Nineteenth Century_, p. 1084, June, 1909.

[156] Ibid., p. 1085.

[157] _Nineteenth Century_, p. 966 _et seq._, May, 1914.

[158] June, 1901, p. 629.

[159] June, 1901, p. 629.

[160] _Nineteenth Century_, p. 961, May, 1914.

[161] Chéradame, _op. cit._, p. V.

[162] “Le tres distingué M. Eugène Gallos de la Société de Géographie de Paris qui, avec M. Le Général Dolot, ont parconru en 1914 la Syrie et la Mesopotamie peuvent affirmer qu il y avait la-has une seconde France, aimant inlassablement celle qui est en train d’ écrire sa plus belle page dans l’histoire des nations.” _Bagdad, Son Chemin de Fer, Son Importance, Son Avenir_, p. 25 (by Émile Aublé, Paris, 1917).

[163] _The Geographical Journal_, p. 33 _et seq._, July, 1917.

[164] _The Fortnightly Review_, p. 777, May, 1911.

[165] Speaking in the British Parliament April 8, 1903, Lord E. Fitzmaurice went still further when he declared: “Bound up with the future of this (Bagdad) Railway there is probably the future political control of large regions in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf.”

[166] _The Fortnightly Review_, p. 216, February, 1914.

[167] “Les Gouvernment français et anglais refuserent formellment leur approbation et leur appui et conseillerent a leur nationaux de s’en abstenir.” E. Aublé, _op. cit._, p. 15.

[168] _The Nineteenth Century_, p. 1090 _et seq._, June, 1909.

It is gratifying to know that this anti-German feeling was not shared by Sir Clinton and his associates and by clear-visioned men like Sir Edwin Pears who did not hesitate to declare: “The Germans, in inviting British coöperation from the first, have acted fairly and loyally.” _The Contemporary Review_, p. 589, November, 1908.

[169] M. Aublé, _op. cit._, p. 16, referring to this matter, writes: “Si en elle--même l’enterprise du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad est resté telle qu’elle s’est presentée au début, une œuvre allemande, c’est parce qu’on n’a pas voulu profiter des offres allemandes pour lui donner un caractère international.”

[170] _The Nineteenth Century_, p. 1312, June, 1914.

[171] Ibid., p. 1313. After all negotiations looking towards internationalization of the Bagdad Railway had failed, M. Geraud, who is evidently a monarchist, wrote: “We cannot help regretting that the two powers who held the protectorate of the Orient--France her old religious protectorate, and England the protectorate of Anatolia sanctioned by the Cyprus Convention--should, in the space of one generation, have laid down such beneficent weapons.... In order that so much destruction could be consummated, all that was responsible in England and France was the rule of democracy.”

[172] _Cf._ his interesting brochure, _Les Chemins de Fer in Turquie d’Asie_ (Zurich, 1902).

[173] _Revue de Géographie_, p. 398, May, 1902.

[174] According to Herodotus it was a three months’ journey from Ephesus to Susa--a somewhat greater distance than from Constantinople to Bagdad.

[175] _Süddeutsche Monatshefte_, September, 1915. _Cf._ _The Quarterly Review_, p. 149, January, 1917.

[176] _Der Kampf um die Dardanellen_ (Stuttgart, 1916).

[177] _The Quarterly Review_, p. 528, October, 1917.

[178] For an interesting article on this subject, see “Plato in the Folk-lore of the Konia Plain,” by F. W. Hasluck, in the _Annual of the British School of Athens_, No. XVIII.

[179] Called Rum--Rome--because it was, before its conquest by the Seljuks, a portion of the Roman-Byzantine Empire.

[180] See _Turkey in Europe_, p. 185 (by C. Eliot, London, 1908).