Chapter IX: The Victorian Age, 1837-1900 (4)

In 1855 Oxford honored him by bestowing on him the degree of D.C.L. The students gave him an ovation and they properly honored his greatest poem, _In Memoriam_ by mentioning it first in their loud calls; but they also paid their respects to his _May Queen_, asking in chorus: "Did they wake and call you early, call you early, Alfred dear?"

The rest of his life was outwardly uneventful. He became the most popular poet of his age. Schools and colleges had pupils translate his poems into Latin and Greek verse. Of _Enoch Arden_ (1864), at that time his most popular narrative poem, sixty thousand copies were sold almost as as soon as it was printed. He made sufficient money to be able to maintain two beautiful residences, a winter home at Farringford on the Isle of Wight, and a summer residence at Aldworth in Sussex. In 1884 he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron of Aldworth and Farringford. He died in 1892, at the age of eighty-three, and was buried beside Robert Browning in Westminster Abbey.

Early Verse.--Tennyson published a small volume of poems in 1830, the year before he left college, and another volume in 1832. Although these contained some good poems, he was too often content to toy with verse that had exquisite melody and but little meaning. The "Airy, fairy Lilian" and "Sweet, pale Margaret" type of verse had charmed him overmuch. The volumes of 1830 and 1832 were severely criticized. _Blackwood's Magazine_ called same of the lyrics "drivel," and Carlyle characterized the aesthetic verse as "lollipops." This adverse criticism and the shock from Hallam's death caused him to remain silent for nearly ten years. His son and biographer says that his father during this period "profited by friendly and unfriendly criticism, and in silence, obscurity, and solitude, perfected his art."

In his thirty-third year (1842), Tennyson broke his long silence by publishing two volumes of verse, containing such favorites as _The Poet, The Lady of Shalott, The Palace of Art, The Lotos Eaters, A Dream of Fair Women, Morte d'Arthur, Oenone, The Miller's Daughter, The Gardener's Daughter, Dora, Ulysses, Locksley Hall, The Two Voices_, and _Sir Galahad_.

Unsparing revision of numbers of these poems that had been published before, entitles them to be classed as new work. Some critics think that Tennyson never surpassed these 1842 volumes. His verse shows the influence of Keats, of whom Tennyson said: "There is something of the innermost soul of poetry in almost everything that he wrote."

One of Tennyson's most distinctive qualities, his art in painting beautiful word-pictures, is seen at its best in stanzas from _The Palace of Art_. His mastery over melody and the technique of verse is evident in such lyrics as _Sir Galahad,_ and _The Lotos Eaters_. When the prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, read from _Ulysses_ the passage beginning:--

"I am a part of all that I have met,"

he gave Tennyson a much-needed annual pension of £200.

These volumes show that he was coming into touch with the thought of the age. _Locksley Hall_ communicates the thrill which he felt from the new possibilities of science:--

"For I dipt into the future, far as human eye could see,
Saw the Vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be.
* * * * *
I the heir of all the ages, in the foremost files of time."

Hallam's death had also developed in him the human note, resonant in the lyric, _Break, break, break:_--

"But O for the touch of a vanish'd hand,
And the sound of a voice that is still."

The Princess, In Memoriam, and Maud.--Tennyson had produced only short poems in his 1842 volumes, but his next three efforts, _The Princess_ (1847), _In Memoriam_ (1850), and _Maud_ (1855), are of considerable length.

_The Princess: A Medley_, as Tennyson rightly called it, contains 3223 lines of blank verse. This poem, which is really a discussion of the woman question, relates in a half humorous way the story of a princess who broke off her engagement to a prince, founded a college for women, and determined to elevate her life to making them equal to men. The poem abounds in beautiful imagery and exquisite melody; but the solution of the question by the marriage of the princess has not completely satisfied modern thought. The finest parts of the poem are its artistic songs.

_In Memoriam_, an elegy in memory of Arthur Henry Hallam, was begun at Somersby in 1833, the year of Hallam's death, and added to at intervals for nearly sixteen years. When Tennyson first began the short lyrics to express his grief, he did not intend to publish them; but in 1850 he gave them to the world as one long poem of 725 four-line stanzas.

_In Memoriam_ was directly responsible for Tennyson's appointment as poet-laureate. Queen Victoria declared that she received more comfort from it than from any other book except the _Bible_. The first stanza of the poem (quoted on page 9) has proved as much of a moral stimulus as any single utterance of Carlyle or of Browning.

This work is one of the three great elegies of a literature that stands first in elegiac poetry. Milton's _Lycidas_ has more of a massive commanding power, and Shelley's _Adonais_ rises at times to poetic heights that Tennyson did not reach; but neither _Lycidas_ nor _Adonais_ equals _In Memoriam_ in tracing every shadow of bereavement, from the first feeling of despair until the mourner can realize that--

"...the song of woe
Is after all an earthly song,"

and can express his unassailable faith in--

"One God, one law, one element,
And one far-off divine event
To which the whole creation moves."

With this hopeful assurance closes Tennyson's most noble and beautiful poem.

_Maud_, a lyrical melodrama, paints the changing emotions of a lover who passes from morbid gloom to ecstasy. Then, in a moment of anger, he murders Maud's brother. Despair, insanity, and recovery follow, but he sees Maud's face no more. While the poem as a whole is not a masterpiece, it contains some of Tennyson's finest lyrics. The eleven stanzas of the lover's song to Maud, the--

"Queen Rose of the rosebud garden of girls,"

are such an exquisite blending of woodbine spice and musk of rose, of star and daffodil sky, of music of flute and song of bird, of the soul of the rose with the passion of the lover, of meadows and violets,--that we easily understand why Tennyson loved to read these lines.

The Idylls of the King.--In 1859 Tennyson published _Lancelot and Elaine_, one of a series of twelve _Idylls_, the last of which appeared in 1855. Together these form an epic on the subject of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table. Tennyson relied mainly on Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ for the characters and the stories.

These _Idylls_ show the struggle to maintain noble ideals. Arthur relates how he collected--

"In that fair order of my Table Round,
A glorious company, the flower of men,
To serve as model for the mighty world,
And be the fair beginning of a time."

He made his knights swear to uphold the ideals of his court--

"To ride abroad redressing human wrongs,
To speak no slander, no, nor listen to it,
To honor his own word as if his God's,
To lead sweet lives in purest chastity,
To love one maiden only, cleave to her,
And warship her by years of noble deeds
Until they won her."

The twelve _Idylls_ have as a background those different seasons of the year that accord with the special mood of the story. In _Gareth and Lynette_, the most interesting of the _Idylls_, the young hero leaves his home in spring, when the earth is joyous with birds and flowers. In the last and most nobly poetic of the series, _The Passing of Arthur_, the time is winter, when the knights seem to be clothed with their own frosty breath.

Sin creeps into King Arthur's realm and disrupts the order of the "Table Round." He receives his mortal wound, and passes to rule in a kindlier realm that welcomed him as "a king returning from the wars."

Although the _Idylls of the King_ are uneven in quality and sometimes marred by overprofusion of ornament and by deficiency of dramatic skill, their limpid style, many fine passages of poetry, appealing stories, and high ideals have exerted a wider influence than any other of Tennyson's poems.

Later Poetry.--Tennyson continued to write poetry until almost the time of his death; but with the exception of his short swan song, _Crossing the Bar_, he did not surpass his earlier efforts. His _Locksley Hall Sixty Year After_ (1886) voices the disappointments of the Victorian age and presents vigorous social philosophy. Some of his later verse, like _The Northern Farmer_ and _The Children's Hospital_, are in closer touch with life than many of his earlier poems.

He wrote also several historical dramas, the best of which is _Becket_ (1884); but his genius was essentially lyrical, not dramatic. _Crossing the Bar_, written in his eighty-first year, is not only the finest product of his later years, but also one of the very best of Victorian lyrics.

General Characteristics.--Tennyson is a poetic interpreter of the thought of the Victorian age. Huxley called him "the first poet since Lucretius who understood the drift of science." In these four lines from _The Princess_, Tennyson gives the evolutionary history of the world, from nebula to man:--

"This world was once a fluid haze of light.
Till toward the center set the starry tides,
And eddied into suns, that wheeling cast
The planets: then the monster, then the man."

Tennyson's poetry of nature is based on almost scientific observation of natural phenomena. Unlike Wordsworth, Tennyson does not regard nature as a manifestation of the divine spirit of love. He sees her more from the new scientific point of view, as "red in tooth and claw with rapine." The hero of _Maud_ says:--

"For nature is one with rapine, a harm no preacher can heal;
The Mayfly is torn by the swallow, the sparrow spear'd by the
shrike.
And the whole little wood where I sit is a world of plunder and
prey."

The constant warfare implied in the evolutionary theory of the survival of the fittest did not keep Tennyson from also presenting nature in her gentler aspects. In _Maud_, the lover sings--

"...whenever a March-wind sighs,
He sets the jewel-print of your feet
In violets blue as your eyes,"

and he tells how "the soul of the rose" passed into his blood, and how the sympathetic passion-flower dropped "a splendid tear." As beautiful as is much of Tennyson's nature poetry, he has not Wordsworth's power to invest it with "the light of setting suns," or to cause it to awaken "thoughts that do lie too deep for tears."

The conflict between science and religion, the doubts and the sense of world-pain are mirrored in Tennyson's verse. _The Two Voices_ begins:--

"A still small voice spoke unto me,
Thou art so full of misery
Were it not better not to be?"

His poetry is, however, a great tonic to religious faith. The closing lines of _In Memoriam_ and _Crossing the Bar_ show how triumphantly he met all the doubts and the skepticism of the age.

Like Milton, Tennyson received much of his inspiration from books, especially from the classical writers; but this characteristic was more than counterbalanced by his acute observation and responsiveness to the thought of the age. _Locksley Hall Sixty Years After_ shows that he was keenly alive to the social movements of the time.

Tennyson said that the scenes in his poems were so vividly conceived that he could have drawn them if he had been an artist. A twentieth century critic[16] says that Tennyson is almost the inventor of such pictorial lyrics as _A Dream of Fair Women_ and _The Palace of Art_.

The artistic finish of Tennyson's verse is one of its great charms. He said to a friend: "It matters little what we say; it is how we say it--though the fools don't knew it." His poetry has, however, often been criticized for lack of depth. The variety in his subject matter, mode of expression, and rhythm renders his verse far more enjoyable than that of the formal age of Pope.

Tennyson's extraordinary popularity in his own time was largely due to the fact that he voiced so clearly and attractively the thought of the age. As another epoch ushers in different interests, they will naturally be uppermost in the mind of the new generation. We no longer feel the intense interest of the Victorians in the supposed conflict between science and religion. Their theory of evolution has been modified and has lost the force of novelty. Theories of government and social ideals have also undergone a gradual change. For these reasons much of Tennyson's verse has ceased to have its former wide appeal.

Tennyson has, however, left sufficient work of abiding value, both for its exquisite form and for its thought, to entitle him to be ranked as a great poet. We cannot imagine a time when _Crossing the Bar_, _The Passing of Arthur_, and the central thought of _In Memoriam_--

"'Tis better to have loved and lost
Than never to have loved at all,"

will no longer interest readers. To Tennyson belong--

"Jewels five words long
That on the stretch'd forefinger of all Time
Sparkle forever."

ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE, 1837-1909

Life.--Swinburne was born in London in 1837. His father was an admiral in the English navy, and his mother, the daughter of an earl. The boy passed his summers in Northumberland and his winters in the Isle of Wight. He thus acquired that fondness for the sea, so noticeable in his poetry. His early experiences are traceable in lines like these:--

"Our bosom-belted billowy-blossoming hills,
Whose hearts break out in laughter like the sea."

He went to Oxford for three years, but left without taking his degree. The story is current that he knew more Greek than his teachers but that he failed in an examination on the _Scriptures_. He sought to complete his education by wide reading and by travel, especially in France and Italy.

When he was twenty-five, he went to live for a short time at 16 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, in the western part of London, in the same house with Dante Gabriel Rossetti and George Meredith. Swinburne admired Rossetti's poetry and was much impressed with the Pre-Raphaelite virtues of simplicity and directness.

Swinburne never married. His deafness caused him to pass much of his long life in comparative retirement. His last thirty years were spent with his friend, the critic and poet, Theodore Watts-Dunton, at Putney on the Thames, a few miles southwest of London. Swinburne died in 1909 and was buried at Bonchurch in the Isle of Wight.

Works.--In 1864 England was enchanted with the melody of the choruses in his _Atalanta in Calydon_, a dramatic poem in the old Greek form. Lines like the following from the chorus, _The Youth of the Year_, show the quality for which his verse is most famous:--

"When the hounds of spring are on winter's traces,
The mother of months in meadow or plain
Fills the shadows and windy places
With lisp of leaves and ripple of rain."

The first series of his _Poems and Ballads_ (1866) contains _The Garden of Proserpine_, one of his best known poems. Proserpine "forgets the earth her mother" and goes to her "bloomless" garden:--

"And spring and seed and swallow
Take wing for her and follow
Where summer song rings hollow
And flowers are put to scorn."

Many volumes came in rapid succession from his pen. In 1904 his poems were collected in six octavo volumes containing 2357 pages. This collection includes the long narrative poems, _Tristram of Lyonesse_ and _The Tale of Balen_, a faithful retelling of famous medieval stories. He, however, had more ability as a writer of lyrics than of narrative verse.

His poetic dramas fill five additional volumes. _Chastelard_ (1865), one of the three dramas relating to Mary Queen of Scots, is the best of his plays. He had, however, neither the power to draw character nor the repression of speech necessary for a great dramatist. The best parts of his plays are really lyrical verse.

Many critics think that Swinburne's reputation would be as great as it now is, if he had ceased to write verse in 1866, at the age of twenty-nine, after producing _Atalanta in Calydon_ and the first series of his _Poems and Ballads_. Although his interests widened and his poetic range increased, much of his work during his last forty years is a repetition of earlier successes. His _Songs before Sunrise_, however (1871), and the next two volumes of _Poems and Ballads_ (1878 and 1889) contain some poems that rank among his best.

Later in life he wrote a large amount of prose criticism, much of which deals with the Elizabethan dramatists. His _A Study of Shakespeare_ (1880) and his shorter _Shakespeare_ (1905) are especially suggestive. In spite of the fact that the reader must make constant allowance for his habit of using superlatives, he was an able critic.

General Characteristics.--Swinburne's poetry suffers from his tendency to drown his ideas in a sea of words.

Sometimes we gain no more definite ideas from reading many lines of his verse than from hearing music without words. Much of his poetry was suggested by wide reading, not by close personal contact with life. His verse sometimes offends from disregarding moral proprieties and from so expressing his atheism as to wound the feelings of religious people. His idea of a Supreme Power was colored by the old Grecian belief in Fate. In exact opposition to Wordsworth, Swinburne's youthful poems show that he regarded Nature as the incarnation of a Power malevolent to man. He lacked the optimism of Browning and the faith of Tennyson. The mantle of Byron and Shelley fell on Swinburne as the poet of revolt against what seemed to be religious or political tyranny.

After Tennyson's death, in 1892, Swinburne was the greatest living English poet; but, even if his verse had not offended Queen Victoria for the foregoing reasons, she would not have appointed him poet-laureate after the misery of the Russians had moved him in 1890 to write, referring to the Czar:--

"Night hath naught but one red star--Tyrannicide.

"God or man, be swift; hope sickens with delay:
Smite and send him howling down his father's way."

Swinburne's crowning glory is his unquestioned mastery, unsurpassed by any poet since Milton, of the technique of varied melodious verse. This quality is evident, no matter whether he is describing the laughter of a child:--

"Sweeter far than all things heard,
Hand of harper, tone of bird,
Sound of woods at sundawn stirr'd,
Welling water's winsome ward,
Wind in warm wan weather,"

or expressing his fierce hatred for any condition or place where--

"...a curse was or a chain
A throne for torment or a crown for bane
Rose, moulded out of poor men's molten pain,"

or singing the song of a lover--

"If love were what the rose is,
And I were like the leaf,
Our lives would grow together
In sad or singing weather,
Blown fields or flowerful closes,
Green pleasure or grey grief;
If love were what the rose is,
And I were like the leaf;"

or voicing his early creed--

"That no life lives forever;
That dead men rise up never;
That even the weariest river
Winds somewhere safe to sea,"

or chanting in far nobler strains the Anglo-Saxon belief in the molding power of an infinite presence--

"I am in thee to save thee,
As my soul in thee saith,
Give thou as I gave thee,
Thy life-blood and breath,
Green leaves of thy labor, white flowers of thy thought, and red
fruit of thy death."

RUDYARD KIPLING, 1865-

Life.--Rudyard Kipling, the youngest of the great Victorians, was born in Bombay, India, in 1865. His parents were people of culture and artistic training, the father, John Lockwood Kipling, being a recognized authority on Indian art. Like most English children born in India, Kipling, when very small, was sent to England to escape the fatal Indian heat. Afterwards in the story _Baa, Baa, Black Sheep_, Kipling told the tragic experience of two Anglo-Indian children when separated from their parents. If it is true that this story is largely autobiographical, the separation must have been a trying ordeal in Kipling's childhood. Later he spent several years at Westward Ho, Devonshire, in a school conducted mainly for the sons of Indian officials. _Stalky and Co._, a broadly humorous book of schoolboy life, gives the Kipling of this period, in the character of the "egregious Beetle."

When only seventeen, he returned to India and immediately began journalistic work. For seven years, first at Lahore and later at Allahabad, he was busy with the usual hackwork of a small newspaper. During these impressionable years, from seventeen to twenty-four, he gained his intimate knowledge of the strangely-colored, many-sided Indian life. His first stories and poems, often written in hot haste, to fill the urgent need of more copy, appeared as waifs and strays in the papers for which he wrote. A collection of verse, _Departmental Ditties_, published at Lahore in 1886, was well received; and it was quickly followed by several volumes of short stories. His ability thus gained early recognition in India.

At the age of twenty-four, he left India for London. Here his books found a publisher almost at once, and he was hailed as a new literary genius. His work became so popular that he was able to devote his whole time to writing. It is doubtful whether any writer since Dickens has received such quick and enthusiastic recognition from all classes of the English-speaking race. Even the street-car conductors were heard quoting him.

In 1892 he married Miss Caroline Balestier, an American, and afterwards lived for four years at Brattleboro, Vermont. Later he settled in Sussex, England, whence he has made long journeys to South Africa, Canada, and Egypt, amassing more knowledge of the English "around the Seven Seas."

Probably the most remarkable feature of Kipling's career is the early age at which his genius developed. Before he left India he had published one book of verse and seven prose collections. By the time he was thirty, he had written _The Jungle Books_, most of his best short stories, and some of his finest verse.

Prose.--As a master of the modern short story, Kipling stands unsurpassed. His journalistic work helped him to acquire a direct, concentrated style of narrative, to find interest in an astonishing variety of subjects, and to seize on the right details for vivid presentation. He was fortunate in discovering in India a new literary field, in which his genius appears at its best. Some of his early tales of Indian life are marred by crudeness and by lack of feeling; but these faults decreased as he matured.

Kipling's stories depend for their interest on incident, not on analysis. He embodies romantic adventure and action in masterpieces as different as the terrible tragedy of _The Man Who would be King_ (1888), the tender love story of _Without Benefit of Clergy_ (1890), and the mystic dream-land of _The Brushwood Boy_ (1895). He specially enjoyed portraying the English soldier. Perhaps his best-known characters are the privates Mulvaney, Ortheris, and Learoyd, whom we meet in such tales of mingled comedy and tragedy as _With the Main Guard_ (1888), _On Greenhow Hill_ (1891), _The Incarnation of Krishna Mulvaney_ (1891), _The Courting of Dinah Shadd_ (1981).

When Kipling traveled to new lands, he wrote stories of America, Africa, and the deep sea; but his later tales show an unfortunate increase in the use of technical terms and a lessening of his former dash and spontaneity. There are, however, readers who prefer such a delicate, subtle, story as _They_ (1905), to his earlier masterpieces of strenuous action.

In _The Jungle Book_ (1894) and _The Second Jungle Book_ (1895), Kipling has accomplished the greatest of feats,--an original creation. From the moment the little brown baby, Mowgli, crawls into Mother Wolf's cave away from Shere Khan, the tiger, until the time for him to graduate from the jungle, we follow him under the spell of a fascination different from any that we have known before. The animals of the jungle have real personalities, from the chattering Bandar-log to the lumbering kindly Baloo. With all their intense individuality, they remain animals, each one true to his kind, hating or loving men, thinking mainly through their instincts, and surpassing human schoolmasters in teaching Mowgli the great laws of the jungle,--that obedience is "the head and the hoof of the Law," that nothing was ever yet lost by silence, that, in the jungle, life and food depend on keeping one's temper, that no one shall kill for the pleasure of killing.

Above all stands the character of Mowgli, the wolf-adopted man-cub, human and yet brother to the animals. With a touch of genius, Kipling revealed the kinship between Mowgli and the denizens of the jungle. Kipling's eyes could see both the harsh realism of animal existence and the genuine idealism of Mother Wolf and the Pack and the Jungle-law.

_Just So Stories_ (1902), written primarily for children, but entertaining to all, is a collection of romantic stories, mostly of animals, illustrated by Kipling himself. One of the best of these tales is _The Cat that Walked by Himself_, which has distinct ethical value in showing how the cat through service won his place by the fireside.

Though Kipling has written four novels, only two, _The Light that Failed_ (1891) and _Kim_ (1901), can compare with his best short stories. _The Light that Failed_, the tragedy of an artist who becomes blind, proves that Kipling was able to handle a long plot sufficiently well to sustain interest. _Kim_ is an attempt to present as a more completed whole that India of which the stories give only glimpses. On the slenderest thread of plot is strung a bewildering array of scenes, characters, and incidents. His intimate knowledge of India and his photographic power of description are here used with remarkable picturesque effect.

Verse.--Kipling's poetry has many of the same qualities as his prose,--originality, force, love of action. In _Barrack Room Ballads_ (1892), the soldier is again celebrated in vigorous songs with swinging choruses. _Mandalay, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, Danny Deever_, show what spirited verse can be fashioned from a common ballad meter and a bold use of dialect.

"So 'ere's _to_ you, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, at your 'ome in the Soudan;
You're a pore benighted 'eathen, but a first class fightin' man;
An' 'ere's _to_ you, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, with your 'ayrick 'ead of 'air--
You big black boundin' beggar--for you broke a British square!"

Much of his verse is political. His opinion of questions at issue is sometimes given with much heat, but always with sincerity and true patriotism. The best known of his patriotic songs, and perhaps his noblest poetic effort, _The Recessional_ (1897), was inspired by the fiftieth anniversary of Victoria's reign. _The Truce of the Bear_ (1898) is a warning against Russia. _The Native-Born_ is a toast to the colonies in every clime.

Kipling's verse breaks with many of the accepted standards of English verse. He does not aim at such pure beauty of form as we find in Tennyson. He can handle skillfully many kinds of meter, as is shown in _The Song of the English_, _The Ballad of East and West_, _The Song of the Banjo_, and many sea lyrics. Yet he uses mostly the common measures, attaining with these a free swing, a fitting of sound to sense, that are irresistible to the many--

"Common tunes that make you choke and blow your nose,
Vulgar tunes that bring the laugh that brings the groan--
I can rip your very heart-strings out with those."[17]

Some of his later work shows increasing seriousness of tone. _The Recessional_ and the _Hymn before Action_ are elevated in thought and expression. The bigness of _L'Envoi_ shows poetic power capable of higher flights:--

"And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall
blame;
And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame;
But each for the joy of the working, and each, in his separate star,
Shall draw the Thing as he sees It for the God of Things as They
Are!"[18]

General Characteristics.--Kipling has carried to their highest development the principles of the Bret Harte School of short story writers. His style possesses those qualities necessary for telling a short tale,--directness, force, suggestiveness. Rarely has any writer so mastered the technique, the craftsmanship of this particular literary form. He has the gift of force and dramatic power, rather than of beauty and delicacy.

He excels in suggestive vivid description, and he draws wonderful pictures of all out-of-doors, especially of the sea; but nature remains merely the background for the human figures. Much of his vividness lies in the use of specific words. If he should employ the phraseology of his jungle laws to frame the first commandment for writers, it would be: "_Seven times never_ be vague." Few authors have at the very beginning of their career more implicitly heeded such a commandment, obedience to which is evident in the following description from _The Courting of Dinah Shadd_:--

"Over our heads burned the wonderful Indian stars, which are not
all pricked in on one plane, but preserving an orderly perspective,
draw the eye through the velvet darkness of the void up to the
barred doors of heaven itself. The earth was a grey shadow more
unreal than the sky. We could hear her breathing lightly in the
pauses between the howling of the jackals, the movement of the wind
in the tamarisks, and the fitful mutter of musketry-fire leagues
away to the left. A native woman from some unseen hut began to sing,
the mail train thundered past on its way to Delhi, and a roosting
crow cawed drowsily."

Abundant and vivid use of metaphors serves to render his concreteness more varied and impressive. We find these in such expressions as "the velvet darkness," "the kiss of the rain," "the tree-road." His celestial artists splash at a ten-league canvas "with brushes of comet's hair." Five words from Mulvaney explain why he does not wish to leave his tent: "'Tis rainin' intrenchin' tools outside."

Kipling's spirit is essentially masculine. He prefers to write of men, work, and battle, rather than of women and love. Since his interest is mainly in action, he shows small ability in character drawing. His people are clear-cut and alive, but we do not see them grow and develop as do George Eliot's characters.

Above all, he stands as the interpreter of the ideals and the interests of the Anglo-Saxons of his time. Those tendencies of the age, which seem to others so dangerously materialistic, are the very causes of his zest in life. In an age of machinery, he writes of the romance of steam, the soul of an engine, the flight of an airship.

His is a work-a-day world; but in work well done, in obedience to the established law, and in courage, he sees the proving of manhood, the test of the true gentleman--

"Who had done his work and held his peace and had no fear to die."

Underlying all his thought is a deep belief in the "God of our fathers," a God just to punish or reward, whom the English have reverenced through all their history. Linked with this faith is an intense feeling of patriotism toward that larger England of his imperialistic vision.

These qualities justly brought Kipling the 1907 Nobel prize for idealism in literature. He is truly the idealist of a practical age, teaching the romance, the joy, the vision in the common facts and virtues of present-day life.

SUMMARY

The history and literature of the Victorian age show the influence of science. Darwin's conception of evolution affected all fields of thought. The tendency toward analysis and dissection is a result of scientific influence.

In describing the prose of the Victorian age, we have considered the work of thirteen writers; namely, Macaulay, the brilliant essayist and historian of the material advancement of England; Newman, essayist and theologian, who is noted for clear style, acute thought, and argumentative power; Carlyle, who awoke in his generation a desire for greater achievement, and who championed the spiritual interpretation of life in philosophy and history; Ruskin, the apostle of the beautiful and of more ideal relations in social life; the essayist Pater, whose prose is tinged with poetic color and mystic thought; Arnold, the great analytical critic; Dickens, educational and social reformer, whose novels deal chiefly with the lower classes; Thackeray, whose fiction is not surpassed in keen, satiric analysis of the upper classes of society; George Eliot, whose realistic stories of middle-class life show the influence of science in her conception of character as an orderly ethical growth; Stevenson, an artist in style, writer of romances, essays, and poems for children; Meredith, subtle novelist, distinguished for his comic spirit and portrayal of male egotism; Hardy, realistic novelist of the lowly life of Wessex; Kipling, whose _Jungle Books_ are an original creation, and whose short stories surpass those of all other contemporaries.

In poetry, the age is best represented by five men; namely, Arnold, who voices the feeling of doubt and unrest; Browning, who, by his optimistic philosophy, leads to impregnable heights of faith, who analyzes emotions and notes the development of souls as they struggle against opposition from within and without, until they reach moments of supreme victory or defeat; Tennyson, whose careful art mirrors in beautiful verse much of the thought of the age, the influence of science, the unrest, the desire to know the problems of the future, as well as to steal occasional glances at beauty for its own sake; Swinburne, the greatest artist since Milton in the technique of verse; and Kipling, the poet of imperialistic England, whose ballads sing of her soldiers and sailors, and whose lyrics proclaim the Anglo-Saxon faith and joy in working.

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

HISTORICAL

Walker's _Essentials in English History_, Cheney's _A Short History of England_, McCarthy's _History of Our Own Times_, Cheney's _Industrial and Social History of England_, Traill's _Social England_, VI.

LITERARY

_The Cambridge History of English Literature_.

Walker's _The Literature of the Victorian Era_.

Magnus's _English Literature in the Nineteenth Century_.

Saintsbury's _A History of English Literature in the Nineteenth Century_.

Kennedy's _English Literature_, 1880-1905.

Walker's _Greater Victorian Poets_.

Brownell's _Victorian Prose Masters_.

Payne's _The Greater English Poets of the Nineteenth Century_.

Brooke's _Four Victorian Poets_ (Rossetti, Arnold, Morris).

Perry's _A Study of Prose Fiction_.

Benson's _Rossetti_. (E.M.L.)

Noyes's _William Morris_. (E.M.L.)

Trevelyan's _Life and Letters of Macaulay_. Morrison's _Macaulay_. (E.M.L.)

Minto's _English Prose Literature_ (Macaulay and Carlyle).

Barry's _Newman_.

Ward's _The Life of John Henry, Cardinal Newman_, 2 vols.

Newman's _Letters and Correspondence, with a Brief Autobiography_.

Carlyle's _Reminiscences_.

Froude's _Thomas Carlyle_, 2 vols. Nichol's _Carlyle_. (E.M.L.)

Garnett's _Thomas Carlyle_. (G.W.)

Froude's _Jane Welsh Carlyle_, 2 vols.

T. and A. Carlyle's _New Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle_.

Cook's _The Life of John Ruskin_, 2 vols.

Ruskin's _Praeterita, Scenes and Thoughts of My Past Life_.

Benson's _Ruskin: A Study in Personality_.

Earland's _Ruskin and his Circle_.

Harrison's _John Ruskin_. (E.M.L.)

Birrell's _Life of Charlotte Brontë_.

Foster's _Life of Dickens_ (abridged and revised by Gissing).

Kitton's _Dickens, his Life, Writings, and Personality_.

Gissing's _Charles Dickens: A Critical Study_.

Chesterton's _Charles Dickens_. Hughes's _Dickens as an Educator_.

Philip's _A Dickens Dictionary_.

Melville's _William Makepeace Thackeray_, 2 vols.

Trollope's _Thackeray_. (E.M.L.)

Merivale and Marzials's _Life of Thackeray_. (G.W.)

Mudge and Sears's _A Thackeray Dictionary_.

Cross's _George Eliot's Life as Related in her Letters and Journals_.

Browning's _Life of George Eliot_. (G.W.) Stephens's _George Eliot_. (E.M.L.)

Cook's _George Eliot: A Critical Study of her Life, Writings, and Philosophy_.

Olcott's _George Eliot: Scenes and People in Her Novels_.

Hamilton's _Robert Louis Stevenson_.

Balfour's _The Life of Robert Louis Stevenson_, 2 vols.

_The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson_, edited by Sidney Colvin.

Raleigh's _Robert Louis Stevenson_. Hamerton's _Stevensoniana_.

Japp's _Robert Louis Stevenson_.

Hamerton's _George Meredith: His Life and Art in Anecdote and Criticism_.

_Letters of George Meredith_, 2 vols.

Sturge Henderson's _George Meredith_.

Bailey's _The Novels of George Meredith: A Study_.

Trevelyan's _The Poetry and Philosophy of George Meredith_.

Beach's _The Comic Spirit in George Meredith_.

Lionel Johnson's _The Art of Thomas Hardy_.

Macdonell's _Thomas Hardy_.

Abercrombie's _Thomas Hardy: A Critical Study_.

Saxelby's _Thomas Hardy Dictionary_.

Phelps's _Essays on Modern Novelists_ (Hardy, Kipling, Stevenson).

Benson's _Walter Pater_. (E.M.L.)

Paul's _Matthew Arnold_. (E.M.L.)

Saintsbury's _Matthew Arnold_.

_Letters of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett_.

Griffin and Minchin's _The Life of Robert Browning_.

Chesterton's _Robert Browning_. (E.M.L.)

Sharp's _Life of Browning_. (G.W.)

Symons's _An Introduction to the Study of Browning_.

Foster's _The Message of Robert Browning_.

Orr's _A Handbook to the works of Robert Browning_.

_Alfred, Lord Tennyson, A Memoir_, by his son.

Benson's _Alfred Tennyson_ (the best brief work).

Lyall's _Tennyson_. (E.M.L.)

Brooke's _Tennyson: His Art and Relation to Modern Life_.

Van Dyke's _The Poetry of Tennyson_.

Gordon's _The Social Ideals of Alfred Tennyson_.

Lackyer's _Tennyson as a Student and Poet of Nature_.

Luce's _Handbook to the Works of Alfred, Lord Tennyson_.

Woodberry's _Swinburne_.

Thomas's _Algernon Charles Swinburne: A Critical Study_.

Knowles's _Kipling Primer_.

Le Galliene's _Rudyard Kipling, A Criticism_.

Clemens's _A Ken of Kipling_.

Young's _Dictionary of the Characters and Scenes in the Stories and Poems of Rudyard Kipling_.

Canby's _The Short Story in English_ (Kipling).

Cooper's _Some English Story Tellers_ (Kipling).

Leeb-Lundberg's _Word Formation in Kipling_ (excellent).

SUGGESTED READINGS WITH QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

The Pre-Raphaelites.--Read Rossetti's _The Blessed Damozel_, _Sister Helen_, _The King's Tragedy_, _Love's Nocturne_, and _Mary's Girlhood_. All of these are given in Page's _British Poets of the Nineteenth Century_. Selections may be found in Bronson,[19] IV., _Century_, _Oxford Book of Victorian verse_, and Manly, I. Selections from Christina Rossetti's Pre-Raphaelite verse are given in all except Page.

From William Morris, read _Two Red Roses Across the Moon_, _The_ _Defence of Guenevere_ (Page's _British Poets_), and the selections from _The Earthly Paradise_ in either Page, _Century_, Bronson, IV., or Manly, I.

What part did Ruskin play in this new movement? Point out the simplest, the most affecting, and the most pleasing stanza in _The Blessed Damozel_. What Pre-Raphaelite qualities in this poem have made it such a favorite? What are the chief characteristics of Rossetti's other verse? Note specially Miss Rossetti's religious verse.

What Pre-Raphaelite qualities do Morris's _Two Red Roses across the Moon_ (1858) and _The Defence of Guenevere_ (1858) show? Compare this early verse with the selections from _The Earthly Paradise_ (1868-1870).

Macaulay.--Read either the _Essay on Milton_ or the _Essay on Addison_ (_Eclectic English Classics_ or _Gateway Series_) or the selections in Craik, V., Manly, II., _Century_, or Dickinson and Roe's _Nineteenth Century Prose_.

Read _History of England_, Chap. IX., or the selections in Craik V., or _Century_, or Manly, II.

What are some of the qualities that cause Macaulay's writings to outstrip in popularity other works of a similar nature? What qualities in his style may be commended to young writers? What are his special defects? Contrast his narrative style in Chap. IX. of the _History_ with Carlyle's in _The French Revolution_, Vol. I., Book V., Chap. VI.

Newman.--The best volume of selections is edited by Lewis E. Gates (228 pages, 75 cents). Dickinson and Roe's _Nineteenth Century English Prose_ contains Newman's essay on _Literature_. Selections are given in Craik V., _Century_, and Manly, II.

Compare his style with Macaulay's and note the resemblance and the difference. Why did Newman call himself a rhetorician? What qualities does he add to those of a rhetorician? Select passages that show his special clearness, concreteness, also his rhetorical and argumentative power.

Carlyle.--Read the _Essay on Robert Burns_ (_Eclectic English Classics_ or _Gateway Series_); _Sartor Resartus_, Book III., Chap. VI. (_Everyman's Library_); _The French Revolution_, Vol. I., Book V., Chap. VI. (_Everyman's Library_). Selections may be found in Craik, V., _Century_, Manly, II., and Evans's Carlyle (_Masters of Literature_).

What marked difference in manner of treatment is shown in Macaulay's _Milton_ or _Addison_ and Carlyle's _Burns_? What was Carlyle's message in _Sartor Resartus_? What did Huxley and Tyndale say of his influence? What are the most noteworthy qualities of _The French Revolution_? What are the chief characteristics of Carlyle's style?

Ruskin.--In Vol. I., Part II., of _Modern Painters_, read the first part of Chap. I. of Sec. III., Chap. I. of Sec. IV., and Chap. I. of Sec. V., and note Ruskin's surprising accuracy of knowledge in dealing with aspects of the natural world. _The Stones of Venice_, Vol. III., Chap. IV., states Ruskin's theory of art and its close relation to morality. Excellent selections from the various works of Ruskin will be found in _An Introduction to the Writings of John Ruskin_, by Vida D. Scudder. Selections are also given in _Century_, Manly, II., _Riverside Literature Series_, and Bronson's _English Essays (Modern Painters and Fors Clavigera). Sesame and lilies, The King of the Golden River_, and _The Stones of Venice_ are published in _Everyman's Library_.

What was the message of _Modern Painters_? of _The Stones of Venice_? of _Fors Clavigera_? Why is Ruskin called a disciple of Carlyle? Select a passage from Ruskin's descriptive prose and indicate its chief qualities.

Brontë, Bulwer Lytton, Gaskell, Trollope, Kingsley, Reade, Blackmore, and Barrie.--_Jane Eyre_ (Charlotte Brontë), _Wuthering Heights_ (Emily Brontë), _Last Days of Pompeii_ (Lytton), _Cranford_ (Gaskell), _Barchester Towers_ (Trollope), _Westward Ho!_ (Kingsley), _The Cloister and the Hearth_ (Reade), and _Lorna Doone_ (Blackmore) are all published in _Everyman's Library_. Barrie's _The Little Minister_ is included in Burt's _Home Library_. The works of the Brontë sisters will be much more appreciated if Mrs. Gaskell's _Life of Charlotte Brontë (Everyman's Library)_ is read first. The novels by the Brontë sisters, Mrs. Gaskell, Trollope, and Barrie record their impressions of contemporary life. The other novels are historical. Lytton gives a vivid account of the last days of Pompeii. Kingsley thrills with his story of the sailors of Elizabeth's time. Reade, who studied libraries to insure the accuracy of _The Cloister and the Hearth_, portrays vividly the oncoming of the Renaissance in he fifteenth century. Blackmore's great story, which records some incidents of the Monmouth rebellion (1685), is written more to interest than to throw light on history.

Dickens.--The first works of Dickens to be read are _Pickwick Papers, A Christmas Carol, and David Copperfield_. These are all published in _Everyman's Library_. Craik, V., gives "Mr. Pickwick on the Ice," "Christmas at the Cratchit's," and two scenes from _David Copperfield_.

Select passages that show (a) humor, (b) pathos, (c) sympathy with children, (d) optimism. Describe some one of the characters. Can you instance a case here a mannerism is made to take the place of other characterization? Is Dickens a master of plot? of style?

Thackeray.--Read _Henry Esmond (Eclectic English Classics)_ and _The English Humorists of the Fifteenth Century_ (Macmillan's _Pocket Classics_). Craik, V., and Manly, II. give selections.

Contrast the manner of treatment in Thackeray's historical novel, _Henry Esmond_, and in Scott's historical romance, _Ivanhoe_. Thackeray says: "The best humor is that which contains most humanity--that which is flavored throughout with tenderness and kindness." Would this serve as a definition of Thackeray's own style of humor? State definitely how he differs from Dickens in portraying character. Compare Thackeray's _English Humorists_ with Macaulay's _Milton_ and Carlyle's _Burns_. Which essay leaves the most definite ideas? Which is the most interesting? Which has the most atmosphere? How should you characterize Thackeray's style?

George Eliot.--Read _Silas Marner_ (_Eclectic English Classics_ or _Gateway Series_), or selections in Craik, V., or Manly, II. In what does the chief strength of _Silas Marner_ consist,--in the plot, the characters, or the description? Does the ethical purpose of this novel grow naturally out of the story? Is the inner life or only the outward appearance of the characters revealed? Wherein do they show growth?

Stevenson.--Read _Treasure Island_ (_Eclectic English Classics_ or _Gateway Series_), _Inland Voyage_, and _Travels with a Donkey_ (_Gateway Series_). From the essays read _Child's Play, Aes Triplex_ (both in _Virginibus Puerisque_). Some of the essays and best short stories (including _Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde_) are given in Canby and Pierce's _Selections from Robert Louis Stevenson_. From the volume of poems called _Underwoods_, read _The Celestial Surgeon and Requiem. A Child's Garden of Verse_ may be read entire in an hour.

_Compare Treasure Island_ with _Robinson Crusoe_. What are the chief characteristics of _An Inland Voyage_ and _Travels with a Donkey_? Why is he called a romantic writer? As an essayist, compare him with Thackeray. What are the special qualities of his style?

George Meredith.--_The Egoist_ is Meredith's most representative novel. _The Ordeal of Richard Feverel_ and _Diana of the Crossways_ are also masterpieces. From the _Poems_ read _Love in the Valley, The Lark Ascending, Melanthus, Jump-to-Glory Jane_.

What is the central purpose of The Egoist? Select specially Meredithian passages which show his general characteristics. Can you find any other author whose humor resembles Meredith's? Would he naturally be more popular with men or with women?

Hardy.--Hardy's most enjoyable novel is _Far from the Madding Crowd. The Return of the Native_ is one of his strongest works.

What are some of the most striking differences between him and Meredith? Which one is naturally the better story-teller? Where are the scenes of most of Hardy's novels laid? What is his theory of life?

Arnold.--Read _Dover Beach, Memorial Verses, Stanzas in Memory of the Author of "Obermann" and Sohrab and Rustum_ (Page's _British Poets of the Nineteenth Century_, Bronson, IV., Manly, I.).

Is Arnold the poet of fancy or of reflection? How does his poetry show one phase of nineteenth-century thought?

Arnold's _Essays, Literary and Critical_ are published in _Everyman's Library_. The best volume of selections from the prose writings of Arnold is the one edited by Lewis E. Gates (348 pages, 75 cents). Good selections are given in Craik, V., Manly, I. (_Sweetness and light_), _Century_ (_The Study of Poetry_). Arnold's _Introduction_ to Ward, I., is well worth reading.

What quality specially marks Arnold's criticism? Compare him as a critic with Coleridge, Macaulay, Carlyle, and Thackeray. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a style like Arnold's?

Pater.--Read the essay, _Leonardo da Vinci_ (Dickinson and Roe's _Nineteenth Century Prose_, pp. 338-368), from Pater's "golden book," _The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Literature_. E.E. Hale's _Selections from Walter Pater_ (268 pages, 75 cents) gives representative selections. Manly, II., and _Century_ give the essay on _Style_.

What are the chief characteristics of Pater's style? Compare it with Macaulay's, Newman's, Ruskin's, and Matthew Arnold's. Has Pater a message? Does he show the spirit of the time?

The Brownings.--From Elizabeth Barrett Browning, read _Cowper's Grave, the Cry of the Children_, and from her _Sonnets from the Portuguese_, Nos. I., III., VI., X., XVIII., XX., XXVI., XXVIII., XLI., XLIII.

Mrs. Browning's verse comes from the heart and should be felt rather than criticized. Fresh interest may, however, by given to a study of her _Sonnets from the Portuguese_, by comparing them with any other series of love sonnets, excepting Shakespeare's.

Robert Browning's shorter poems are best for the beginner, who should read _Rabbi Ben Ezra, Abt Vogler, Home Thoughts from Abroad, Prospice, Saul, The Pied Piper of Hamelin._ Baker's _Browning's Shorter Poems (Macmillan's Pocket Classics)_ contains a very good collection of his shorter poems. Representative selections from Browning's poems are given in Page's _British Poets of the Nineteenth Century, Oxford Book of Victorian Verse_, Bronson, IV., Manly, I., and _Century_.

Browning's masterpiece, _The Ring and the Book (Oxford Edition_, Oxford University Press) would be apt to repel beginners. This should be studied only after a previous acquaintance with his shorter poems.

Define Browning's creed as found in _Rabbi Ben Ezra_. Is he an ethical teacher? Is there any similarity between his teaching and Carlyle's? What most interests Browning,--word-painting, narration, action, psychological analysis, or technique of verse? See whether a comparison of his _Prospice_ with Tennyson's _Crossing the Bar_ does not help you to understand Browning's peculiar cast of mind. What qualities in Browning entitle him to be ranked as a great poet?

Tennyson.--From his 1842 volume, read the poems mentioned on page 556. From _The Princess_, read the lyrical songs; from _In Memoriam_, the parts numbered XLI., LIV., LVII., and CXXXI.; from _Maud_, the eleven stanzas beginning: "Come into the garden, Maud"; from _The Idylls of the King_, read _Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, The Passing of Arthur_ (Van Dyke's edition in _Gateway Series_); from his later poems, _The Higher Pantheism, Locksley Hall Sixty Years After_, and _Crossing the Bar_.

The best single volume edition of Tennyson's works is published in Macmillan's _Globe Poets_. Selections are given in Page's _British Poets of the Nineteenth Century_, Bronson, IV., _Oxford Book of Victorian Verse_, Manly, I., and _Century_.

In _The Palace of Art_, study carefully the stanzas from XIV. to XXIII., which are illustrative of Tennyson's characteristic style of description. Compare _Locksley Hall_ with _Locksley Hall Sixty Years After_, and note the difference in thought and metrical form. Does the later poem show a gain over the earlier? Compare Tennyson's nature poetry with that of Keats and Wordsworth. To what is chiefly due the pleasure in reading Tennyson's poetry: to the imagery, form, thought? What idea of his faith do you gain from _In Memoriam_ and _The Passing of Arthur_? In what is Tennyson the poetic exponent of the age? Is it probable that Tennyson's popularity will increase or wane? Select some of his verse that you think will be as popular a hundred years hence as now.

Swinburne.--Read _A Song in Time of Order, The Youth of the Year (Atlanta in Calydon), A Match, The Garden of Proserpine, Hertha, By the North Sea, The Hymn of Man, The Roundel, A Child's Laughter_.

The most of the above are given in Page's _British Poets of the Nineteenth Century_, Bronson, IV., Manly, I., _Century, Oxford Book of Victorian Verse_.

Compare both the metrical skill and poetic ideas of Swinburne and Tennyson. Can you find any poet who surpasses Swinburne in the technique of verse? What are his chief excellencies and faults?

Kipling.--Read _The Jungle Books_. The following are among the best of his short stories: _The Man Who Would be King, The Brushwood Boy, The Courting of Dinah Shadd, Drums of the Fore and Aft, Without Benefit of Clergy, On Greenhow Hill_.

From his poems read _Mandalay, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, Danny Deever, The 'Eathen, Ballad of East and West, Recessional, The White Man's Burden_; also _Song of the Banjo_, and _L'Envoi_ from _Seven Seas_, published by Doubleday, Page and Company.

Why is _The Jungle Book_ called an original creation? What are the most distinctive dualities of Kipling's short stories? Point out in what respects they show the methods of the journalist. How does Kipling sustain the interest? What limitations do you notice? What is specially remarkable about his style? What are the principal characteristics of his verse? What subjects appeal to him? Why is his verse so popular?

Minor Poets.--Read the selections from Clough, Henley, Bridges, Davidson, Thompson, Watson, Dobson and Symons in either _The Oxford Book of Victorian Verse_ or Stevenson's _The Home Book of Verse. The Poetical Works of Robert Bridges_ is inexpensively published by the Oxford University Press. Dobson's verse has been gathered into the single volume _Collected Poems_ (1913).

What are the chief characteristics of each of the above authors? Do these minor versifiers fill a want not fully supplied by the great poets?

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER IX:

[Footnote 1: _A Liberal Education and Where to Find It_ (_Lay Sermons_).]

[Footnote 2: For suggested readings in Pater, see p. 584.]

[Footnote 3: Pp. 225-364 of the Oxford University Press edition of his _Poetical Works_.]

[Footnote 4: Printed by permission of The Macmillan Company.]

[Footnote 5: Given in Stevenson's _Home Book of Verse_ and _The Oxford Book of Victorian Verse_.]

[Footnote 6: _History of England_, Vol. III, Chap. XI.]

[Footnote 7: Morison's _Life of Macaulay_, p. 139.]

[Footnote 8: _The Idea of a University_ (_Literature: A Lecture_).]

[Footnote 9: _For Claviers_, Letter I.]

[Footnote 10: _Praeterita_, Vol. II., Chap. V.]

[Footnote 11: _Silas Marner_, Chap. VI.]

[Footnote 12: _The Scholar Gypsy_.]

[Footnote 13: _A Southern Light_.]

[Footnote 14: _The Grande Chartreuse_.]

[Footnote 15: _Home Thoughts from Abroad_.]

[Footnote 16: A.C. Benson's _Alfred Tennyson_, p. 157.]

[Footnote 17 & 18: Printed by permission of Rudyard Kipling and Doubleday, Page and Company.]

[Footnote 19: For full titles, see p. 6.]