Chapter I: From 449 A.d. to the Norman Conquest, 1066 (2)

"More yellow was her head than the flower of the broom, and her
skin was whiter than the foam of the wave, and fairer were her hands
and fingers than the blossoms of the wood anemone amidst the spray
of the meadow fountain."[29]

King Arthur and his romantic Knights of the Round Table are Celtic heroes. Possibly the Celtic strain persisting in many of the Scotch people inspires lines like these in more modern times:--

"The corn-craik was chirming
His sad eerie cry [30]
And the wee stars were dreaming
Their path through the sky."

In order to produce a poet able to write both _A Midsummer Night's Dream_ and _Hamlet_, the Celtic imagination must blend with the Anglo-Saxon seriousness. As we shall see, this was accomplished by the Norman conquest.

ANGLO-SAXON PROSE

When and where written.--We have seen that poetry normally precedes prose. The principal part of Anglo-Saxon poetry had been produced before much prose was written. The most productive poetic period was between 650 and 825. Near the close of the eighth century, the Danes began their plundering expeditions into England. By 800 they had destroyed the great northern monasteries, like the one at Whitby, where Caedmon is said to have composed the first religious song. As the home of poetry was in the north of England, these Danish inroads almost completely silenced the singers. What prose there was in the north was principally in Latin. On the other hand, the Saxon prose was produced chiefly in the south of England. The most glorious period of Anglo-Saxon prose was during Alfred's reign, 871-901.

Bede.--This famous monk (673-735) was probably the greatest teacher and the best known man of letters and scholar in all contemporary Europe. He is said to have translated the _Gospel of St. John_ into Saxon, but the translation is lost. He wrote in Latin on a vast range of subjects, from the _Scriptures_ to natural science, and from grammar to history. He has given a list of thirty-seven works of which he is the author. His most important work is the _Ecclesiastical History of the English People_, which is really a history of England from Julius Caesar's invasion to 731. The quotation from Bede's work relative to Caedmon shows that Bede could relate things simply and well. He passed almost all his useful life at the monastery of Jarrow on the Tyne.

Alfred (849-901).--The deeds and thoughts of Alfred, king of the West Saxons from 871 until his death in 901, remain a strong moral influence an the world, although he died more than a thousand years ago. Posterity rightly gave him the surname of "the Great," as he is one of the comparatively few great men of all time. E.A. Freeman, the noted historian of the early English period, says of him:--

"No man recorded in history seems ever to have united so many
great and good qualities... A great part of his reign was taken up
with warfare with an enemy [the Danes] who threatened the national
being; yet he found means personally to do more for the general
enlightenment of his people than any other king in English history."

After a Danish leader had outrageously broken his oaths to Alfred, the Dane's two boys and their mother fell into Alfred's hands, and he returned them unharmed. "Let us love the man," he wrote, "but hate his sins." His revision of the legal code, known as _Alfred's Laws_, shows high moral aim. He does not forget the slave, who was to be freed after six years of service. His administration of the law endeavored to secure the same justice for the poor as for the rich.

Alfred's example has caused many to stop making excuses for not doing more for their kind. If any one ever had an adequate excuse for not undertaking more work than his position absolutely demanded, that man was Alfred; yet his ill health and the wars with the Danes did not keep him from trying to educate his people or from earning the title, "father of English prose." Freeman even says that England owes to Alfred's prose writing and to the encouragement that he gave to other writers the "possession of a richer early literature than any other people of western Europe" and the maintenance of the habit of writing after the Norman conquest, when English was no longer used in courtly circles.

Although most of his works are translations from the Latin, yet he has left the stamp of his originality and sterling sense upon them all. Finding that his people needed textbooks in the native tongue, he studied Latin so that he might consult all accessible authorities and translate the most helpful works, making alterations and additions to suit his plan. For example, he found a Latin work on history and geography by Orosius, a Spanish Christian of the fifth century; but as this book contained much material that was unsuited to Alfred's purposes, he omitted some parts, changed others, and, after interviewing travelers from the far North, added much original matter. These additions, which even now are not uninteresting reading, are the best material in the book. This work is known as Alfred's _Orosius_.

Alfred also translated Pope Gregory's _Pastoral Rule_ in order to show the clergy how to teach and care for their flocks. Alfred's own words at the beginning of the volume show how great was the need for the work. Speaking of the clergy, he says:--

"There were very few on this side Humber who would know how to
render their services in English, or so much as translate an epistle
out of Latin into English; and I ween that not many would be on the
other side Humber. So few of them were there, that I cannot think of
so much as a single one, south of Thames, when I took to the
realm."[31]

Alfred produced a work on moral philosophy, by altering and amending the _De Consolatione Philosophiae_ of Boethius, a noble Roman who was brutally thrown into prison and executed about 525 A.D. In simplicity and moral power, some of Alfred's original matter in this volume was not surpassed by any English writer for several hundred years. We frequently find such thoughts as, "If it be not in a man's power to do good, let him have the good intent." "True high birth is of the mind, not of the flesh." His _Prayer_ in the same work makes us feel that he could see the divine touch in human nature:--

"No enmity hast Thou towards anything... Thou, O Lord,
bringest together heavenly souls and earthly bodies, and minglest
them in this world. As they came hither from Thee, even so they also
seek to go hence to Thee."

AElfric, 955?-1025?--The most famous theologian who followed Alfred's example in writing native English prose, and who took Alfred for his model, was a priest named AElfric. His chief works are his _Homilies_, a series of sermons, and the _Lives of the Saints_. Although much of his writing is a compilation or a translation from the Latin Fathers, it is often remarkably vigorous in expression and stimulating to the reader. We find such thoughts as:--

"God hath wrought many miracles, and He performs them every day,
but these miracles have become much less important in the sight of
men because they are very common... Spiritual miracles are greater
than the physical ones."

To modern readers the most interesting of Aelfric's writings is his _Colloquium_, designed to teach Latin in the monastery at Winchester. The pupils were required to learn the Latin translation of his dialogues in the Anglo-Saxon vernacular. Some of these dialogues are today valuable illustrations of the social and industrial life of the time. The following is part of the conversation between the Teacher and the Plowman:--

"_Teacher_. What have you to say, plowman? How do you carry on
your work?

"_Plowman_. O master, I work very hard; I go out at dawn, drive
the oxen to the field, and yoke them to the plow. There is no storm
so severe that I dare to hide at home, for fear of my lord, but when
the oxen are yoked, and the share and coulter have been fastened to
the plow, I must plow a whole acre or more every day.
* * * * *
"_Teacher_. Oh! oh! the labor must be great!

"_Plowman_. It is indeed great drudgery, because I am not free."[32]

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.--This is the first history of any branch of the Teutonic people in their own tongue. The _Chronicle_ has come down to us in several different texts, according as it was compiled or copied at different monasteries. The _Chronicle_ was probably begun in Alfred's reign. The entries relating to earlier events were copied from Bede's _Ecclesiastical History_ and from other Latin authorities. The _Chronicle_ contains chiefly those events which each year impressed the clerical compilers as the most important in the history of the nation. This work is a fountainhead to which writers of the history of those times must turn.

A few extracts (translated) will show its character:--

"A.D. 449. This year ... Hengist and Horsa, invited by Vortigern,
King of Britons, landed in Britain, on the shore which is called
Wappidsfleet; at first in aid of the Britons, but afterwards they
fought against them."

"806. This year the moon was eclipsed on the Kalends of September;
and Eardulf, King of the Northumbrians. was driven from his
kingdom; and Eanbert, Bishop of Hexham, died."

Sometimes the narrative is extremely vivid. Those who know the difficulty of describing anything impressively in a few words will realize the excellence of this portraiture of William the Conqueror:--

"1087. If any would know what manner of man King William was,
the glory that he obtained, and of how many lands he was lord; then
will we describe him as we have known him... He was mild to
those good men who loved God, but severe beyond measure to those
withstood his will... So also was he a very stern and a wrathful
man, so that none durst do anything against his will, and he kept
in prison those earls who acted against his pleasure. He removed
bishops from their sees, and abbots from their offices, and he
imprisoned thanes, and at length he spared not his own brother.
Odo... Amongst other things, the good order that William
established is not to be forgotten; it was such that any man, who
was himself aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom-full
of gold, unmolested; and no man durst kill another... He made large
forests for the deer, and enacted laws therewith, so that whoever
killed a hart or a hind should be blinded ... and he loved the tall
stags as if he were their father."

SUMMARY

The Anglo-Saxons, a branch of the Teutonic race, made permanent settlements in England about the middle of the fifth century A.D. Like modern German, their language is highly inflected. The most flourishing period of Anglo-Saxon poetry was between 650 and 825 A.D. It was produced for the most part in the north of England, which was overrun by the Danes about 800. These marauders destroyed many of the monasteries and silenced the voices of the singers. The prose was written chiefly in the south of England after the greatest poetic masterpieces had been produced. The Norman Conquest of England, beginning in 1066, brought the period to a close.

Among the poems of this age, we may emphasize: (1) the shorter _scopic_ pieces, of which the _Far Traveler, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Fortunes of Men_, and _The Battle of Brunanburh_ are important examples; (2) _Beowulf_, the greatest Anglo-Saxon epic poem, which describes the deeds of an unselfish hero, shows how the ancestors of the English lived and died, and reveals the elemental ideals of the race; (3) the _Caedmonian Cycle_ of scriptural paraphrases, some of which have Miltonic qualities; and (4) the _Cynewulf Cycle_, which has the most variety and lyrical excellence. Both of these _Cycles_ show how the introduction of Christianity affected poetry.

The subject matter of the poetry is principally war, the sea, and religion. The martial spirit and love of the sea are typical of the nation that has raised her flag in every clime. The chief qualities of the poetry are earnestness, somberness, and strength, rather than delicacy of touch, exuberance of imagination, or artistic adornment.

The golden period of prose coincides in large measure with Alfred's reign, 871-901, and he is the greatest prose writer. His translations of Latin works to serve as textbooks for his people contain excellent additions by him. AElfric, a tenth century prose writer, has left a collection of sermons, called _Homilies_, and an interesting _Colloquium_, which throws strong lights on the social life of the time. The _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ is an important record of contemporaneous events for the historian.

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

HISTORICAL

In connection with the progress of literature, students should obtain for themselves a general idea of contemporary historical events from any of the following named works:--

Gardiner's_ Students' History of England_.

Green's _Short History of the English People_.

Walker's _Essentials in English History_.

Cheney's _A Short History of England_.

Lingard's _History of England_.

Traill's _Social England_, Vol. I.

Ramsay's _The Foundations of England_.

LITERARY

_Cambridge History of English Literature_, Vol. I.

Brooke's _History of Early English Literature to the Accession of King Alfred_.

Morley's _English Writers_, Vols. I. and II.

Earle's _Anglo-Saxon Literature_.

Ten Brink's Early English Literature, Vol. I.

_The Exeter Book_, edited and translated, by Gollancz (Early English Text Society).

Gurteen's _The Epic of the Fall of Man: A Comparative Study of Caedmon, Dante, and Milton_.

Cook's _The Christ of Cynewulf_. (The _Introduction of 97 pages gives a valuable account of the life and writings of Cynewulf.)

Kennedy's_ Translation of the Poems of Cynewulf_.

Bede's _Ecclesiastical History of England and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, I vol., translated by Giles in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_.

Snell's _The Age of Alfred._

Pauli's _Life of Alfred_ (Bohn's Antiquarian Library).

Gem's _An Anglo-Saxon Abbot: AElfric of Eynsham_.

_Mabinogion_ (a collection of Welsh fairy tales and romances, _Everyman's Library_), translated by Lady Charlotte Guest.

Pancoast and Spaeth's _Early English Poems_ (abbreviated reference) ("P & S.").

Cook and Tinker's _Select Translations from Old English Poetry_ ("C. & T.").

Cook & Tinker's _Select Translations from Old English Prose_ ("C. & T. _Prose_").

SUGGESTED READINGS WITH QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

The student who is not familiar with the original Anglo-Saxon should read the translations specified below:--

Scopic Poetry.[33]--_Widsið_ or the _Far Traveler_, translated in Morley's _English Writers_, Vol. II, 1-11, or in C. & T.,[34] 3-8.

_The Wanderer_, translated in P. & S., 65-68; C. & T., 50-55; Brooke, 364-367.

_The Seafarer_, translated in P. & S., 68-70; C. & T., 44-49; Morley, II., 21-26; Brooke, 362, 363.

_The Fortunes of Men_, trans. in P. & S., 79-81; Morley, II., 32-37.

_Battle of Brunanburh_, Tennyson's translation.

What were the chief subjects of the songs of the scop? How do they reveal the life of the time? Is there any common quality running through them? What qualities of this verse appear in modern poetry?

Beowulf.--This important poem should be read entire in one of the following translations:

Child's _Beowulf (Riverside Literature Series)_;

Earle's _The Deeds of Beowulf, Done into Modern Prose_ (Clarendon
Press);

Gummere's _The Oldest English Epic_;

Morris and Wyatt's _The Tale of Beowulf_;

Hall's _Beowulf, Translated into Modern Metres_;

Lumsden's _Beowulf, an Old English Poem, Translated into Modern
Rhymes_ (the most readable poetic translation).

Translations of many of the best parts of _Beowulf_ may be found in
P. & S. 5-29; C. & T., 9-24; Morley, I. 278-310; Brooke 26-73.

Where did the exploits celebrated in the poem take place? Where was Heorot? What was the probably time of the completion of _Beowulf_? Describe the hero's three exploits. What analogy is there between the conflict of natural forces in the Norseland and Beowulf's fight with Grendel? What different attitude toward nature is manifest in modern poetry? What is the moral lesson of the poem? Show that its chief characteristics are typical of the Anglo-Saxon race.

Caedmonian Cycle.--Some of the strongest passages may be found in P. & S., 30-45; C. & T., 104-120; Morley, II. 81-101; Brooke, 290-340. Read at the same time from Milton's _Paradise Lost_, Book I., lines 44-74, 169-184, 248-263, and _passim_.

What evidence do we find in this cycle of the introduction of Christianity? Who takes the place of Grendel? What account of Caedmon does Bede give? What is the subject matter of this cycle?

Cynewulf Cycle.--_The Poems of Cynewulf_, translated by C.W. Kennedy. Translations of parts of this cycle may be found in Whitman's _The Christ of Cynewulf_, and _The Exeter Book_, translated by Gollancz. Good selections are translated in P. & S., 46-55; C. & T., 79-103; and 132-142: Morley, II., 206-241; Brooke, 371-443. For selections from the _Phoenix_, see P & S, 54-65; C.& T., 143-163.

What new qualities does this cycle show? What is the subject matter of its most important poems? What is especially noticeable about the_ Andreas and the Phoenix_?

_General Characteristics of the Verse._--What is its usual form? What most striking passages (a) in Beowulf; (b) elsewhere, show the Saxon love of war and of the sea? Instance some similes and make a list of vivid metaphors. What are the most striking parallelisms found in your readings? What conspicuous differences are there between Saxon and Celtic imagery? (See Morley, l, 165-239, or Guest's _Mabinogion_). What excellencies and defects seem to you most pronounced in Anglo-Saxon verse?

Prose_--The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ and Bede's _Ecclesiastical History_ are both translated in one volume of Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_. The most interesting part of Bede for the student of literature is the chapter relating to Caedmon (Chap. XXIV., pp. 217-220).

In the _Chronicle_, read the entries for the years 871, 878, 897, 975, 1087, and 1137.

Alfred's _Orosius_ is translated into modern English in the volume of Bohn's_ Antiquarian Library_ entitled, _Alfred the Great, his Life and Anglo-Saxon Works_, by Pauli. Sedgefield's translation of the_ Consolations of Boethius_ distinguishes the original matter by Alfred from the translation. Selections from Alfred's works are given in C. & T.(_Prose_), 85-146, and in Earle's _Anglo-Saxon Literature_, 186-206.

For selections from AElfric, see C. & T. (_Prose_), 149-192. Read especially the _Colloquies_, 177-186.

What was Bede's principal work? Why has Alfred been called the "father of English prose"? What were his ideals? Mention his chief works and their object. What is the character of AElfric's work? Why are modern readers interested in his _Colloquium_?

Why is the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ important?

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER I:

[Footnote 1: For special references to authors, movements and the history of the period, see the lists under the heading, _Suggestions for Further Study_, at the end of each chapter.]

[Footnote 2: School libraries should own books marked *.]

[Footnote 3: The abbreviation in parentheses after titles will be used in the _Suggested Readings_ in place of the full title.]

[Footnote 4: Tennyson's _In Memoriam_.]

[Footnote 5: Florence Earls Coates's _Dream the Great Dream_.]

[Footnote 6: Shakespeare's _The Tempest_, Act IV., Scene 1.]

[Footnote 7: Morley's translation, _English Writers_, Vol. II., p. 21.]

[Footnote 8: Swinburne's _A Song in Time of Order_.]

[Footnote 9: Morley's _English Writers_, Vol. II., pp. 33, 34.]

[Footnote 10: _Beowulf_, translated by William Morris and A.J. Wyatt.]

[Footnote 11: Translated by J.L. Hall.]

[Footnote 12: Earle's Translation.]

[Footnote 13: Translated by Childs.]

[Footnote 14: Translated by Morris and Wyatt.]

[Footnote 15: Morley's translation.]

[Footnote 16: _Paradise Lost_, Book I., lines 61-69.]

[Footnote 17: _Paradise Lost_, II., 594.]

[Footnote 18: _Ibid_., I., 222-224.]

[Footnotes 19-22: Brooke's translation.]

[Footnote 23: Morley's translation.]

[Footnote 24: Brooke's translation.]

[Footnote 25: Morley's translation.]

[Footnotes 26-27: Brooke's translation.]

[Footnote 28: _Llywarch's Lament for his Son Gwenn_.]

[Footnote 29: Guest's _Mabinogion_.]

[Footnote 30: William Motherwell's _Wearie's Well_.]

[Footnote 31: Earle's translation.]

[Footnote 32: Cook and Tinker's _Select Translations from Old English Prose.]

[Footnote 33: In his _Education of the Central Nervous System_, Chaps. VII.-X., the author has endeavored to give some special directions for securing definite ideas in the study of poetry.]

[Footnote 34: For full titles, see page 50.]