Chapter XVI: Management (1)

All that is required to render the efforts of railroad companies in
every respect equal to that of individuals, is a rigid system of
personal accountability through every grade of service.—_D. C.
McCallum._

ORGANIZATION OF EMPLOYEES.

397. Railroad management may be divided into two grand departments,—

Financial management.
Operating management.

The first of these does not properly come into a work of the present kind. It embraces the entire system of accounts. Its officers are a president, secretary, treasurer, attorney, and directors.

398. The operating management is subdivided as follows:—

_The mercantile department._
_The mechanical department._

The first embracing every thing relating to the adjusting of tariffs, the transport of passengers and freight, the embarking and delivering of goods, and the weighing and measuring, ticket and receiving offices, steamboat, stage, and railroad connections. The second, the maintaining the road-bed, superstructure, bridging, masonry, buildings, and fixed stock in working order; making all repairs, renewals, enlargements, and alterations, and the purchase, inspection, maintaining, and operating of the rolling stock. These departments are again divided and subdivided until we come to the minutest details.

NOTE.—That part of Chapter XVI. in italics is extracted, by
permission, from the elaborate Report of D. C. McCallum to the
stockholders of the New York and Erie Railroad, (March 25, 1856).

399. The following general principles govern the formation of an efficient system of operations.

_First. A proper division of responsibilities._

_Second. Sufficient power conferred to enable the same to be fully carried out, that such responsibilities may be real in their character._

_Third. The means of knowing whether such responsibilities are faithfully executed._

_Fourth. Great promptness in the report of all derelictions of duty, that evils may at once be corrected._

_Fifth. Such information to be obtained through a system of daily reports and checks that will not embarrass principal officers nor lessen their influence with their subordinates._

_Sixth. The adoption of a system, as a whole, which will not only enable the general superintendent to detect errors immediately, but will also point out the delinquent._

400. _A system of operations to be efficient and successful should be such as to give to the principal and responsible head of the running department a complete daily history of details in all their minutiæ. Without such supervision the procurement of a satisfactory annual statement must be regarded as extremely problematical. The fact that dividends are made without such control does not disprove the position, as in many cases the extraordinarily remunerative nature of an enterprise may insure satisfactory returns under the most loose and inefficient management._

All subordinates should be accountable to, and directed by, their _immediate superiors only_. Each officer must have authority, with the approval of the general superintendent, to appoint all persons for whose acts he is held responsible, and to dismiss any subordinate when in his judgment the interests of the company demand it.

401. The following table shows the rate and direction of subordination for a first class railroad:—

{Section men.
{Superintendent {Road-master.{Section men.
{ of Road. {Road-master.{Section men.
{ {Section men.
{
{ {Foreman Machine shop, Machinists.
{ {Foreman Blacksmith shop, Blacksmiths.
{Superintendent {Foreman Car shop, Carpenters,
{ of Machinery. {Foreman Paint shop, Painters.
{ {Engineers (not on trains), Firemen.
{ {Car-masters, Oil men and cleaners.
{
{ {Conductors {Brakemen.
{ {Mail agents. {Engineers (on trains).
{ { {Ticket collectors.
General { {
Superintendent{General passenger{Station agents.{Hackmen.
{ agent. { {Switchmen.
{ {
{ {Express agents.
{ {Police.
{
{ {Conductors. {Brakemen.
{ { {Engineers (on trains).
{General freight {Station agent.
{ agent. {Weighers.
{ {Gaugers.
{ {Yard-masters.
{
{Supply agent. {Clerks, Teamsters furnishing supplies.
{Fuel agent. {All men employed about the wood sheds.

DUTIES OF EMPLOYEES.

402. _The General Superintendent_ has entire control of all of the heads of departments; he issues his orders to the heads only, and is the main agent for transferring the resolves of the directors to the operating department, and the channel through which the reports of the departments go to the directory.

_The Superintendent of the Road_ has complete charge of the road-bed, superstructure, bridging, masonry, and buildings; also all removals, enlargements, and alterations. He should be a thorough civil engineer, able in every respect to build a railroad from beginning to end.

_The Superintendent of Machinery_ has charge of the purchase, inspection, repair, and operating of all of the rolling and fixed machinery, of shops, engine houses, turntables, tanks, and weigh scales. He is responsible for the good condition, proper adaptation and efficiency of the entire equipment of engines and cars.

_The General Passenger Agent_ fixes, under the direction of the president and general superintendent, the prices of passenger transportation, has charge of all conductors, ticket sellers, station police, mail and express agents, of stage, steamboat, and railroad connections, and of all operations incident to transporting passengers.

_The General Freight Agent_ has charge of all persons occupied at all of the stations in forwarding and receiving merchandise, in measuring and weighing, in receiving money, and bookkeeping, station agents, and train hands. He makes and regulates, with the approval of the president and general superintendent, the tariff for freights; contracts with connecting roads, and insures the benefits of such agreements, examines all claims for damages to freight, and sees that such are properly settled.

_The Agent for Wood_ contracts, with the approval of the general superintendent, for the supply of the necessary amount of fuel; attends the measurement, inspection, and delivery at the proper places; registers each month the amount of fuel supplied and used, and the location and amount on hand.

_The Supply Agent_ has charge of the supply of all materials in use in all departments; iron, timber, engines, rails, bridges, and every thing in use upon the road; charging each department with its correct quantity and quality of material received.

_Road-masters_ will have charge, under the superintendent of the road, of the maintenance of the road-bed and superstructure of divisions of from twenty-five to fifty miles in length, depending upon the care that the road-way may need. They will have charge of gravel trains, and of wood trains, which run under the orders of the superintendent of the road. They should pass over their divisions at least once per day. Under them are placed section men, having care of ten miles each, being supplied with the proper tools and signals. They must pass over their respective sections at least once per day in a hand car. They should see that every switch, frog, chair, and rail on their section is in proper order, and report at once any defects, which cannot be remedied by them, in the track, to the road-master.

_Engineers_ are subject to the superintendent of machinery when off, and to the conductor when on, the trains. None but a man well acquainted with the details of machinery, and who has served in a locomotive machine shop, and is in every respect temperate and steady, should fill this berth.

_Foremen_ of the blacksmith, machine, carpenter, and car shops, are subject to the superintendent of machinery, and have charge of the repairs and cleaning of the engines, cars, and other machinery.

_Car-masters_ have charge of the men employed in cleaning, oiling, and examining the cars and their wheels. The cars should be thoroughly examined at the end of each trip, and at each stop, by an inspector who accompanies the train and looks to the wheels, axles, boxes, and brakes.

_Conductors._—A conductor of a train should be a machinist, a prompt, active man, who should station himself on the top of the cars in such a position as to see the whole train, and able at any moment to communicate with the engineer. He should direct the running of the train, and control the engineer and the person who takes the fares. The latter should confine himself to the inside of the cars.

NUMBER OF TRAINS TO BE USED.

403. This is determined by the quantity and quality of the material to be transported, and by the character of the road. The train should not be so heavy as to be beyond the power of the engines upon the steepest grades, nor so light as to increase unnecessarily the number. A road doing a large passenger business must accommodate the public as far as possible as regards the time of departure and arrival, and the connections with other roads. A freight road must regard more the character of the road. Some classes of freight (ice, beef, etc.) do not admit of delay. As we increase the number of trains, the ratio of time employed in actual work to the whole train under steam is decreased, as there must be much time lost on sidings in waiting for trains to pass. Liability to accidents is also incurred. Commercial circumstances, more than any other, will determine the proper number and class of trains.

AMOUNT OF SERVICE OF ENGINES.

404. This is much less than is generally supposed. The number of engines required to perform any amount of work is considerably greater than the number actually in motion, because of liability to accident, time required for cleaning and repair. The New York State Engineer’s Report for 1854 gives, as the number of engines on 2,500 miles, 668, or one engine per 3¾ miles. Also, 668 engines run per annum 11,393,000 miles, or 17,055 miles per annum per engine; thus requiring .00005863 of an engine per mile run per annum.

This is very nearly fifty-five miles per day, (313 days per annum). Also, 968/2500 gives 27/100 of an engine per mile of road, and the same report gives the following:—

One locomotive for 3¾ miles of road.
One passenger car for 2½ miles of road.
One freight car for 32/100 miles of road.

Or each mile needs

27/100 of a locomotive.
40/100 of a passenger car.
3 freight cars.

Or to one engine 781/100 passenger cars, and 1072/100 freight cars. From Lardner’s Railway Economy it appears that the average daily run of an engine is forty-two miles, or seventy-five miles per day, working four days in the week. That the daily service is two hours working, and three and three quarters hours standing with steam up. The maximum annual mileage mentioned by Lardner is that upon the Belgium lines, and was 21,737. The maximum in America has been, as far as we have been able to ascertain, 22,000, and this for eighteen years.

NOTE 1.—Two little eight ton, four wheeled, Stephenson engines,
cylinders 10 × 16, four and a half feet drivers, inside connection,
copper fire-boxes, have averaged 22,000 miles per annum, with trains
weighing forty tons exclusive of engine and tender, for eighteen
years, costing about $700 per annum each for repairs, or $3.18 cents
per mile run, upon the Bangor and Oldtown Railroad (Maine).

NOTE 2.—In the Report of the Railroad Commissioners of the State of
New York for the year ending September 30, 1855, is the following:—

One engine is required for each three and a half miles; or one
engine in constant use for five and a quarter miles. The average run
per annum by each engine in actual use is 22,823 miles; or 16,302 to
all of the engines. Also, as regards the work done by cars.

Effective in Miles per car. Distance run per constant use. annum per car. Passenger, 650 4 45.126 Baggage, 246 11 —— Freight, 7500 0.35 11.970

the number of miles being 2,615.

EXPENSES, RECEIPTS, PROFITS.

EXPENSES.

405. American railroad reports as a general thing do not analyze the cost of working. The gross expense is given, and in some cases is primarily divided. Besides the retrospective use of a minute division of expenses, which enables us to see what system is the most economical, there is a prospective use, namely, the formation of estimates for future operations and a correct base for establishing tariffs. If the circumstances of the traffic remain the same, an estimate of what the cost will be at any time is easy; but if they change, the data for the estimate change also. That we may at all times possess these data, we should know every year just the cost of working each article of traffic. It is not enough that the gross receipt exceeds the whole expense; even then the road may be working unprofitably. Unless each item of transport pays for itself, we are taxing unjustly some other item, (except, indeed, in such cases as adopting low rates in order to fill trains running in one direction which would otherwise run empty). An analysis of cost will also show whether or not it is best to attract an increased amount of business by a reduction of rates.

406. The whole cost of operating and of maintaining a railroad may be generally and specially divided as follows:—

{Cost of Road-bed.
{Cost of Superstructure.
(A) Interest on construction and equipment {Cost of Buildings.
capital. {Cost of Engines.
{Cost of Cars.
{Fixed machinery.

{Road-bed. {Material.
{ {Labor.
{
(B) Maintenance of way and works. {Buildings. {Material.
{ {Labor.
{
{Superstructure. {Material.
{ {Labor.

{ { { {Fuel, oil, and
{ { {Working. { waste.
{ {Passenger. { {Salaries.
{ { {
{ { {Maintaining. {Material.
{ { { {Labor.
{Locomotives.{
{ { { {Fuel, oil, and
{ { {Working. { waste.
{ {Freight. { {Salaries.
{ { {
{ { {Maintaining. {Material.
{ { { {Labor.
(C) Maintenance of {
the fixed and { { { {Warming,
rolling stock.{ { {Working. { lighting, and
{ { { { cleaning.
{ {Passenger. { {Oil and waste.
{ { {
{Cars. { {Maintaining. {Material and
{ { { labor.
{ {
{ { {Working. {Oil and waste.
{ {Freight. {Maintaining. {Material and
{ { { { labor.
{
{Fixed {In shops. {Machinery. {Oil and waste.
{ machinery. {On road. {Tanks and {Materials and
{ { { tables. { labor.

{ {Conductors.
{ {Ticket Sellers.
{Passenger. {Clerks.
{ {Brakemen.
(D) Salaries of hands employed in { {Porters.
and about trains. {
{ {Conductors.
{Freight. {Station agents.
{ {Brakemen.
{ {Weighers and gaugers.

{Passenger. {Warming and lighting.
{ {Police.
(E) Station expenses. {
{Freight. {Warming and lighting.
{ {Police.

{Salaries.
{Travelling expenses.
(F) General superintendence. {Office expenses.
{Stationery.
{Advertising, &c., &c.

The actual _general_ division of the operating expenses upon the New York State system of roads was, for 1854, as follows. (See State Engineer’s Report).

Way and works, 1,123 dollars per mile of road.
Machinery, 2,072 dollars per mile of road.
Salaries on and about trains, 640 dollars per mile of road.
Stations, 30 dollars per mile of road.
General superintendence, 333 dollars per mile of road.
—————
Total, 4,198 dollars per mile of road.

That the detailed expenses may be charged to the proper departments, and that we may be able to take out the exact cost of working any one class of trains, or of carrying any article of transport, the following form should be filled.

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND DETAILED EXPENSES │ │ OF WORKING AND MAINTAINING THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK │ │ STATE, FOR 1854, AND THE NEW YORK AND ERIE RAILROAD │ │ FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1855. │ ├──────────┬───────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ WAY AND WORKS. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────────┬───────────────┬──────────┬──────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nature of │ │ │ │ │ │ the item │ │ │ │ │ │ is shown │Road-bed.│Superstructure.│Buildings.│Total.│ │ in │ │ │ │ │ │horizontal│ │ │ │ │ │ columns. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ Name of │ │ │ │ │ │railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼──────┤ │Cost, in │ │ │ │ │ │dollars, │ │ │ │ │ │per mile, │ 351│ 140│ 22│F. 513│ │upon N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │State │ │ │ │ │ │Railroads │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 453│ 88│ 27│P. 568│ ├──────────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼──────┤ │Cost in │ │ │ │ │ │cents, per│ │ │ │ │ │ton, or │ │ │ │ │ │per │ │ │ │ F.│ │passenger │ .020│ .161│ .010│ .191│ │per mile │ │ │ │ │ │run, N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │and Erie │ │ │ │ │ │Railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ .035│ .207│ .011│ P.│ │ │ │ │ │ .253│ ├──────────┴─────────┴───────────────┴──────────┴──────┤ │ NOTES. │ └──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND DETAILED EXPENSES │ │ OF WORKING AND MAINTAINING THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK │ │ STATE, FOR 1854, AND THE NEW YORK AND ERIE RAILROAD │ │ FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1855. │ ├──────────┬────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, CARS, AND FIXED │ │ │ MACHINERY. │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │Nature of │ │ │ the item │ │ │ is shown │ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. │ │ in │ │ │horizontal│ │ │ columns. │ │ │ │ │ │ ├────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Passenger Locomotives. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────┬──────┬────────┬──────┬────────┬──────┤ │ Name of │ │ Oil │ │ │ │ │ │railroad. │Fuel.│ and │Salaries│Whole.│Repairs.│Total.│ │ │ │waste.│ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────┼──────┼────────┼──────┼────────┼──────┤ │Cost, in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │dollars, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per mile, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │upon N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │State │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Railroads │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 395│ 50│ 140│ 585│ 237│ 822│ ├──────────┼─────┼──────┼────────┼──────┼────────┼──────┤ │Cost in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │cents, per│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ton, or │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │passenger │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per mile │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │run, N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │and Erie │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ .157│ .021│ .107│ .285│ .109│ .394│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┴─────┴──────┴────────┴──────┴────────┴──────┤ │ RECAPITULATION. │ └───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND DETAILED EXPENSES │ │ OF WORKING AND MAINTAINING THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK │ │ STATE, FOR 1854, AND THE NEW YORK AND ERIE RAILROAD │ │ FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1855. │ ├──────────┬────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, CARS, AND FIXED MACHINERY. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │Nature of │ │ │ the item │ │ │ is shown │ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. │ │ in │ │ │horizontal│ │ │ columns. │ │ │ │ │ │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────────┬──────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Total │ │ │ Freight Locomotives. │ cost.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────┬──────┬─────────┬──────┬────────┬──────┼──────┤ │ Name of │ │ Oil │ │ │ │ │ │ │railroad. │Fuel.│ and │Salaries.│Whole.│Repairs.│Total.│ │ │ │ │waste.│ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼────────┼──────┼──────┤ │Cost, in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │dollars, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per mile, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │upon N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │State │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Railroads │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 202│ 31│ 122│ 355│ 191│ 546│ 1368│ ├──────────┼─────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼────────┼──────┼──────┤ │Cost in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │cents, per│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ton, or │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │passenger │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per mile │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │run, N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │and Erie │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ .205│ .018│ .080│ .303│ .081│ .384│ .778│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┴─────┴──────┴─────────┴──────┴────────┴──────┴──────┤ │ │ └───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND │ │ DETAILED EXPENSES OF WORKING AND │ │ MAINTAINING THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK │ │ STATE, FOR 1854, AND THE NEW YORK AND │ │ ERIE RAILROAD FOR THE YEAR ENDING │ │ SEPTEMBER 30, 1855. │ ├──────────┬──────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, CARS, AND │ │ │ FIXED MACHINERY. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼──────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │Nature of │ │ │ the item │ │ │ is shown │ CARS. │ │ in │ │ │horizontal│ │ │ columns. │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Passenger cars. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼──────────┬────────────┬──────┤ │ Name of │ │ │ │ │railroad. │Operating.│Maintaining.│Total.│ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼──────────┼────────────┼──────┤ │Cost, in │ │ │ │ │dollars, │ │ │ │ │per mile, │ │ │ │ │upon N. Y.│ │ │ │ │State │ │ │ │ │Railroads │ │ │ │ │ │ 50│ 145│ 195│ ├──────────┼──────────┼────────────┼──────┤ │Cost in │ │ │ │ │cents, per│ │ │ │ │ton, or │ │ │ │ │per │ │ │ │ │passenger │ │ │ │ │per mile │ │ │ │ │run, N. Y.│ │ │ │ │and Erie │ │ │ │ │Railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ .020│ .079│ .099│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┴──────────┴────────────┴──────┤ │ SUMMARY. │ └─────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND DETAILED EXPENSES OF WORKING AND │ │ MAINTAINING THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK STATE, FOR 1854, AND THE NEW │ │ YORK AND ERIE RAILROAD FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1855. │ ├──────────┬──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, CARS, AND FIXED MACHINERY. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────────────────────────────────────┬──────────┬─────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │Nature of │ │ │ Whole │ │ the item │ │ │ cost of │ │ is shown │ CARS. │ FIXED │machinery│ │ in │ │MACHINERY.│oiling on│ │horizontal│ │ │the road.│ │ columns. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────────────────────────┬──────┼──────────┤ │ │ │ │Total │ Repairs, │ │ │ │ │ cost │ oil and │ │ │ │ Freight Cars. │ of │ waste, │ │ │ │ │cars. │labor, and│ │ │ │ │ │machinery.│ │ ├──────────┼──────────┬────────────┬──────┤ │ │ │ │ Name of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │railroad. │Operating.│Maintaining.│Total.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼──────────┼────────────┼──────┼──────┼──────────┼─────────┤ │Cost, in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │dollars, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per mile, │ │ │ │ │ 44 F.│ 841│ │upon N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │State │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Railroads │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 45│ 206│ 251│ 446│ 55 P.│ 1072│ ├──────────┼──────────┼────────────┼──────┼──────┼──────────┼─────────┤ │Cost in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │cents, per│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ton, or │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │per │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │passenger │ │ │ │ │ .015 F.│ .466│ │per mile │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │run, N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │and Erie │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ .022│ .045│ .067│ .166│ .018 P.│ .511│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┴──────────┴────────────┴──────┴──────┴──────────┴─────────┤ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND DETAILED EXPENSES OF │ │ WORKING AND MAINTAINING THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK STATE, │ │ FOR 1854, AND THE NEW YORK AND ERIE RAILROAD FOR THE YEAR │ │ ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1855. │ ├──────────┬─────────┬───────────┬────────────────┬─────────┤ │ │ │Salaries of│ │ │ │ │ Station │ employees │ General │ Grand │ │ │expenses.│ in and │superintendence.│ Total. │ │ │ │ about │ │ │ │ │ │ trains. │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────────┼───────────┼────────────────┼─────────┤ │ │ │ │ │Cost per │ │Nature of │ Repairs │Conductors.│ Stationery. │passenger│ │ the item │ and │ Brakemen. │ Salaries. │ or per │ │ is shown │material.│ Weighing. │ Offices. │ton, per │ │ in │ Warming │ Loading. │ Travelling. │mile run,│ │horizontal│ and │ Porters. │ Advertising. │ or cost │ │ columns. │lighting.│ Watchmen. │ Agencies. │per mile │ │ │ │ │ │of road. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ Name of │ │ │ │ │ │railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┼─────────┼───────────┼────────────────┼─────────┤ │Cost, in │ │ │ │ │ │dollars, │ │ │ │ │ │per mile, │ —│ 371│ 180│ 1905│ │upon N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │State │ │ │ │ │ │Railroads │ │ │ │ │ │ │ —│ 246│ 170│ 2056│ ├──────────┼─────────┼───────────┼────────────────┼─────────┤ │Cost in │ │ │ │ │ │cents, per│ │ │ │ │ │ton, or │ │ │ │ │ │per │ │ │ │ │ │passenger │ .023│ .240│ .045│ .965│ │per mile │ │ │ │ │ │run, N. Y.│ │ │ │ │ │and Erie │ │ │ │ │ │Railroad. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ .026│ .159│ .053│ 1.002│ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────┴─────────┴───────────┴────────────────┴─────────┤ │ DEDUCTIONS. │ └───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

408. The following general measures are recommended by Lardner in his Railway Economy, as being the means of obtaining increased economy in the working of railroads.

1st. So to manage the traffic as to cause the cars to carry more complete loads.

2d. To encourage the transport to long distances.

3d. To regulate the tariff so as to give the largest possible number of cars to each engine.

4th. To adjust the tariffs where the business is chiefly in one direction, so as to attract return traffic, that the cars may not run without a load.

5th. Not to increase the number of trains beyond a reasonable accommodation of traffic.

6th. To diminish as far as possible express trains, if it be not practicable to abolish them altogether.

RECEIPTS AND PROFITS.

409. The distribution of expenses, as we have seen, is somewhat complicated, and is systematically done upon a very few roads. The classification of receipts is, however, very easy, and is properly detailed in nearly all railroad reports. Upon the New York State railroads, the following was the division for the year 1854.

Average receipts per mile of road,

Passengers, $4,074.16
Freight, 3,776.72
Extras, 427.28
—————————
Whole, $8,278.16
Whole expense, $4,710.14

or fifty-seven per cent. of the receipts.

Receipts per mile run by trains,

Passengers, $1.32
Freight, 2.02
Extras, 1.67
—————
Whole, $5.01
—————
Average, 1.67
—————
Whole expense per mile run by train, $0.97

Average receipts per passenger and per ton, per mile,

Passenger, 1.95 cents,
Ton, 2.79 cents,
————
Average of passenger or ton, 2.37 cents,
————
Average expense of passenger or ton, 1.38 cents,

410. Upon the New York and Erie Railroad for the year ending September 30, 1856.

Receipts per mile of road,

Passengers, $3,397.34
Freight, 7,143.42
Express and mail, 397.84
——————————
Whole, $10,938.60
Whole expense per mile of road, 5,263.00

or forty-eight per cent, of the receipts.

Receipts per mile run by trains,

Passengers, $1.16
Freight, 2.13

Average receipts per passenger and per ton, per mile,

Passenger, 2.02 cents,
Ton, 2.37 cents.

411. Upon the New York State roads,

Average number of passengers per mile run, 57.4 Average distance travelled by passengers, 81.4 Average tons per mile run, 90.0 Average distance, whole number of tons carried, 177.0 Length, 496 miles, Freight tonnage, 150,673,997 miles, Passenger, 84,069,398 miles.

412. It is of course an object on every railroad to make the gross receipts overbalance the gross expense by the largest possible amount. The elements which determine the gross receipts are,

The charge per mile, for transport,
The number of units transported,
The distance carried,

of which the company’s directors can control the first only, except as adjustment of rates may attract business.

Reduction of tariff, to a certain degree, has the effect of increasing the receipts by augmenting the number of fares; but the reduction may be carried too far. So, also, for a certain distance, increased rates will increase the whole receipts; but in this case, also, the extreme must be avoided. The point to be arrived at is, evidently, that at which the difference of expense and receipt is the greatest, and this is not necessarily when receipts are the greatest.

We can make the receipts nothing either by making the charges so large that nothing can bear them, or so small as to vanish. Even when the receipts are 0, we still have the expense of moving the empties.

By forming a table in which one column shall show the different charges, and the second the corresponding amounts transferred, with the consequent receipts and cost of working, we shall find which rate of charge will give the greatest difference between expense and receipt.

EXPRESS TRAINS.

413. Express trains are a source of vast expense, directly and indirectly, which can never be repaid by any practicable tariff to be levied upon them. Dr. Lardner, (1850):—

Resolved, That this meeting recommend the adoption of a higher rate of fare upon express passenger trains, corresponding in some degree to the increased cost of such trains.—American Railroad Convention of 1854.

INCREASED COST OF WORKING.

This is due to the extra wear and tear of engines, cars, and road, from increased speed, and also to the delays occasioned to other trains in motion at the same time.

The influence of express trains is felt not only by themselves, but by nearly all the trains upon the road.

NOTE.—To determine the most economical speed, regard need only be
had to the variable elements of cost, namely: cost of power, and
maintenance of superstructure, and rolling stock; assuming the power
expended as the resistance, and the cost of repairs of machinery and
superstructure as the velocity, we form the following table:—

Velocity in Resistance Hours con. Product of Cost of
miles per in pounds in going column 2 × repairs. Result.
hour. per ton. 300 miles. 3.
10 8.6 30 258 100 358
15 9.3 20 186 150 336
20 10.3 15 154 200 354
25 11.6 12 139 250 389
30 13.3 10 133 300 433
35 15.2 8.60 131 350 481
40 17.3 7.50 130 400 530
45 19.8 6.67 132
50 22.6 6 136
60 29.1 5 145
100 66.5 3 200

The result is found by adding the product of columns 2 and 3, or
column 4 to column 5, from which the minimum cost is seen to be
produced by a very little more than fifteen miles per hour. The
variable (and above assumed) element is the rate of increase of cost
of maintenance.

All trains in motion at the same time within a certain distance of the express, must be kept waiting with steam up, or be driven with extra velocities in order to keep out of the way.

_Where the time table is so arranged as to call for speed nearly equal to the full capacity of the engine, it is very obvious that the risks of failure in “making time” must be much greater than at reduced rates; and when they do occur, the efforts made to gain time must be correspondingly greater and uncertain. A single example will be sufficient to show this_:—

_A train whose prescribed rate of speed is thirty miles an hour, having lost five minutes of time, and being required to gain it, in order to meet and pass an opposing train at a station ten miles distant, must necessarily increase its speed to forty miles an hour; and a train whose prescribed rate of speed is forty miles an hour, under similar circumstances, must increase its speed to sixty miles an hour; in the former case it would probably be accomplished, whilst in the latter it would more probably result in failure; or, if successful, it would be so at a fearful risk of accident._

_But a failure in either case would have the effect of retarding the movement of the opposing train, deranging the time of those of the same and of an inferior class in both directions, involving, perhaps, on the part of the latter, the necessity of similar struggles for time, and thus may prove the primary cause of accident to all trains whose movements may have been affected thereby._

The first cost of locomotives, (assuming the cost to increase with the weight,) is thirty per cent. greater for express trains, than for those of the second or third class.

The cost of repairs being assumed as the product of the weight by distance run, and this distance being the same, is as the weight, or increased thirty per cent. (This assumes the power to be equally well adapted.)

The cost of cars does not (though it ought), differ much for express or slow trains; the cost of repairs will certainly be increased.

The interest of construction capital to be charged to expresses, will be, their mileage proportion plus any expense which may have been incurred in reducing curves and grades; the proportion of repairs of superstructure, charged to expresses, will depend on their weight. The locomotive causes 25/29 of the wear of rails, and as the weight of the engines is increased thirty per cent., the increased wear will be of 15/58.

The use of stations and of employees costs no more for express than for accommodation trains.

The repairs of locomotives will be nearly, if not quite, as the product of their weight by the distance run; and this, from the above, will be thirty per cent. greater on an express than on an ordinary train, the distance being the same.

The carriages for express trains ought to be at once stronger and more convenient than those for the slower work, the shocks arising from irregularities in the rails being very much greater as velocity increases; and the runs being very long, passengers require easier seats, even, in some cases, accommodation for sleeping. The cost for repairs, therefore, of express cars, would be somewhat greater than for any others.

COST AND MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND WORKS.

As the speed is increased, the relative effect of grade and curves is lessened, but the absolute danger of passing curves is increased. Express trains require larger radius of curvature, or greater elevation of exterior rail than others, which extra elevation causes an unnecessary resistance to all other trains. The rails to resist large and heavy wheels must be heavier and more firmly fastened. All bridges and viaducts (particularly if on grades or curves), will require more strength to resist the increased shocks to which they will be subject. The wear of rails is nearly as the weight passing over them; the wear of rails consequent upon stopping and starting the trains depends upon the momentum of the train which is to be imparted to them.

The proportion, in which the working expenses are distributed under the several heads on the larger railways of Great Britain, is as follows:—

Direction and management, 7
Way and works, 16
Locomotive department, 35
Cars, 38
Sundries, 4
———
100

And the percentage of increase due to fast travelling, to be applied to the several items of expense, with the resulting increase in total expense, is shown below.

Direction and management, 7 0 = 0.0
Way and works, 16 27 = 4.3
Locomotive department, 35 30 = 10.5
Cars, 38 10 = 3.8
Sundries, 4 0 = 0.0
——— ————
100 18.6

or 18 per cent. increase, nearly.

Express trains, as worked on many roads, run at an unnecessary speed, to make up for frequent stops. Overcoming a long distance in a short time, depends as much on decrease in the number of stops, as increase in the speed.

The following figures show the effect of decreasing the number of stops.

A train running 400 miles, and stopping once in fifty miles, each stop being five minutes, (including coming to rest and starting,) to pass over the whole distance in eight hours, must run fifty-five miles per hour.

Stopping once in twenty miles, sixty-three miles per hour.

Stopping once in ten miles, eighty-six miles per hour.

The following table shows the velocities of the different classes of trains in England, France, and Belgium, including and excluding stops.

EXCLUDING STOPS.

Express. 1st class. 2d class. 3d class.
England, 43.9 32.8 32.8 25.2 miles per hour.
France, —— 27.5 24.3 28.1 miles per hour.
Belgium, —— 26.2 25.7 27.6 miles per hour.

INCLUDING STOPS.

Express. 1st class. 2d class. 3d class.
England, 36.5 24.8 24.8 17.5 miles per hour.
France, —— 22.1 17.9 19.9 miles per hour.
Belgium, —— 20.7 19.3 18.1 miles per hour.

The distances at which the different classes of trains stop in the several countries, are as follows:—

TRAINS STOP ONCE IN

1st class. 2d class. 3d class. Express.
England, 8 miles, 8 miles, 5 miles, 24 miles.
France, 10 miles, 6 miles, 6 miles, —— miles.
Belgium, 6.8 miles, 5.6 miles, 5 miles, —— miles.

OF THE INCREASED DANGER OF FAST TRAVELLING.

The causes of accident, beyond the control of passengers, are

Collision by opposition.
Collision by overtaking.
Derailment by misplaced switches and draws.
Derailment by obstacles upon the rails.
Breakage of machinery.
Failure of track or bridges.
Fire.
Boiler explosions.

Those _causes_ which are aggravated by fast travelling are the first, second, fifth, and sixth; the _effects_ of all are worse at high speeds than at low.

The proportion of accidents due to each of these causes, taken at random from one hundred cases on English railways, are as follows:—

Collision, 56
Breaking of machinery, 18
Failure of the road, 14
Misplaced switches, 5
Obstacles on rails, 6
Boiler explosion, 1
———
100

In collision by opposition, the engines, tenders, and baggage cars must be demolished before the shock reaches the passengers; in collision by overtaking, the engine of the rear train plunges at once into the last passenger car of the leading train; the force in the last case is the difference of the speeds, in the former the sum. The _increase_ of danger from this cause, attendant upon express trains, is due, first, to the longer time required in stopping, and second, in the greater shock if collision occurs.

Breakage of machinery is more liable to take place while wheels are revolving 25,000 times per hour, than when the speed is less.

Failure of the superstructure of bridges, (particularly when on curves or grades,) is more liable to take place at high than at low velocities.

Accidents from obstacles upon the track, from fire, boiler explosions, and misplaced switches, are no more attendant upon express than upon other trains, but the consequences are worse with the high speeds.

From the analysis above, of one hundred accidents, it appears that eighty-eight per cent. of the cases are due to the causes that are aggravated by increase of speed, and if we assume the aggravation of collision, and breakage of machinery, to be (speed being doubled) as two to one, the danger of travelling a fixed distance, by express, is eighty-eight per cent. greater than by a slow train.

COMPARATIVE COST OF WORKING HEAVY AND LIGHT TRAINS.

414. The question is sometimes asked, if it would not be better to run a greater number of trains and reduce the weight of engines. A comparison of cost is easily made.

The cost of working trains consists of

Fuel, oil, and waste.
Engine-men’s wages.
Wear of rails.
Conductor and brakemen.
Wear of cars.

Suppose we have to move 1,000 tons per day over any road. If we do it by one engine and 100 cars, the whole cost will be

One Engineer $2.00
One Fireman 1.50
One Conductor 1.75
Four Brakemen 5.00
——————
$10.25

And if we move 1,000 tons by _ten_ trains of one hundred tons each,

Ten Engine-men at $2 $20.00
Ten Firemen at 1½ 15.00
Ten Conductors at 1¾ 17.50
Ten Brakemen at 1¼ 12.50
——————
$65.00

Difference of salaries in favor of the heavy train, of $54.75.

As the whole weight upon the drivers must be the same to move a given load by either method, the only difference in weights of engines will be that upon the truck. To lead well a truck must have five tons upon it. The whole weight upon _ten_ trucks is, then, fifty tons, and that upon _one_, _five_ tons, which leaves an excess of forty tons to be daily carried over the road by the small trains. The heaviest freight engine will not cost over $15,000; the cost of an engine to draw one hundred tons cannot be less than $5,000.

10 × 5000 = 50000 less 15000 is $35000. 6/100 of 35000 is $2100.

Add to this five times as much fuel used in firing up and standing with steam up, ten times as much oiling, cleaning, and repairing, ten times as much engine house and shop accommodation; also that the cars in frequent trains are much less loaded than in seldom ones, increased delay and chance of accident from increased number of trains, and estimating all of them at $170.00 per day, (the cost of the large engine being assessed at $30 per day, and that of each of the small ones as $20, the daily difference is $170,) and we have, as the whole daily increased cost of working ten small over one large train,

170.00 + 54.75 × (6/100 of 35000)/313 or 6.71 = $231.46 per day,

or $72,446.98 per annum, which employs a capital of $1,207,449.

BRANCH ROADS.

415. These lines, when belonging to the main road, are generally worked at a loss; and when independent, are a poor investment. At a meeting of the directors of the Boston and Worcester (Mass.) Railroad in February, 1855, it was declared that out of six branches, but one was profitable. That four of them gave an income upon cost of from one and a quarter to one and three quarter per cent.

Independent branch lines generally share a joint business by the mileage standard; and here is where they lose, for if the branch trains do not traverse the main line, and the tribute passengers help to fill a train which runs at any rate upon the main, then the branch expense of carrying the passengers is to that of the main, as (say ninety to ten), and the branch should take 90/100 of the receipts. In this case the branch is charged with using both the cars and road of the main. If it runs its own cars over the main, (as when the branch is near the terminus,) it should be charged only with the wear of the road.

In like manner several roads, forming a continuous line, should not divide the receipts according to the mileage; but according to the cost of working that mileage. Thus if we have the continuous line below, column one shows the length; column two, the cost of building; column three, that of maintaining; and column four, the division of receipts.

Division. Length. Construction Maintaining Result.
Capital. Capital.
1 8 10 4 10 + 4 = 14
2 9 6 3½ 6 + 3½ = 9½
3 6 7 2¾ 7 + 2¾ = 9¾
4 10 4 1¼ 4 + 1¼ = 5¼

REPRODUCTION OF ROAD AND STOCK.

416. Besides the annual repairs necessary to maintain a road in proper working order, there is needed a periodic expenditure for _reproduction_. Evidently the time will come, upon all roads, when rails and sleepers, buildings, bridges, etc., need to be replaced. Knowing the life of rails, we also know the annual depreciation, and from that can easily find what sum must annually be laid aside, which being properly invested, shall, at the end of the life of the rail, together with its interest, be equal to the cost of renewing.

RAILS.

Suppose rails to last ten years, the annual depreciation is ten per cent. At sixty lbs. per yard we have one hundred and five tons per mile, which, at $60 per ton, amounts to $6,300. Let the cost of rerolling and relaying be $30 per ton, the depreciation is then $30 per ton for ten years, or $3 per ton per annum, or $315 per mile per annum.

SLEEPERS.

If sleepers last seven years, and cost forty cents apiece, their annual depreciation per mile (at 2,400 per mile) will be $138 per mile (nearly).

BRIDGES.

If wooden bridges cost $30 per lineal foot, and last twenty years, the annual depreciation per foot will be $1.50, and if there is ten feet per mile of road, $15 per annum per mile.

EXTRAS.

Allowing for the annual depreciation per mile of buildings, fences, etc., $33, we have as the whole annual depreciation, $500 per mile; and the amounts which yearly reserved and placed at compound interest for each of the ten years, will pay for reproducing the road, are as follows:—

At the end of the 1st year $298
At the end of the 2d year 315
At the end of the 3d year 333
At the end of the 4th year 354
At the end of the 5th year 373
At the end of the 6th year 397
At the end of the 7th year 417
At the end of the 8th year 446
At the end of the 9th year 472
At the end of the 10th year 500

which, at six per cent., gives, at the end of the tenth year, $500 each.

NOTE.—Reproduction of rolling stock has been proved to be nothing
more than repairs, as a locomotive may be fitted with one and
another new part until none of the original machine remains. See
Lardner’s Railroad Economy.

As the business upon a railroad increases, so does the amount of station accommodation necessary, and also of rolling stock, which increase should be debited to capital, and not to revenue.

The permanent investors in a railroad are in favor of having capital maintained, even at the expense of revenue. The temporary shareholders, and the speculators in stock, wish most to produce large dividends, even at a sacrifice of capital, and would charge nothing to revenue.

The rights of both of the above classes are to be regarded, as the road is often built mainly by the efforts of the temporary investors.

WORKING RAILROADS BY CONTRACT.

417. An experiment has lately been tried upon the working of railroads which bids fair to reduce very considerably the cost of operating; and to render the enterprises more profitable, namely, working the several departments by contract; that is, paying certain persons a fixed price for supplying the necessary amount of power, cars, or material per annum, thus bringing into play _private interest_ and _individual enterprise_. There is no doubt but that by a judicious system of this kind, correctly applied, many roads which are now worthless could be made to pay, while the value of good roads would be also increased.

CLASSIFICATION OF FREIGHT.

418. Freight is classified according to its nature, the commercial nature of the country traversed by the road, and the direction of the principal market. The distribution adopted upon some of the large roads is as follows:—

CLASSIFICATION OF ARTICLES.

[Articles marked thus * at owner’s risk.]

_Double First Class._

Baskets, * Band Boxes; * Camphene; * Carboys, and contents; * Demijohns, and contents; * Eggs; Feathers, in bags; Furs; Hobby Horses; Musical Instruments; * Plaster of Paris, (ornaments); Pictures, in frames; Teazles, in casks; Wagons, (children’s); Willow Ware.

_First Class._

* Ale, in glass; * Apples, green, _pre-paid_; Bacon, loose; Batting; Bells; * Berries, _pre-paid_; * Blinds, (window) in packages; Bonnets; * Books, in boxes; Boots; Bran, in bags; Brass, in sheets and pigs; Brass Castings; Brass Vessels; Bread and Biscuit; Brooms, in bales or bundles; Broom Handles, in boxes or bundles; Brushes; Buffalo Robes, packed; Buttons; * Candies and Confectionary, canvassed; Cane; Cards; Carpeting; Caps; China Ware; Chocolate; * Cigars, in boxes; Cinnamon; * Clocks, in boxes; Cocoa; Cassia; Coffee, ground; Collars; Combs; Copper, in sheets and pigs; Copper Vessels; Corks; * Cotton, in bales; * Cotton Waste; Covers and Sieves; * Cranberries; * Cutlery; Deer Skins, in bundles; Doors; Dry Goods; Fancy Goods; * Figs, in boxes; Fire-arms; * Fish, fresh, _pre-paid_; Flour, in bags; Forks, hay and manure; * Fruits, fresh, _pre-paid_; * Game, _pre-paid_; Garden Seeds; Ginger; * Glass, in boxes; * Glass Ware, in boxes or casks; Glue; * Grapes, _pre-paid_; Gun Stocks, in boxes or bundles; Hair, in sacks; Hams, loose; Harness; Hides, dry; Hoe Handles; * Hollow Ware; * Honey; Hops, pressed; * Ice, _pre-paid_; Indigo; Ink; Iron Castings, light; Ivory; Japan Ware; Joiners Work; * Lemons, in boxes, canvassed; * Looking-glasses, well boxed; * Machinery, boxed, light; Marble, wrought, at owner’s risk of breakage; Mats; Mattrasses, double, at 150 pounds each; Mattrasses, single, at 100 pounds each; Mill Stuffs, in bags or casks; Measures; * Meat, fresh, _pre-paid_; Meat, in bulk, salted; Medicines; * Melons, _pre-paid_; Moss, in sacks; Nuts, in sacks or casks; * Oranges, in boxes, canvassed, _pre-paid_; * Oysters, in cans or kegs; Palm Leaf, in bales; Paper, brown wrapping and straw, (light); Paper Hangings; Pelts; * Porter, in glass; * Poultry, dressed, _pre-paid_; * Prunes; Rags, (see second class); * Raisins; Rake Handles; Rattan; Rugs; Saddle Trees; Saddlery; * Sash, in packages; Scale Beams; Scythe Snaths; Shoes; Shovel Handles; Soap, fancy; Soda; Spices; * Spirits Turpentine; Stationery; Straw Goods; Teas, (see third class); Tin Ware, in crates or hhds.; Toys; Trunks, empty, 80 pounds each; Tubs; Turners’ Work; * Vegetables, _pre-paid_; Veneering; Wadding; Warp, on beams; Warp Beams; Waste, woollen; Wax; Whalebone; Wheelbarrows; Whips; Wicking; * Wines, in baskets or boxes; * Wooden Ware; Wool; Woollens.

_Second Class._

Alcoholic Liquors; * Ale, in casks; Apples, dried; Alum; Anchors; Anvils; Ashes, pot or pearl; Axes, in boxes; Axles, iron; Bacon, packed; Bagging; Barilla; Bark, tanner’s, 1¼ cord per ton; Beans; * Beef, in casks or boxes; Beer, in casks; Bleaching Salts; Bones; * Bottles, packed, (empty); Brimstone; Burr Blocks; Burlaps, in original packages; * Butter, in firkins; * Candles, in boxes; Cannon; Canvas; Castings, heavy; Cement; Chains; Chalk; Chair and turned Stuff in bales or bdls.; Cider, in casks; Cheese, in boxes or casks; Clay, Coal, and Coke, in casks or boxes; Clover Seed; Coffee, in sacks; Copperas; Cordage; Crockery Ware, well packed; Domestics, in original packages; Dye Stuffs, in woods; Earthen Ware, well packed; * Fire Brick; Fish, dried or salted; Flax Seed; Flocks; Floor Cloth, painted; Flour, in barrels, 20 barrels or less; Furnaces; Grain, of all kinds; * Grindstones; Groceries, generally heavy, not otherwise specified; Gunnies, in bales; Hoes; Hams, shoulders or sides, in casks or boxes; Hardware, except Cutlery; * Hemp, in bales; Hemp Seed; * Hides, green; * High Wines; Hoops, shaved or split, 3,000 pounds per cord; India Rubber; Iron, pig, bloom, boiler, rod, and bar; Iron, hoop, sheet, or bolts; Iron, nuts, rivets, and spikes; Junk; Lard, in barrels or casks; Lead, sheet, pig, or pipe; Leather; Liquors, in barrels or casks; Lime, in barrels or casks; Marble, unwrought, at owner’s risk of breakage; Meal, in bags or casks; Molasses; Moss, pressed; Nails, in kegs; Oakum, in bales; Oil, owner’s risk of leakage; Oil Cake, Oil Cloth; * Oysters, in shell; Paints, dry or in oil; Paper, (white,) in boxes or bundles; Paper, (heavy brown and hardware); Pasteboard; Pepper; Peaches, dried; Peas, in sacks or casks; Pickles, in casks; * Pipes, in boxes; Pitch; Plaster, in casks or barrels; Ploughs; Pork, packed; * Porter, in casks; Potatoes, in casks or sacks; Rags, foreign, pressed; Rakes; Railroad Chairs and Spikes; Rice; Rope; Rosin; Saleratus; Salt, in bags or casks; Saltpetre; Scales, in boxes; Scythes, in bundles; Scythe Stones; Shot, in bags; Shovels and Spades; Sizing; Slate; Soap, (common,) in boxes; Soda: Spelter and Zinc; Spikes, in kegs; Spirits, domestic; Starch; Steel, in boxes or bundles; Steel Springs; Stone; * Stone Ware, well packed; Sugar; Sumac; Tallow, owner’s risk of heat; Tar; Tiles; Tin, metal and plate; Tobacco, in bales, boxes, or hhds.; Tow, pressed, (in bales,) owner’s risk of fire; Twine, in bales; Vegetable Roots, in sacks or casks; * Vinegar; Water, Mineral; Whiskey, in casks; White Lead; Whiting; * Wine, in casks; Wire, in rolls and casks; Woods, in shape, unfinished; Woods, of value, namely, Mahogany, Lignum Vitæ, Rosewood, Cherry, Cedar, Walnut, etc.; Wool, foreign, pressed, in bales; Yam, pressed; Zinc and Spelter.

_Third Class._

Includes the following articles in quantities of 8,000 pounds, and less than 16,000 pounds, in any one shipment from one consignor to one consignee. Same articles shipped in like manner, in quantities of 16,000 pounds and upwards, will be taken at special rates.