Chapter XXXIX: Appendix: A (4)

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EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 4 4 2 7 5 3 4 6 8 8 7 6 8 5 6 3 8 6 3 4 6 16 2 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 22 21 20 21 21 Nampok Tengling Choongtam, sunrise Choongtam, 9.50 a.m. Choongtam, noon Choongtam, 2.45 p.m. Choongtam, 4 p.m. Choongtam, sunset Choongtam, 9.50 a.m. Choongtam, noon Choongtam, 2.40 p.m. Choongtam, 4 p.m. Choongtam, sunset Sulloobong Lingdam Makaroumbi Khabang Lingdam Yankutamg Namtchi Yoksun Ditto Loongtoon Sakkiazong Phadong, 8 a.m. Phadong, 9.50 a.m. Phadong, noon Phadong, 2.40 p.m. Phadong, 4 p.m. Phadong, sunset Tumloong Tumloong, 9. 50 a.m. Tumloong, noon Tumloong, 2.40 p.m. Tumloong, 4 p.m. Tumloong, sunset 5075 5257 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5368 5277 5375 5485 5505 5554 5564 5608 5619 5619 5677 5625 5946 5946 5946 5946 5946 5946 5368 5976 5976 5976 5976 5976 May Jan. May May May May May May Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Nov. Dec. Nov. Dec. Dec. Dec. May Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov/Dec. Nov/Dec. Nov/Dec. Nov/Dec. Nov/Dec. 65·8 44·7 54·9 71·5 71·0 66·4 63·5 61·4 76·3 78·8 72·9 69·5 66·9 57·6 44·3 52·1 55·1 45·0 43·6 67·1 42·7 43·0 45·3 54·1 51·9 55·9 60·7 57·4 55·5 53·7 64·2 54·1 57·3 57·3 54·7 51·8 60·8 39·1 54·7 58·9 59·4 59·4 59·2 60·5 66·1 67·8 66·5 66·8 65·4 51·2 43·0 48·1 47·3 43·7 41·7 61·2 34·0 33·9 42·8 50·9 50·8 53·0 56·5 54·7 52·8 52·6 62·6 50·0 51·7 51·4 50·5 48·5 5·0 5·6 0·2 12·6 11·6 7·0 4·3 0·9 10·2 11·0 6·4 2·7 1·5 6·4 1·3 4·0 7·8 1·3 1·9 5·9 8·7 9·1 2·5 3·2 1·1 2·9 4·2 2·7 2·7 1·1 1·6 4·1 5·6 5·9 4·2 3·3 ·537 ·257 ·438 ·504 ·513 ·513 ·510 ·532 ·640 ·677 ·649 ·655 ·627 ·390 ·293 ·350 ·340 ·301 ·280 ·544 ·214 ·213 ·292 ·358 ·383 ·413 ·465 ·438 ·410 ·408 ·570 ·375 ·396 ·391 ·380 ·355 83·1 65·4 78·2 89·8 92·7 95·4 93·6 89·1 85·3 86·6 86·4 85·3 83·6 79·4 68·8 72·5 75·0 71·0 69·5 87·7 68·2 66·2 72·1 78·3 75·0 80·9 85·6 86·6 85·5 80·6 83·8 75·1 79·7 81·3 80·2 76·7 74·7 38·1 73·9 80·0 79·9 78·7 79·0 77·1 78·9 78·8 78·8 79·3 78·5 65·8 59·9 60·5 64·7 56·5 63·1 74·9 58·1 51·9 63·8 66·1 67·5 67·9 64·8 62·2 61·9 67·4 77·5 61·9 60·1 58·0 58·6 61·2 8·4 27·3 4·3 9·8 12·8 16·7 14·6 12·0 6·4 7·8 7·6 6·0 5·1 13·6 8·9 12·0 10·3 14·5 6·4 12·8 10·1 14·3 8·3 12·2 7·5 13·0 20·8 24·4 23·6 13·2 6·3 13·2 19·6 23·3 21·6 15·5 ·845 ·247 ·826 1·000 ·999 ·959 ·971 ·915 ·967 ·965 ·963 ·980 ·956 ·634 ·521 ·532 ·611 ·466 ·579 ·850 ·492 ·399 ·595 ·639 ·670 ·678 ·613 ·562 ·557 ·667 ·924 ·557 ·524 ·489 ·499 ·545 260 Mean 57·7 53·3 4·5 ·438 77·6 67·8 9·8 ·700

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·865 4·70 gr. 0·730 7·34 gr.

ELEVATION 6000 TO 7000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 5 11 11 4 2 4 4 3 1 10 4 6 7 4 Runkpo Leebong Ditto Dholeep Iwa River Dengha Kulhait River Latong Doobdi Pemiongchi Keadom Hee-hill Dumpook Changachelling 6008 6021 6021 6133 6159 6368 6390 6391 6472 6584 6609 6677 6678 6828 Nov. Feb. Jan. May Dec. Aug. Dec. Oct. Jan. Jan. Aug. Jan. Jan. Jan. 57·5 47·8 47·8 60·5 41·2 66·7 41·9 54·0 46·6 40·7 63·5 40·8 40·2 50·6 54·8 43·7 43·4 59·9 40·5 64·0 41·9 53·2 36·2 35·8 60·0 34·1 31·8 31·8 2·7 4·1 4·4 0·6 0·7 2·7 0 0·8 10·4 4·9 3·5 6·7 8·4 18·8 ·440 ·300 ·297 ·520 ·269 ·597 ·283 ·416 ·231 ·228 ·523 ·215 ·198 ·198 79·5 74·9 66·9 89·4 69·6 86·1 71·3 55·5 78·7 66·3 79·7 64·0 68·5 68·3 73·4 59·7 56·2 81·4 60·2 78·8 60·9 44·1 58·0 54·4 77·5 58·0 53·8 53·6 6·1 15·2 10·7 8·0 9·4 7·3 10·4 11·4 20·7 11·9 2·2 6·0 14·7 14·8 ·810 ·517 ·460 ·046 ·527 ·962 ·539 ·305 ·490 ·434 ·925 ·489 ·426 ·423 76 Mean 50·0 45·1 4·9 ·337 72·8 62·1 10·6 ·597

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·845 3·60 gr. 0·701 6·11 gr.

ELEVATION 7000 TO 8000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 1 2 8 1 1 4 8 Pemiongchi Goong Kampo-Samdong Hee-hill Ratong river Source of Balasun Goong ridge 7083 7216 7329 7289 7143 7436 7441 Jan. Nov. May/Aug. Jan. Jan. Oct. Oct. 46·2 49·0 59·1 51·3 36·5 48·3 51·2 33·5 48·5 58·2 26·4 25·3 48·3 50·2 12·7 0·5 0·9 24·9 11·2 0 1·0 ·210 ·355 ·493 ·163 ·157 ·352 ·376 76·8 79·7 83·6 72·8 60·0 81·2 80·7 51·8 69·1 77·4 56·6 52·9 73·7 66·9 25·0 10·6 6·2 16·2 7·1 7·5 13·8 ·396 ·705 ·922 ·466 ·412 ·819 ·657 35 Dorjiling Mean 48·8 41·5 7·3 ·301 76·4 64·1 12·8 ·625

From mean of above and Dorjiling Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·826 3·85 gr. 0·668 7·28 gr.

ELEVATION 8000 TO 9000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 4 2 1 2 3 4 6 9 1 11 12 7 4 7 10 12 10 10 4 5 6 8 11 11 7 6 8 10 1 1 Sinchul Sinchul Ascent of Tonglo Tambur river Sakkiazong Chateng Buckim Buckim Chateng Lachoong, 7 a.m. Lachoong, 9.50 a.m. Lachoong, noon Lachoong, 2.40 p.m. Lachoong, 4 p.m. Lachoong, sunset Lachoong, Miscellaneous Lamteng, 6 a.m. Lamteng, 9.50 a.m. Lamteng, noon Lamteng, 2.40 p.m. Lamteng, 4 p.m. Lamteng, sunset Zemu Samdong, 7 a.m. Zemu Samdong, 9.50 a.m. Zemu Samdong, noon Zemu Samdong, 2.40 p.m. Zemu Samdong, sunset Zemu Samdong, 4 p.m. Goong Tendong (top) 8607 8607 8148 8081 8353 8418 8659 8659 8752 8777 8777 8777 8777 8777 8777 8777 8884 8884 8884 8884 8884 8884 8976 8976 8976 8976 8976 8976 8999 8663 Jan. Apr. May Nov. Nov. Oct. Jan. Jan. May | | || || | Aug. | | and | | Oct. | | | | | | || | || | May, | | June, | | July | | and | | Aug. | | | | | | || | || | June | | and | | July | | | | | | || | || Nov. May 41·7 66·8 56·2 38·0 49·7 43·8 30·2 33·9 67·2 53·3 60·2 61·6 58·1 58·6 55·5 55·9 53·9 62·8 62·8 58·3 56·2 53·3 55·7 59·7 63·1 61·0 57·9 53·8 49·0 55·5 34·3 44·6 54·4 33·9 37·4 43·2 22·8 33·1 60·7 51·1 55·3 57·1 56·4 53·8 54·3 49·6 52·0 56·2 56·2 54·4 54·7 52·5 55·3 52·8 57·1 58·6 56·1 52·6 48·5 50·0 7·4 22·2 1·8 4·1 12·3 0·6 7·4 0·8 6·5 2·2 4·9 4·5 1·7 4·8 1·2 6·3 1·9 6·6 6·6 3·9 1·5 0·8 0·4 6·9 6·0 2·4 1·8 1·2 0·5 5·5 ·216 ·310 ·434 ·213 ·241 ·299 ·143 ·207 ·536 ·388 ·447 ·475 ·464 ·424 ·432 ·368 ·400 ·461 ·461 ·435 ·438 ·407 ·448 ·412 ·473 ·500 ·459 ·407 ·355 ·373 66·3 96·9 86·8 71·7 74·0 79·2 68·6 69·8 89·7 83·0 87·1 90·1 88·0 87·5 84·5 85·9 59·5 88·3 92·0 92·2 92·3 88·1 80·4 86·3 88·0 89·6 89·3 82·7 79·7 88·6 56·9 75·4 78·9 64·1 62·4 77·5 49·4 52·2 76·8 78·9 79·9 79·4 80·0 79·4 78·7 75·2 56·4 78·7 78·0 78·4 77·1 77·4 79·8 79·0 79·8 78·2 79·0 77·3 69·1 78·1 9·4 21·5 7·9 7·6 11·6 1·7 19·2 17·6 12·9 4·1 7·2 10·7 8·0 8·1 5·8 10·7 3·1 9·6 14·0 13·8 15·2 10·7 0·6 7·3 8·2 11·4 10·3 5·4 10·6 10·5 ·472 ·866 ·967 ·599 ·566 ·926 ·366 ·403 ·904 ·967 ·999 ·983 1·007 ·981 ·959 ·858 ·464 ·959 ·939 ·950 ·914 ·922 ·997 ·969 ·994 ·944 ·970 ·920 ·705 ·943 193 Mean 54·5 50·0 4·5 ·388 83·7 73·7 9·8 ·847

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·858 4·23 gr. 0·730 8·75 gr.

ELEVATION 9000 TO 10,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 4 8 4 1 1 Yangma Guola Nanki Singalelah Sakkiazong Zemu river 9279 9320 9295 9322 9828 Nov. Nov. Dec. Nov. June 37·8 42·3 36·2 53·5 60·0 33·1 38·3 35·7 33·3 47·6 4·7 4·0 0·5 20·2 12·4 ·207 ·249 ·227 ·209 ·343 72·7 52·2 70·9 80·0 93·3 61·4 48·3 62·1 57·3 81·9 11·3 3·9 8·8 22·7 11·4 ·549 ·352 ·560 ·478 1·062 18 Mean 46·0 37·6 8·4 ·247 73·8 62·2 11·6 ·600

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·747 2·80 gr. 0·724 6·28 gr.

ELEVATION 10,000 TO 11,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 13 5 4 2 2 4 10 4 3 16 17 9 8 9 15 4 Tonglo Nanki Yalloong river Tonglo top Yeunga Zemu river Wallanchoon Laghep Laghep Thlonok river, 7 a.m. Thlonok river, 9.50 a.m. Thlonok river, noon Thlonok river, 2.40 p.m. Thlonok river, 4 p.m. Thlonok river, sunset Yangma Valley 10,008 10,024 10,058 10,079 10,196 10,247 10,384 10,423 10,423 10,486 10,486 10,486 10,486 10,486 10,486 10,999 May Nov. Dec. May Oct. June Nov. Nov. Nov. June June June June June June Dec. 51·5 42·8 37·7 49·9 45·9 45·4 37·9 46·0 37·6 48·5 57·6 56·1 54·8 53·4 49·8 31·6 50·2 35·5 29·6 47·9 44·7 44·2 30·2 42·4 37·0 47·2 51·4 50·6 50·6 50·6 48·9 24·3 1·3 7·3 8·1 2·0 1·2 1·2 7·7 3·6 0·6 1·3 6·2 5·5 4·2 2·8 0·9 7·3 ·376 ·225 ·183 ·348 ·311 ·306 ·187 ·287 ·238 ·339 ·392 ·382 ·381 ·381 ·359 ·149 88·8 79·5 77·7 89·4 79·5 84·6 76·5 80·9 75·3 79·0 87·4 90·0 88·5 88·7 85·5 74·4 80·8 65·8 62·1 80·5 77·1 75·1 61·9 68·0 69·4 75·1 78·8 79·3 79·7 78·7 78·0 61·9 8·0 13·7 15·6 8·9 2·4 9·5 14·6 12·9 5·9 3·9 8·6 10·7 8·8 10·0 7·5 12·3 1·030 ·633 ·560 1·018 ·915 ·856 ·558 ·681 ·712 ·856 ·965 ·979 ·991 ·962 ·938 ·558 123 Mean 46·7 42·8 3·8 ·303 82·8 73·3 9·5 ·826

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·878 3·35 gr. 0·740 8·70 gr.

ELEVATION 11,000 TO 12,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 3 3 1 12 6 8 5 6 6 2 10 9 5 7 4 10 7 Barfonchen Punying Kambachen village Tallum, 7 a.m. Tallum, 9.50 a.m. Tallum, noon Tallum, 2.40 p.m. Tallum, 4 p.m. Tallum, sunset Kambachen Valley Yeumtong, 7 a.m. Yeumtong, 9.50 a.m. Yeumtong, noon Yeumtong 2.40 p.m. Yeumtong, 4 p.m. Yeumtong, sunset Yeumtong, Miscellaneous 11,233 11,299 11,378 11,482 11,482 11,482 11,482 11,482 11,482 11,484 11,887 11,887 11,887 11,887 11,887 11,887 11,887 Nov. Aug. Dec. July July July July July July Dec. | | | Aug., | | Sep., | | and | | Oct. | | | | | Oct. 36·8 50·2 43·3 50·4 58·1 57·9 55·7 54·3 48·8 30·4 44·4 53·6 54·5 48·8 48·4 42·0 43·5 31·9 49·5 32·5 47·8 50·5 50·8 50·2 50·1 47·3 26·0 43·8 48·9 48·3 47·4 47·1 35·9 37·1 4·9 0·7 10·8 2·6 7·6 7·1 5·5 4·2 1·5 4·4 0·6 4·7 6·2 1·4 1·3 6·1 6·4 ·198 ·367 ·203 ·347 ·380 ·384 ·377 ·375 ·340 ·161 ·302 ·360 ·353 ·342 ·338 ·229 ·239 76·3 84·5 80·0 85·0 88·1 89·7 89·3 90·3 86·6 69·9 83·0 87·5 89·7 87·2 85·2 60·6 83·7 69·6 78·8 61·2 80·3 79·7 81·3 80·6 79·4 80·0 59·5 78·9 78·7 77·2 77·2 77·8 58·5 69·7 6·7 5·7 18·8 4·7 8·4 8·4 8·7 10·9 6·6 10·4 4·1 8·8 12·5 10·0 7·4 2·1 14·0 ·719 ·963 ·544 1·010 ·993 1·043 1·020 ·981 1·001 ·515 ·967 ·959 ·917 ·915 ·934 ·497 ·720 104 Mean 48·3 43·8 4·5 ·311 83·3 74·6 8·7 ·865

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·860 3·46 gr. 0·760 9·00 gr.

ELEVATION 12,000 TO 13,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 9 9 7 7 7 8 2 1 3 7 5 1 1 6 3 4 4 4 4 6 23 13 6 Zemu river, 7 a.m. Zemu river, 9.50 a.m. Zemu river, noon Zemu river, 2.40 p.m. Zemu river, 4 p.m. Zemu river, sunset Tangma Valley Zemu river Chumanako Tungu, 7 a.m. Tungu, 9.50 a.m. Tungu, noon Tungu, 2.40 p.m. Tungu, sunset Tungu, sunrise Tungu, 9.50 a.m. Tungu, noon Tungu, 2.40 p.m. Tungu, 4 p.m. Tungu, sunset Tungu, Miscellaneous Tungu, Miscellaneous Tuquoroma 12,070 12,070 12,070 12,070 12,070 12,070 12,129 12,422 12,590 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,751 12,994 | | June | | and | | July | | | | | | || | || Nov. June Nov. July July July July July Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. July Nov. 46·6 51·1 51·1 51·2 49·7 48·1 34·8 49·0 37·3 45·1 53·1 62·3 60·0 46·4 38·2 46·5 46·1 43·8 42·3 41·0 43·2 51·3 26·0 45·6 49·0 50·2 50·3 48·9 47·6 22·7 46·6 28·3 44·1 48·6 52·7 53·8 45·3 35·0 42·8 42·0 42·1 40·8 38·7 40·8 47·7 23·4 1·0 2·1 0·9 0·9 0·8 0·5 12·1 2·4 9·0 1·0 4·5 9·6 6·2 1·1 3·2 3·7 4·1 1·7 1·5 2·3 2·4 3·6 2·6 ·321 ·362 ·376 ·377 ·360 ·344 ·143 ·332 ·174 ·305 ·355 ·409 ·425 ·317 ·222 ·292 ·284 ·285 ·271 ·253 ·272 ·345 ·146 80·6 84·5 87·0 86·3 86·5 81·4 70·6 93·2 75·1 80·5 87·1 88·9 85·3 84·7 79·4 85·0 85·0 86·4 85·9 83·3 84·5 85·7 75·1 77·7 75·1 82·2 80·0 80·2 77·5 63·7 79·6 73·8 78·3 79·4 77·8 79·5 79·1 77·8 78·6 78·2 78·8 78·5 78·2 78·4 79·0 60·8 2·9 9·4 4·8 6·3 6·3 3·9 6·9 13·6 1·3 2·2 7·7 11·1 5·8 5·6 1·6 6·4 6·8 7·6 7·4 5·1 6·1 6·7 14·3 ·931 ·972 1·074 1·000 1·006 ·926 ·592 ·989 ·822 ·949 ·982 ·935 ·985 ·974 ·932 ·957 ·944 ·963 ·956 ·947 ·950 ·971 ·537 140 Mean 46·3 42·9 3·4 ·303 83·6 77·1 6·5 ·926

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·890 3·37 gr. 0·815 9·75 gr.

ELEVATION 13,000 TO 14,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 7 4 2 21 1 4 10 1 3 Mon Lepcha Mon Lepcha Tunkra valley Jongri Zemu river Choonjerma Yangma village Wallanchoon road Kambachen, below pass 13,090 13,073 13,111 13,194 13,281 13,288 13,502 13,505 13,600 Jan. Jan. Aug. Jan. June Dec. Nov./Dec. Nov. Dec. 27·1 25·6 45·0 22·7 46·7 39·0 33·8 28·0 40·0 18·5 16·4 43·5 10·5 46·7 11·1 18·6 9·5 18·6 8·6 9·2 1·5 12·2 0 27·9 15·2 18·5 21·4 ·122 ·113 ·298 ·091 ·334 ·093 ·123 ·088 ·123 70·0 71·7 81·2 70·6 92·9 69·8 78·9 66·4 72·9 50·8 49·4 78·7 53·2 86·6 61·8 62·1 61·8 62·2 19·2 21·8 2·5 17·4 6·2 8·0 16·8 4·6 10·7 ·527 ·373 ·962 ·417 1·230 ·555 ·561 ·555 ·563 53 Mean 34·2 21·5 12·6 ·154 74·9 63·0 11·9 · 636

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·634 1·61 gr. 0·678 6·28 gr.

ELEVATION 15,000 TO 16,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 1 1 8 12 6 4 8 10 16 8 6 3 2 1 1 Yangma valley Choonjerma pass Lachee-pia Momay, 7 a.m. Momay, 9.50 a.m. Momay, noon Momay, 2.40 p.m. Momay, 4 p.m. Momay, sunset Momay, Miscellaneous Momay, Miscellaneous Sittong Palung Kambachen pass Yeumtong 15,186 15,259 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,262 15,372 15,676 15,770 15,985 Dec. Dec. Aug. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oct. Dec. Sept. 42·2 34·3 42·0 39·4 50·9 51·7 49·7 44·4 41·5 47·6 40·9 38·6 44·6 26·5 44·6 20·7 10·5 41·6 34·7 41·7 43·6 41·9 41·3 38·6 41·4 36·5 29·8 39·8 15·9 43·7 21·5 23·8 0·4 4·7 9·2 8·1 7·8 3·1 2·9 6·2 4·4 8·8 4·8 10·6 0·9 ·133 ·091 ·279 ·219 ·280 ·299 ·283 ·276 ·252 ·277 ·234 ·184 ·262 ·111 ·300 80·8 77·9 85·5 80·5 87·6 89·5 90·0 88·7 84·2 87·4 83·9 84·0 86·8 78·0 88·8 62·0 60·6 79·4 78·8 78·8 79·7 78·3 77·6 78·4 78·6 69·3 77·5 78·5 58·5 80·5 18·8 17·3 6·1 1·7 8·8 9·8 11·7 11·1 5·8 8·8 14·6 6·5 8·3 19·5 8·3 ·559 ·534 ·982 ·966 ·963 ·990 ·949 ·928 ·952 ·956 ·710 ·926 ·954 ·498 1·016 87 Mean 42·6 34·8 7·8 ·232 84·9 74·4 10·5 ·859

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·763 2·55 gr. 0·719 8·95 gr.

ELEVATION 16,000 TO 17,000 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 1 3 1 5 6 1 Kanglachem pass Tunkra pass Wallanchoon pass Yeumtso Cholamoo lake Donkia mountain 16,038 16,083 16,756 16,808 16,900 16,978 Dec. Aug. Nov. Oct. Oct. Sept. 32·8 39·8 18·0 32·4 31·4 40·2 16·3 38·7 –6·0 25·1 20·2 25·9 16·5 1·1 24·0 7·3 11·2 14·3 ·110 ·252 ·046 ·156 ·130 ·160 80·7 86·0 79·9 85·0 79·8 87·6 61·1 78·7 57·6 75·7 68·4 78·8 19·6 7·3 22·3 9·3 11·4 8·8 ·543 ·959 ·483 ·872 ·690 ·963 17 Mean 32·4 20·0 12·4 ·142 83·2 70·1 13·3 · 752

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·640 1·53 gr. 0·658 7·80 gr.

ELEVATION 17,000 TO 18,500 FEET

EAST NEPAL AND SIKKIM CALCUTTA No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. Temp. Dew Point Diff. Tens. 1 1 1 3 2 2 Kinchinjhow Sebolah pass Donkia mountain Bhomtso Donkia pass Donkia pass 17,624 17,585 18,307 18,450 18,466 18,466 Sept. Sept. Sept. Oct. Sept. Oct. 47·5 46·5 38·8 54·0 41·8 40·1 30·9 34·6 35·3 4·4 30·3 25·0 16·6 11·9 3·5 49·6 11·5 15·1 ·191 ·218 ·224 ·072 ·188 ·155 85·7 88·8 90·7 91·1 84·1 86·5 79·7 80·0 79·3 61·1 78·4 65·5 6·0 8·8 11·4 20·0 5·7 21·0 ·991 1·002 ·981 ·543 ·950 ·627 10 Mean 44·8 26·8 18·0 ·175 87·8 74·0 12·2 · 849

East Nepal and Sikkim Calcutta Humidity Weight of vapour 0·532 1·90 gr. 0·648 8·78 gr.

SUMMARY

HUMIDITY WEIGHT OF VAPOUR No. of Obs. Elevations in Feet Stations Sikkim Calcutta Diff. Sikkim Sikkim Calcutta Diff. Sikkim 48 49 48 137 260 76 1023 193 18 123 104 140 53 87 17 10 735 to 2000 2000 to 3000 3000 to 4000 4000 to 5000 5000 to 6000 6000 to 7000 7000 to 8000 8000 to 9000 9000 to 10,000 10,000 to 11,000 11,000 to 12,000 12,000 to 13,000 13,000 to 14,000 15,000 to 16,000 16,000 to 17,000 17,000 to 18,000 9 9 13 23 15 13 14 13 5 10 6 6 9 8 6 5 ·717 ·820 ·858 ·837 ·865 ·845 ·826 ·858 ·747 ·878 ·860 ·890 ·634 ·763 ·640 ·532 ·663 ·740 ·732 ·730 ·730 ·701 ·668 ·730 ·724 ·740 ·760 ·815 ·678 ·719 ·658 ·648 +·054 ·080 ·116 ·107 ·135 ·144 ·158 ·128 ·023 ·138 ·100 ·075 –·044 +·044 ·018 –·116 5·57 5·45 4·23 4·33 4·70 3·60 3·85 4·23 2·80 3·35 3·46 3·37 1·61 2·55 1·53 1·90 6·88 7·13 6·60 7·12 7·34 6·71 7·28 8·75 6·28 8·70 9·00 9·75 6·28 8·95 7·80 8·78 –1·31 1·68 2·37 2·79 2·64 3·11 3·43 4·52 3·48 4·35 5·54 6·38 4·67 6·40 6·27 6·88 2386 154

Considering how desultory the observations in Sikkim are, and how much affected by local circumstances, the above results must be considered highly satisfactory: they prove that the relative humidity of the atmospheric column remains pretty constant throughout all elevations, except when these are in a Tibetan climate; and when above 18,000 feet, elevations which I attained in fine weather only. Up to 12,000 feet this constant humidity is very marked; the observations made at greater elevations were almost invariably to the north, or leeward of the great snowy peaks, and consequently in a drier climate; and there it will be seen that these proportions are occasionally inverted; and in Tibet itself a degree of relative dryness is encountered, such as is never equalled on the plains of Eastern Bengal or the Gangetic delta. Whether an isolated peak rising near Calcutta, to the elevation of 19,000 feet, would present similar results to the above, is not proven by these observations, but as the relative humidity is the same at all elevations on the outermost ranges of Sikkim, which attain 10,000 feet, and as these rise from the plains like steep islands out of the ocean, it may be presumed that the effects of elevation would be the same in both cases.

The first effect of this humid wind is to clothe Sikkim with forests, that make it moister still; and however difficult it is to separate cause from effect in such cases as those of the reciprocal action of humidity on vegetation, and vegetation on humidity, it is necessary for the observer to consider the one as the effect of the other. There is no doubt that but for the humidity of the region, the Sikkim Himalaya would not present the uniform clothing of forest that it does; and, on the other hand, that but for this vegetation, the relative humidity would not be so great.[433]

[433] Balloon ascents and observations on small mountainous islands, therefore, offer the best means of solving such questions: of these, the results of ballooning, under Mr. Welsh’s intrepid and skilful pioneering (see Phil. Trans. for 1853), have proved most satisfactory; though, from the time for observation being short, and from the interference of belts of vapour, some anomalies have not been eliminated. Islands again are still more exposed to local influences, which may be easily eliminated in a long series of observations. I think that were two islands, as different in their physical characters as St. Helena and Ascension, selected for comparative observations, at various elevations, the laws that regulate the distribution of humidity in the upper regions might be deduced without difficulty. They are advantageous sites, from differing remarkably in their humidity. Owing partly to the indestructible nature of its component rock (a glassy basalt), the lower parts of Ascension have never yielded to the corroding effects of the moist sea air which surrounds it; which has decomposed the upper part into a deep bed of clay. Hence Ascension does not support a native tree, or even shrub, two feet high. St. Helena, on the other hand, which can hardly be considered more favourably situated for humidity, was clothed with a redundant vegetation when discovered, and trees and tree-ferns (types of humidity) still spread over its loftiest summits. Here the humidity, vegetation, and mineral and mechanical composition reciprocate their influences.

The great amount of relative humidity registered at 6000 to 8000 feet, arises from most of the observations having been made on the outer range, where the atmosphere is surcharged. The majority of those at 10,000 to 12,000 feet, which also give a disproportionate amount of humidity, were registered at the Zemu and Thlonok rivers, where the narrowness of the valleys, the proximity of great snowy peaks, and the rank luxuriance of the vegetation, all favour a humid atmosphere.

I would have added the relative rain-fall to the above, but this is so very local a phenomenon, and my observations were so repeatedly deranged by having to camp in forests, and by local obstacles of all kinds, that I have suppressed them; their general results I have given in Appendix F.

I here add a few observations, taken on the plains at the foot of the Sikkim Himalaya during the spring months.

_Comparison between Temperature and Humidity of the Sikkim Terai and Calcutta, in March and April, 1849._

No. of Obs. Locality Elev. above sea. Feet TEMPERATURE DEW POINT TENSION SAT. C. T. C. T. C. T. C. T. 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 8 Rummai Belakoba Rangamally Bhojepore Thakyagunj Bhatgong Sahibgunj Titalya 293 368 275 404 284 225 231 362 82·2 92·8 84·2 90·1 84·9 87·4 80·2 85·5 70·6 85·5 75·0 81·2 77·1 74·9 68·0 80·0 61·7 62·6 68·7 54·1 61·3 64·7 66·2 55·4 60·5 63·0 62·5 44·3 60·8 54·6 53·1 56·1 ·553 ·570 ·695 ·429 ·547 ·611 ·642 ·448 ·532 ·578 ·568 ·308 ·537 ·436 ·414 ·459 ·517 ·382 ·605 ·313 ·466 ·480 ·635 ·376 ·717 ·485 ·665 ·295 ·588 ·512 ·409 ·459 31 Means 305 85·9 79·0 61·8 56·9 ·562 ·479 · 472 ·516 May, 1850 Kishengunj 131 89·7 K 78·6 76·7 K 71·4 ·904 K ·759 ·665 K ·793

Vapour in a cubic foot Kishengunj Calcutta 8·20 9·52 Terai Calcutta 5·08 5·90

Mean difference of temperature between Terai and Calcutta, from 31 observations in March, as above, excluding mimima, Terai Mean difference from 26 observations in March, including mimima, Terai Mean difference of temperature at Siligoree on May 1, 1850 Mean difference of temperature at Kishengunj on May 1, 1850 6·9 9·7 10·9 11·1

From the above, it appears that during the spring months, and before the rains commence, the belt of sandy and grassy land along the Himalaya, though only 3·5° north of Calcutta, is at least 6° or 7° colder, and always more humid relatively, though there is absolutely less moisture suspended in the air. After the rains commence; I believe that this is in a great measure inverted, the plains becoming excessively heated, and the temperature being higher than at Calcutta. This indeed follows from the well known fact that the summer heat increases greatly in advancing north-west from the Bay of Bengal to the trans-Sutledge regions; it is admirably expressed in the maps of Dove’s great work “On the Distribution of Heat on the Surface of the Globe.”

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS.

These observations were taken by burying a brass tube two feet six inches to three feet deep, in exposed soil, and sinking in it, by a string or tied to a slip of wood, a thermometer whose bulb was well padded with wool: this, after a few hours’ rest, indicates the temperature of the soil. Such a tube and thermometer I usually caused to be sunk wherever I halted, if even for one night, except during the height of the rains, which are so heavy that they communicate to the earth a temperature considerably above that of the air.

The results proved that the temperature of the soil at Dorjiling varies with that of the month, from 46° to 62·2°, but is hardly affected by the diurnal variation, except in extreme cases. In summer, throughout the rains, May to October, the temperature is that of the month, which is imparted by the rain to the depth of eleven feet during heavy continued falls (of six to twelve inches a day), on which occasions I have seen the buried thermometer indicating a temperature above the mean of the month. Again, in the winter months, December and January, it stands 5° above the monthly mean; in November and February 4° to 5°; in March a few degrees below the mean temperature of the month, and in October above it; April and May being sunny, it stands above their mean; June to September a little below the mean temperature of each respectively.

The temperature of the soil is affected by:—1. The exposure of the surface; 2. The nature of the soil; 3. Its permeability by rain, and the presence of underground springs; 4. The sun’s declination; 5. The elevation above the sea, and consequently the heating power of the sun’s rays: and 6, The amount of cloud and sunshine. far from being sufficient to supply data for the exact estimation of the effects of the sun on the soil at any elevation or locality; they, however, indicate with tolerable certainty the main features of this phenomenon, and these are in entire conformity with more ample series obtained elsewhere. The result, which at first sight appears the most anomalous, is, that the mean temperature of the soil, at two or three feet depth, is almost throughout the year in India above that of the surrounding atmosphere. This has been also ascertained to be the case in England by several observers, and the carefully conducted observations of Mr. Robert Thompson at the Horticultural Society’s Gardens at Chiswick, show that the temperature of the soil at that place is, on the mean of six years, at the depth of one foot, 1° above that of the air, and at two feet 1·5°. During the winter months the soil is considerably (l° to 3°) warmer than the air, and during summer the soil is a fraction of a degree cooler than the air.

In India, the sun’s declination being greater, these effects are much exaggerated, the soil on the plains being in winter sometimes 9° hotter than the air; and at considerable elevations in the Himalaya very much more than that; in summer also, the temperature of the soil seldom falls below that of the air, except where copious rain-falls communicate a low temperature, or where forests interfere with the sun’s rays.

At considerable elevations these effects are so greatly increased, that it is extremely probable that at certain localities the mean temperature of the soil may be even 10° warmer than that of the air; thus, at Jongri, elevation 13,194 feet, the soil in January was 34·5°, or 19·2° above the mean temperature of the month, immediately before the ground became covered with snow for the remainder of the winter; during the three succeeding months, therefore, the temperature of the soil probably does not fall below that of the snow, whilst the mean temperature of the air in January may be estimated at about 20°, February 22°, March 30°, and April 35°. If, again, we assume the temperature of the soil of Jongri to be that of other Sikkim localities between 10,000 and 14,000 feet, we may assume the soil to be warmer by 10° in July (see Tungu observations), by 8° or 9° in September (see Yeumtong); by l0° in October (see Tungu); and by 7° to l0° in November (see Wallanchoon and Nanki). These temperatures, however, vary extremely according to exposure and amount of sunshine; and I should expect that the greatest differences would be found in the sunny climate of Tibet, where the sun’s heat is most powerful. Were nocturnal or terrestrial radiation as constant and powerful as solar, the effects of the latter would be neutralised; but such is not the case at any elevation in Sikkim.

This accumulated heat in the upper strata of soil must have a very powerful effect upon vegetation, preventing the delicate rootlets of shrubs from becoming frozen, and preserving vitality in the more fleshy, roots, such as those of the large rhubarbs and small orchids, whose spongy cellular tissues would no doubt be ruptured by severe frosts. To the burrowing rodents, the hares, marmots, and rats, which abound at 15,000 to 17,000 feet in Tibet, this phenomenon is even more conspicuously important; for were the soil in winter to acquire the mean temperature of the air, it would take very long to heat after the melting of the snow, and indeed the latter phenomenon would be greatly retarded. The rapid development of vegetation after the disappearance of the snow, is no doubt also proximately due to the heat of the soil, quite as much as to the increased strength of the sun’s direct rays in lofty regions.

I have given in the column following that containing the temperature of the sunk thermometer, first the extreme temperatures of the air recorded during the time the instrument was sunk; and in the next following, the mean temperature of the air during the same period, so far as I could ascertain it from my own observations.

SERIES I. _Soane Valley_

Akbarpore Feb. 11 to 12 Feb. 12 to 13 Feb. 13 to 14 Feb. 15 to 16

Feb. 17 to 19 440 340 345 395

400 3 4 3 8 2 4 4 6 (2 ther.) 4 6 5 6 71·5 71·7 68·5 76·5

76·0 62·0 to 77·5 57·0 to 71·0 53·5 to 76·0 58·5 to 80·0

56·9 to 79·5 67·0 67·3 67·6 67·8

68·0 +4·5 3·4 1·9 8·7

8·0

SERIES II. _Himalaya of East Nepal and Sikkim_

Locality Date Eleva- tion (feet) Depth (ft. in.) Temperature of sunk Thermometer Extreme Temperature of Air observed Approx. Mean Temp. of Air deduced Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. Base of Tonglo Simsibong Tonglo saddle Tonglo summit Simonbong Nanki Sakkiazong Mywa guola Banks of Tambur higher up river Wallanchoon Yangma village Yangma river Bhomsong Tchonpong Jongri Buckeem Choongtam Junction of Thlonok and Zemu Tungu Tungu Lamteng Choongtam Lachoong Yeumtong Momay Yeumtso Lachoong Great Rungeet Leebong Kursiong Leebong Punkabaree

Jillapahar
(Mr. Hodgson’s)

Superintendent’s house May 19 May 20 May 21 to 22 May 23 May 24 Nov. 4 to 5 Nov. 9 to 10 Nov. 17 to 18 Nov. 18 to 19 Nov. 19 to 20 Nov. 23 to 25 Nov. 30 to Dec. 3 Dec. 2 to 3 Dec. 24 to 25 Jan. 4 Jan. 10 to 11 Jan.12 May 19 to 25

10,846 12,751 12,751 8,884 5,268 8,712 11,919 15,362 16,808 8,712 818 6,000 4,813 6,000 1,850 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 6,932 2 0 2 0 2 6 2 6 2 6 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7

2 7 2 5 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 5 0 7 7 5 0 7 7 5 0 7 7 7 7 7 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 78 61·7 50·7[434] 49·7 69·7 51·5 53·2 73·0 71·0 64·5 43·5 to 45·0 37·3 to 38·0 41·4 to 42·0 64·5 to 65·0 55·0 34·5 43·2 62·5 to 62·7

51·2 59·0 to 56·5 50·8 to 52·5 62·2 to 62·5 72·1 66·3 to 66·0 55·5 to 56·1 52·5 to 51·5 43·5 to 43·0 60·2 65·0 50·8 to 52·0 64·5 61·8 to 62·0 80·0 62·0 to 62·8 61·5 to 62·3 61·6 to 61·7 60·7 60·2 60·5 60·0 58·5 46·0 to 46·7 46·3 to 48·3 55·3 to 56·0 57·4 58·8 to 60·2 67·5 to 67·0 59·0 to 59·5 47·5 to 57·5 47·5 to 53·2 51·2 to 55·5 33·0 to 50·5 37·8 to 55·0 41·0 to 85·0 48·0 to 65·0 44·3 to 60·0 25·0 to 49·7 20·0 to 46·0 23·0 to 40·0 42·8 to 71·3 33·0 to 54·8 3·7 to 34·0 40·0 to 29·8 48·0 to 78·3

38·2 to 57·2 38·0 to 62·3 34·5 to 53·3 47·5 to 78·2 54·8 to 82·0 43·5 to 68·7 39·5 to 59·5 31·0 to 62·5 4·0 to 52·0 39·0 to 62·6 56·0 to 71·0 41·5 to 56·0 63·0 to 60·0 54·0 to 67·8 68·2 to 78·0 58·0 to 66·0 58·0 to 66·0 58·7 to 67·8 58·7 to 67·8 56·2 to 65·0 56·2 to 65·0 52·0 to 61·0 49·7 to 55·2 36·0 to 52·8 34·5 to 53·3 46·0 to 61·3 46·0 to 61·3 48·5 to 65·8

52·5 52·5 52·5 41·2 46·1 63·4 55·6 51·6 37·4 33·0 27·9 57·1 43·9 15·3 32·4 63·2

49·8 50·0 41·1 57·0 72·0 57·0 47·2 41·6 30·6 52·0 63·5 46·0 63·0 60·0 76·0 61·5 61·5 61·7 61·7 60·0 60·0 58·5 56·5 43·0 46·0 54·0 55·0 58·0

– 1·8 – 1·8 – 1·8 + 9·7 + 7·1 + 9·6 +15·4 +12·9 + 7·6 + 4·7 + 3·6 + 6·6 +11·1 +19·2 +10·8 – 0·6

+ 1·4 + 7·7 +10·7 + 5·3 + 0·1 + 9·2 + 8·6 +10·4 +12·6 + 8·2 + 1·5 + 5·4 + 1·5 + 1·9 + 4·0 + 0·9 + 0·4 – 0·1 – 1·0 + 0·2 + 0·5 + 1·5 + 2·0 + 6·4 + 1·3 + 1·7 + 2·4 + 1·5

[434] Sheltered by trees, ground spongy and wet.

SERIES III. _Plains of Bengal_

Locality Date Eleva- tion (feet) Depth (ft. in.) Temperature of sunk Thermometer Extreme Temperature of Air observed Approx. Mean Temp. of Air deduced Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. Kishengunj Dulalgunj Banks of Mahanuddy river Ditto Ditto Maldah Mahanuddy river Ganges Bauleah Dacca May 3 to 4 May 7 May 8 May 9 May 10 May 11 May 14 May 15 May 16 to 18 May 28 to 30 131 130 100 100 100 100 100 100 130 72 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 §82·8 to 83·0 §81·3 †79·3 †87·5 †88·0 †88·8 †87·8 †88·0 87·8 to 89·8 84·0 to 84·3 70·0 to 85·7 74·3 to 90·3 75·0 to 91·5 77·8 to 92·5 78·5 to 91·5 75·3 to 91·3 71·0 to 91·7 73·0 to 87·8 78·0 to 106·5 75·3 to 95·5 82·0 82·0 83·0 83·0 82·3 82·3 82·3 82·3 80·5 83·3 +0·8 –0·7 –3·7 –4·5 –5·7 –6·5 –4·5 –5·7 +7·3 +0·9

SERIES IV. _Khasia Mountains_

Locality Date Eleva- tion (feet) Depth (ft. in.) Temperature of sunk Thermometer Extreme Temperature of Air observed Approx. Mean Temp. of Air deduced Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. Churra Churra Kala-panee Kala-panee Kala-panee Kala-panee Moflong Moflong Moflong Syong Syong Myrung Myrung Myrung Myrung Nunklow Nunklow Pomrang Pomrang June 28 to 25 Oct. 29 to Nov. 16 June 28 to 29 Aug. 5 to 7 Sept. 13 to 14 Oct. 27 to 28 June 30 to July 4 July 30 to Aug. 4 Oct. 25 to 27 July 29 to 30 Oct. 11 to 12 July 9 to 10 July 26 to 29 Oct. 12 to 17 Oct. 21 to 25 July 11 to 26 Oct. 17 to 21 Sept. 15 to 23 Oct. 6 to 10 4,226

5,302

6,062

5,725

5,647

4,688

5,143
2 7

2 7

2 7 *71·8 to 72·3 68·3 to 64·0 69·2 70·0 to 70·4 *70·2 *66·3 65·0 67·3 63·2 69·2 to 69·3 67·0 66·2 to 66·3 68·3 66·0 to 64·8 64·8 to 64·0 70·5 to 71·3 68·8 to 68·3 70·3 to 68·5 68·3 64·8 to 72·2 70·7 to 49·3 64·2 to 71·2 72·2 to 61·8 65·5 to 69·8 64·0 to 56·0 61·0 to 68·3 64·0 to 75·8 63·7 to 55·7 60·0 to 78·5 65·7 to 55·5 60·0 to 73·8 78·0 to 64·2 70·0 to 55·5 66·0 to 53·0 65·5 to 81·5 75·7 to 58·0 73·0 to 57·0 73·7 to 58·2 69·9 61·7 67·2 64·9 66·0 60·0 64·0 68·5 64·1 69·2 62·8 67·5 71·1 63·0 60·5 71·5 66·1 65·5 65·0 +2·2 +4·5 +2·0 +5·2 +4·2 +6·3 +2·2 –1·2 –0·9 +0·1 +4·2 –1·2 –2·8 +2·4 +3·9 –0·5 +2·5 +3·9 +3·3

* Hole full of rain-water. † Soil, a moist sand. § Dry sand.

SERIES V. _Jheels, Gangetic Delta, and Chittagong_

Locality Date Eleva- tion (feet) Depth (ft. in.) Temperature of sunk Thermometer Extreme Temperature of Air observed Approx. Mean Temp. of Air deduced Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. Silchar Silhet Noacolly Chittagong Chittagong Chittagong, flagstaff hill Hat-hazaree Sidhee Hattiah Seetakoond Calcutta† Nov. 27 to 30 Dec. 3 to 7 Dec. 18 to 19 Dec. 23 to 31 Jan. 14 to 16 Dec. 28 to 30 Jan. 4 to 5 Jan. 5 to 6 Jan. 6 to 9 Jan. 9 to 14 Jan. 16 to Feb. 5 116 133 20 191

151
20
20
20
20
18 2 7 77·7 to 75·8
73·5 to 73·7
73·3
72·5 to 73·0
73·3 to 73·7
72·0 to 71·8
71·3
71·0
*67·7
73·3 to 73·7
76·0 to 77·0 55·0 to 81·7
63·0 to 74·5
58·5 to 76·5
53·2 to 75·0
61·3 to 78·7
55·2 to 74·2
50·5 to 62·0
52·7 to 70·2
50·2 to 77·5
55·2 to 79·5
§56·5 to 82·0 69·1
69·5
69·5
63·8
65·5
65·3
65·0
65·0
64·5
70·2
69·3 +7·7
+3·1
+3·8
+9·0
+8·3
+6·6
+6·3
+6·0
+3·2
+3·3
+7·2

* Shaded by trees. † Observations at the Mint, etc., by Mr. Muller. § Observations for temperature of air, taken at the Observatory.

ON THE DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS AND KHASIA MOUNTAINS

I have selected as many of my observations for temperature of the sir as appeared to be trustworthy, and which, also, were taken contemporaneously with others at Calcutta, and I have compared them with the Calcutta observations, in order to find the ratio of decrement of heat to an increase of elevation. The results of several sets of observations are grouped together, but show so great an amount of discrepancy, that it is evident that a long series of months and the selection of several stations are necessary in a mountain country to arrive at any accurate results. Even at the stations where the most numerous and the most trustworthy observations were recorded, the results of different months differ extremely; and with regard to the other stations, where few observations were taken, each one is affected differently from another at the same level with it, by the presence or proximity of forest, by exposure to the east or west, to ascending or descending currents in the valleys, and to cloud or sunshine. Other and still more important modifying influences are to be traced to the monthly variations in the amount of humidity in the air and the strength of its currents, to radiation, and to the evolution of heat which accompanies condensation raising the temperature of elevated regions during the rainy season. The proximity of large masses of snow has not the influence I should have expected in lowering the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, partly no doubt because of the more rapid condensation of vapours which it effects, and partly because of the free circulation of the currents around it. The difference between the temperatures of adjacent grassy and naked or rocky spots, on the other hand, is very great indeed, the former soon becoming powerfully heated in lofty regions where the sun’s rays pass through a rarefied atmosphere, and the rocks especially radiating much of the heat thus accumulated, for long after sunset. In various parts of my journals I have alluded to other disturbing causes, which being all more or leas familiar to meteorologists, I need not recapitulate here. Their combined effects raise all the summer temperatures above what they should theoretically be.

In taking Calcutta as a standard of comparison, I have been guided by two circumstances; first, the necessity of selecting a spot where observations were regularly and accurately made; and secondly, the being able to satisfy myself by a comparison of my instruments that the results should be so far strictly comparable.

I have allowed 1° Fahr. for every degree in latitude intervening between Sikkim and Calcutta, as the probable ratio of diminution of temperature. So far as my observations made in east Bengal and in various parts of the Gangetic delta afford a means of solving this question, this is a near approximation to the truth. The spring observations however which I have made at the foot of the Sikkim Himalaya would indicate a much more rapid decrement; the mean temperature of Titalya and other parts of the plains south of the forests, between March and May being certainly 6°–9° lower than Calcutta: this period however is marked by north-west and north-east winds, and by a strong haze which prevents the sun’s rays from impinging on the soil with any effect. During the southerly winds, the same region is probably hotter than Calcutta, there being but scanty vegetation, and the rain-fall being moderate.

In the following observations solitary readings are always rejected.

I.—_Summer or Rainy Season observations at Dorjiling._

Observations taken during the rainy season of 1848, at Mr. Hodgson’s (Jillapahar, Dorjiling) alt. 7,430 feet, exposure free to the north east and west, the slopes all round covered with heavy timber; much mist hence hangs over the station. The mean temperatures of the month at Jillapahar are deduced from horary observations, and those of Calcutta from the mean of the daily maximum and minimum.

Month No. of Obs. at Jillapahar Temp. Temp. Calcutta Equiv. of 1° Fahr. July August September October 284 378 407 255 61·7 61·7 58·9 55·3 86·6 85·7 84·7 83·3 364 feet 346 feet 348 feet 316 feet 1,324 … Mean 344 feet

II.—_Winter or dry season observations at Dorjiling._

1. Observations taken at Mr. J. Muller’s, and chiefly by himself, at “the Dale”; elev. 6,956 feet; a sheltered spot, with no forest near, and a free west exposure. 103 observations. Months: November, December, January, and February 1°=313 ft. 2. Observations at Dr. Campbell’s (Superintendent’s) house in April; elev. 6,950 feet; similar exposure to the last. 13 observations in April 1°=308 ft. 3. Observations by Mr. Muller at Colinton; elev. 7,179 feet; free exposure to north-west; much forest about the station, and a high ridge to east and south. 38 observations in winter months 1°=290 ft. 4. Miscellaneous (11) observations at Leebong; elev. 6000 feet; in February; free exposure all round 1°=266 ft. 5. Miscellaneous observations at “Smith’s Hotel;” Dorjiling, on a cleared ridge; exposed all round; elev. 6,863 feet. April and May 1°=252 ft. ———— Mean of winter observations Mean of summer observations

Mean 1°=286 ft. 1°=344 ft. ———— 310 ft.

III.—_Miscellaneous observations taken at different places in Dorjiling, elevations 6,900 to 7,400 feet, with the differences of temperature between Calcutta and Dorjiling._

Month Number of Observations Difference of Temperature Equivalent January February March April March and April July August September October 27 84 37 7 29 83 74 95 18 30·4 32·8 41·9 36·0 37·3 23·6 22·4 25·7 29·5 1°=287 ft. 1°=265 ft. 1°=196 ft. 1°=236 ft. 1°=224 ft. 1°=389 ft. 1°=415 ft. 1°=350 ft. 1°=297 ft. Sum 454 Mean 31·1 Mean 1°=295 ft.

These, it will be seen, give a result which approximates to that of the sets I and II. Being deduced from observations at different exposures, the effects of these may be supposed to be eliminated. It is to be observed that the probable results of the addition of November and December’s observations, would be balanced by those of May and June, which are hot moist months.

IV.—_Miscellaneous cold weather observations made at various elevations between 1000 and 17,000 feet, during my journey into east Nepal and Sikkim, in November to January 1848 and 1849. The equivalent to 1° Fahr. was deduced from the mean of all the observations at each station, and these being arranged in sets corresponding to their elevations, gave the following results._

Elevation Number of Stations Number of Observations Equivalent 1,000 to 4,000 ft. 4,000 to 8,000 ft. 8,000 to 12,000 ft. 12,000 to 17,000 ft. 27 52 20 14 111 197 84 54 1°=215 ft. 1°=315 ft. 1°=327 ft. 1°=377 ft. Sum 113 Sum 446 Mean 1°=308 ft.

The total number of comparative observations taken during that journey, amounted to 563, and the mean equivalent was 1°=303 feet, but I rejected many of the observations that were obviously unworthy of confidence.

V.—_Miscellaneous observations (chiefly during the rainy season) taken during my journey into Sikkim and the frontier of Tibet, between May 2nd and December 25th, 1848. The observations were reduced as in the previous instance. The rains on this occasion were unusually protracted, and cannot be said to have ceased till mid-winter, which partly accounts for the very high temperatures._

Elevation Number of Stations Number of Observations Equivalent 1,000 to 4,000 ft. 4,000 to 8,000 ft. 8,000 to 12,000 ft. 12,000 to 17,000 ft. 10 21 18 29 45 283 343 219 1°=422 ft. 1°=336 ft. 1°=355 ft. 1°=417 ft. Sum 78 Sum 890 Mean 1°=383 ft.

The great elevation of the temperature in the lowest elevations is accounted for by the heating of the valleys wherein these observations were taken, and especially of the rocks on their floors. The increase with the elevation, of the three succeeding sets, arises from the fact that the loftier regions are far within the mountain region, and are less forest clad and more sunny than the outer Himalaya.

A considerable number of observations were taken during this journey at night, when none are recorded at Calcutta, but which are comparable with contemporaneous observations taken by Mr. Muller at Dorjiling. These being all taken during the three most rainy months, when the temperature varies but very little during the whole twenty-four hours, I expected satisfactory results, but they proved very irregular and anomalous.

The means were—
At 21 stations of greater elevation than Dorjiling 1°=348
ft.
At 17 stations lower in elevation 1°=447 ft.

VI.—_Sixty-four contemporaneous observations at Jillapahar, 7,430 feet, and the bed of the Great Rungeet river, 818 feet; taken in January and February, give 1°=322 feet._

VII.—_Observations taken by burying a thermometer two and a half to three feet deep, in a brass tube, at Dorjiling and at various elevations near that station._

Month Upper Stations Lower Stations February and March February

April April March and April March, April, May Jillapahar, 7,430 ft. Ditto

Leebong, 6000 ft. Jillapahar, 7,430 ft. Khersiong, 4,813 ft. Jillapahar, 7,430 ft. Leebong, 6000 ft. Guard House, Great Rungeet, 1,864 ft. Ditto Khersiong, 4,813 ft. Punkabaree, 1,850 ft. Ditto 1°=269 ft.

1°=298 ft. 1°=297 ft. 1°=297 ft. 1°=223 ft. 1°=253 ft. Mean 1°=273 ft.

The above results would seem to indicate that up to an elevation of 7,500 feet, the temperature diminishes rather more than 1° Fahr. for every 300 feet of ascent or thereabouts; that this decrement is much leas in the summer than in the winter months; and I may add that it is less by day than by night. There is much discrepancy between the results obtained at greater or less elevations than 7000 feet; but a careful study of these, which I have arranged in every possible way, leads me to the conclusion that the proportion map be roughly indicated thus:—

1°=300 feet, for elevations from 1,000 to 8,000 feet. 1°=320 feet, for elevations from 8,000 to 10,000 feet. 1°=350 feet, for elevations from 10,000 to 14,000 feet. 1°=400 feet, for elevations from 14,000 to 18,000 feet.

VIII.—_Khasia mountain observations._

Date Calcutta Obs. Number of Obs. Churra Obs. Number of Obs. Altitude above the Sea Churra Poonji, June 13 to 26 Churra Poonji, Aug. 7 to Sept. 4 Churra Poonji, Oct. 29 to Nov. 16 86·3 84·6 80·7 63 196 85 70·1 69·2 63·1 67 214 133 1°=300 ft. 1°=331 ft. 1°=282 ft. 4,069 ft. 4,225 ft. 4,225 ft. 354 414 Mean, 304 ft.

Date Calcutta Obs. Number of Obs. Khasia Obs. Number of Obs. Altitude above the Sea Kala-panee, June, Aug., Sept. Moflong, June, July, Aug., Oct. Syong Myrung, Aug. Myrung, Oct. Nunklow Mooshye, Sept. 23 Pomrang, Sept. 23 Amwee, Sept. 23 Joowy, Sept. 23 85·5 85·9 85·1 89·1 82·9 86·4 78·5 82·7 79·9 79·5 35 73 4 42 21 139 9 51 15 11 67·4 68·8 65·0 69·7 63·2 70·9 66·3 65·8 67·1 69·0 35 74 6 41 58 139 12 51 11 7 1°=345 ft. 1°=373 ft. 1°=332 ft. 1°=343 ft. 1°=336 ft. 1°=372 ft. 1°=499 ft. 1°=369 ft. 1°=396 ft. 1°=567 ft. 5,302 ft. 6,062 ft. 5,734 ft. 5,632 ft. 5,632 ft. 4,688 ft. 4,863 ft. 5,143 ft. 4,105 ft. 4,387 ft. 400 434 1°=385 ft.

The equivalent thus deduced is far greater than that brought out by the Sikkim observations. It indicates a considerably higher temperature of the atmosphere, and is probably attributable to the evolution of heat during extraordinary rain-fall, and to the formation of the surface, which is a very undulating table-land, and everywhere traversed by broad deep valleys, with very steep, often precipitous flanks; these get heated by the powerful sun, and from them, powerful currents ascend. The scanty covering of herbage too over a great amount of the surface, and the consequent radiation of heat from the earth, must have a sensible influence on the mean temperature of the summer months.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDES BY THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER.

The use of the boiling-point thermometer for the determination of elevations in mountainous countries appearing to me to be much underrated, I have collected the observations which I was enabled to take, and compared their results with barometrical ones.

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Himalayan Journals — CompleteChapter XXXIX: Appendix: A (4)

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