Chapter I: Part 1

HISTORY

OF

ANCIENT ART

BY DR. FRANZ VON REBER

DIRECTOR OF THE BAVARIAN ROYAL AND STATE GALLERIES OF PAINTINGS PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY AND POLYTECHNIC OF MUNICH

Revised by the Author

_TRANSLATED AND AUGMENTED_

BY

JOSEPH THACHER CLARKE

WITH 310 ILLUSTRATIONS AND A GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by

HARPER & BROTHERS,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

_All rights reserved._

The application of the historic method to the study of the Fine Arts, begun with imperfect means by Winckelmann one hundred and twenty years ago, has been productive of the best results in our own days. It has introduced order into a subject previously confused, disclosing the natural progress of the arts, and the relations of the arts of the different races by whom they have been successively practised. It has also had the more important result of securing to the fine arts their due place in the history of mankind as the chief record of various stages of civilization, and as the most trustworthy expression of the faith, the sentiments, and the emotions of past ages, and often even of their institutions and modes of life. The recognition of the significance of the fine arts in these respects is, indeed, as yet but partial, and the historical study of art does not hold the place in the scheme of liberal education which it is certain before long to attain. One reason of this fact lies in the circumstance that few of the general historical treatises on the fine arts that have been produced during the last fifty years have been works of sufficient learning or judgment to give them authority as satisfactory sources of instruction. Errors of statement and vague speculations have abounded in them. The subject, moreover, has been confused, especially in Germany, by the intrusion of metaphysics into its domain, in the guise of a professed but spurious science of æsthetics.

Under these conditions, a history of the fine arts that should state correctly what is known concerning their works, and should treat their various manifestations with intelligence and in just proportion, would be of great value to the student. Such, within its limits as a manual and for the period which it covers, is Dr. Reber’s _History of Ancient Art_. So far as I am aware, there is no compend of information on the subject in any language so trustworthy and so judicious as this. It serves equally well as an introduction to the study and as a treatise to which the advanced student may refer with advantage to refresh his knowledge of the outlines of any part of the field.

The work was originally published in 1871; but so rapid has been the progress of discovery during the last ten years that, in order to bring the book up to the requirements of the present time, a thorough revision of it was needed, together with the addition of much new matter and many new illustrations. This labor of revision and addition has been jointly performed by the author and the translator, the latter having had the advantage of doing the greater part of his work with the immediate assistance of Dr. Reber himself, and of bringing to it fresh resources of his own, the result of original study and investigation. The translator having been absent from the country, engaged in archæological research, during the printing of the volume, the last revision and the correction of the text have been in the hands of Professor William R. Ware, of the School of Mines of Columbia College.

CHARLES ELIOT NORTON.

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, _May_, 1882.

In view of the great confusion which results from an irregular orthography of Greek proper names, a return to the original spelling of words not fully Anglicized may need an explanation, but no apology: it is only adopting a system already followed by scholars of the highest standing. The Romans, until the advent of that second classical revival in which the present century is still engaged, served as mediums for all acquaintance with Hellenic civilization. They employed Greek names, with certain alterations agreeable to the Latin tongue, blunting and coarsening the delicate sounds of Greek speech, much in the same manner as they debased the artistic forms of Greek architecture by a mechanical system of design. The clear ον became _um_, ος was changed to _us_, ει to _e_ or _i_, etc. This Latinized nomenclature, like the Roman triglyph and Tuscan capital, was exclusively adopted by the early Renaissance, until, with the increasing knowledge of Greek lands and works of art, names were introduced which do not happen to occur in the writings of Roman authors. These were either changed in accordance with the more or less variable standard in use during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, or were adopted in their Greek form without change, the latter method being more and more generally employed. This has gradually led to a partial revision of Greek names and their spelling. Zeus and Hermes, Artemis and Athene, have resumed, as Greek deities, their original titles;--Suni_um_ and Ass_us_ have been changed to Sunion and Assos; while other names have only been reformed in part, as in the case of the unfortunate Polycleitos, who at times appears as Polycl_e_tos, and at times as Polycleit_u_s. Confusion and misunderstanding cannot but result from this unreasonable triple system of Latinized, Anglicized, and Greek orthography. Peirithoos may be sought in alphabetically classified works of reference under Per and Pir as well as under Peir. Πέργαμον, Pergamon, is written Pergamum, Pergamus, and Pergamos, in the two latter forms being naturally confused with the Cretan Πέργαμος, Pergamos, which, in its turn, is Latinized to Pergamus. In the present book the Greek spelling of Greek names has been adopted in all those cases where the word has not been fully Anglicized; that is to say, changed in _pronunciation_, when it would sound pedantic to employ its original form, as, for instance, to speak of the well-known Pæstum and Lucian as Poseidonia and Loukianos. The English alphabet provides, however, two letters for the Greek κάππα, and the more familiar _c_ has been employed, as in Corinth, acropolis, etc., except in cases where the true sound is not thereby conveyed,--namely, before _e_, _i_, and _y_,--when the _k_ is substituted. Moreover, the final αι is transformed to _æ_, according to the universal usage of our tongue.

JOSEPH THACHER CLARKE.

CONTENTS.

EGYPT.
PAGE

The Delta. The Oldest Monuments, if not the most Ancient Civilization of the World 1, 2

Changeless Continuity of Life and Art 2

ARCHITECTURE.

The Age, Purpose, and Architectural Significance of the Pyramids 3-5

The Pyramids of Gizeh 5-7

Variety of Pyramidal Forms 8, 9

The Pyramids of Saccara, Meydoun, Dashour, Abousere, and Illahoun 9-12

Table of Dimensions 12

The Younger Pyramids of Nubia. Truncated Pyramids 12

Rock-cut Tombs 13

Development of Column from Pier 14

The Tombs at Beni-hassan 14, 15

Development of the Lotos-column 16, 17

The Invasion of the Hycsos. Restriction of the Prismatic Shaft. Extended Application of the Floral Column in the New Theban Empire 18, 19

The Calyx Capital 20, 21

Piers with Figures of Osiris and Typhon. Entablature 21

Cavern Sepulchres 22

Temple Plan, Obelisks 23

Peristyle Court 25

Hypostyle Hall 26, 27

The Dwellings of Kings and Priests 28

Peripteral Temples 29

Rock-cut Temples 30

The Monuments at Abou-Simbel 31, 32

Palatial and Domestic Architecture 33

Interiors 34

The Labyrinth 35

Unimportant Character of Secular Architecture 36

SCULPTURE.

Fundamental and Changeless Peculiarities 36

Conventional Types 37

The Formation of the Head 38

Head-dresses. Conjunction of Human Trunks and Animal Heads 39

The Body. Lack of Progressiveness and of History 40

Animal Forms 41

Materials 42

Reliefs 43

Coilanaglyphics 44

The Variety and Interest of the Subjects Illustrated 45

PAINTING.

Intimate Relation to Sculpture. Hieroglyphics 46

Painting as an Architectural Decoration. Retrospect 47

CHALDÆA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA.

The Traditional Age. The Land and People 48

Building Materials. Clay and Bitumen 49

Perishable Character of the Monuments. Hills of Rubbish Recognized as Cities 50

ARCHITECTURE.

_Chaldæa._

The Ruins of Mugheir, or Ur 50

Warka and Abou-Sharein 51

The Principle of the Arch 52

Political History 53

_Babylon._

The Fabulous Account of Herodotos 54

The Temple Pyramid at Borsippa 56

Palace Structures. The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis 57

Private Dwellings. Works of Engineering 58

_Assyria._

Nineveh 59

The Discoveries of Layard and Botta 60

The Hills of Coyundjic and Nebbi-Jonas 61

Royal Dwellings 62

The Palace at Kisr-Sargon 63-65

Terrace Pyramids 66

Lighting and Roofing 66, 67

The Restriction of Columnar Architecture 68

The Forms of Small Columns 69-71

Vaulted Construction 71

The Pointed Arch 72

The General Appearance of the Palaces 73

Sacred Architecture 74

Terrace Pyramids 75

The Cella 76

The Dwellings of the Priests 77

Altars and Obelisks 78

Domestic Architecture 79, 80

SCULPTURE.

Little Represented in Chaldæa 81

Babylonian Seals and Gems 82

Enamelled Tiles 83

Statues 85

Conventional Types 85, 86

Cherubims 87

Mural Reliefs 87-89

Variance from Egyptian Sculpture 90

Historical Reliefs 91-93

Religious Representations 94

Formal Landscapes. Bronzes 95, 96

PAINTING.

Upon Tiles and Stucco 96

Colors 97

The General Appearance of Assyrian Architecture, as Decorated by Reliefs and Paintings 98

PERSIA.

Historical Considerations 99

The Artistic Poverty of the Medes. The Achæmenidæ. Their Chief Cities 100

ARCHITECTURE.

Persepolis 101, 102

The Characteristic Differences of Persian and Mesopotamian Building 102

The Introduction of Columns 103

Columnar Forms 103, 104

Capitals 105-107

The Entablature 108

Plan of the Palace of Darius 109-113

Its State of Preservation 110

Illumination 110, 111

Upper Stories 111-113

The Palace and Hall of Xerxes 114

The Propylæa 115

The Harem 116, 117

The Disposition of the Terrace 117

Fire Altars 118

Funeral Monuments 119-121

Tomb of Cyrus 119

Tombs of the Later Achæmenidæ 120

Tombs of Subjects 121

Domestic Architecture 121

SCULPTURE.

Its Dependence upon the Art of Assyria 121

Egyptian and Hellenic Influences 122

Mythological and Ceremonial Representations 123-125

The Sculptured Decoration of Palaces and Terraces 126, 127

Rarity of Historical Scenes 128

PAINTING.

Chiefly Ornamental 128

General Harmony of the Three Arts 129

PHŒNICIA, PALESTINE, AND ASIA MINOR.

Extensive Artistic Influence of Mesopotamia in Point of Distance as well as of Time 130

The Seleucidæ. The Sassanidæ 131, 132

_Phœnicia._

Explorations in Recent Times 132, 133

The Chief Cities 133

ARCHITECTURE.

Ruins at Amrith 134, 135

The Monuments known as El-Meghazil 135-137

The Grotto Tombs of Central Phœnicia. Sarcophagi at Jebeil 137, 138

Domestic Architecture 138

SCULPTURE.

Work of Driven Metal (Sphyrelaton) 139

Bronzes 139, 140

Inlaid Work. Ivory Carvings. Glass 140

Influence of the Sphyrelaton upon Sculptural Style 141

Stone-cutting 142

The Decisive Influence of both Egypt and Mesopotamia 143

_Palestine._

The Dependence of the Jews in Artistic respects upon Egypt 143

The Tabernacle 143-147

Its Disposition 144, 145

Its Columns. The Horns of the Altar. The Seven-armed Candlestick 145, 146

The Holy of Holies. Cherubim 146, 147

Solomon’s Temple 147-156

Untrustworthiness of Biblical Accounts 147

Construction of the Building. Its Site 148

The Brazen Laver 149

“Jachin and Boaz” 149-151

The Tower 151, 152

Interior. Upper Story 153, 154

Materials 154

Decoration. The Molten Sea. The Mercy-seat and Cherubim 155

The Destruction and Rebuilding of this Temple 156

Its Architectural Character 157

Rock-cut Tombs 157, 158

_Cyprus and Carthage._

The Rock-cut Tombs at Paphos 160

The Temple of Aphrodite at Golgoi. Cesnola’s Discoveries 161, 162

The Ruins of Carthage 163

_Malta, the Balearic Isles, Sardinia_ 163

_Asia Minor._

An Independent Art Found only in Lycia, Phrygia, and Lydia 164

The Rock-cut Tombs of Lycia. The Timbered Dwelling Carved in Stone 165, 166

The Monument of the Harpies at Xanthos 167

Lycian Sarcophagi 168

Temple Façades Imitated upon Cliffs 169

The Rock-cut Tombs of Phrygia 171, 172

The Tumuli of Lydia 173, 174

HELLAS.

The Ægean Sea the Centre of Greek Civilization 175

The Dorians and the Ionians 176

The Development of Poetry Earlier than that of Art 177

ARCHITECTURE.

The Tholos of Atreus 179-183

The Phœnician Character of its Decoration 183

The Grave at Menidi 183

The Treasure-houses of the Pelopidæ 184

Tumuli 185

The Common Modes of Burial 186

Pyramids 186, 187

Primitive Fortifications. Tiryns 187

Mykenæ 188

Gateways and Portals 189-193

The Agora of Mykenæ 192

Primitive Temple Cellas without Columns 192, 193

The Structure upon Mt. Ocha. Timbered Roofs and Ceilings. The Origin of the Doric Entablature 195-197

The Decorative Painting of Woodwork 197

The Doric Column 197-199

Its Egyptian Prototype 198

The Development of the Temple-plan 199-202

The Temple in Antis 199

Prostylos 200

Amphiprostylos. Peripteros 201

Stone Construction 202

The Entasis 203

The Capital 204

The Inclination of the Columns 205

The Details of the Entablature 206-209

Polychromy 210

Curvatures 211, 212

The Pteroma and Ceiling 213

Illumination 214

Archaic Doric Temples 215

The Progress of this Style. Selinous 216

Corinth 217

Acragas 219

Olympia. Ægina 222

The Supremacy of Athens 223

The Theseion 224

The Parthenon 225

The Propylæa 226

Phigalia 227

Eleusis 228

The Ionic Style. Its Intimate Relation to Oriental Architecture 229, 230

The Capital 231-233

The Entablature 234

Its Want of Historical Development 235

Phigalia 236

The Ionic Monuments of Asia Minor 237-240

The Ionic Monuments of Attica 240-245

The Temple upon the Ilissos 241

The Propylæa 242

The Erechtheion 243-245

Caryatides 245

The Corinthian Capital 246-249

The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens 249

Monumental Tombs 250

The Mausoleum of Halicarnassos 251, 252

The Monument of the Nereides at Xanthos 252

The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 253

The so-called Tower of the Winds at Athens 253

The Stoa 253-255

The Palæstra 255

The Gymnasion 256

The Stadion and Hippodrome 257

The Theatre and Odeion 258-260

Domestic Architecture. Palaces 260, 261

The Boundless Luxury of the Diadochi 261

SCULPTURE.

The Unrivalled Perfection of the Art. Its Fundamental Deviation from the Principles of Egyptian Sculpture 264, 265

Its Dependence upon Western Asia 266

Empaistic Work. Xoana 267

Dædalos 268

The Homeric Shield of Achilles. Its Workmanship and Artistic Importance 269-271

Pseudo-Hesiodic Shield of Heracles 272

The Gate of the Lions at Mykenæ 273, 274

Schliemann’s Excavations upon the Acropolis of Mykenæ 274, 275

The Chest of Kypselos. The Throne of Apollo at Amyclæ 276-278

The Introduction of Bronze Casting. Marble-cutting and Chryselephantine Work 278-281

The Potter Boutades 278

Glaucos. Rhoicos and Theodores 279

Boupalos and Athenis 280

Dipoinos and Skyllis 281, 282

The First Metopes at Selinous 283, 284

Archaic Statues at Miletos 285

Reliefs at Assos. The Apollo of Thera 286

The Stele of Aristion 287, 288

The Second Metopes at Selinous 290

Archaistic Works 291, 292

The Gable Sculptures of the Temple of Ægina 293-296

The School of Ægina: Callon and Onatas 296, 297

The School of Attica: Hegias, Critios, and Nesiotes 297

Canachos 298

Agelades 299

Calamis 300

Pythagoras 301

Myron 302, 303

The Progress of Athens after the Persian Wars 303

Pheidias 304-315

The Athene Parthenos 310-313

The Panathenaic Frieze 313-315

The Metopes 316

The Scholars of Pheidias. Agoracritos 316, 317

The Gable Sculptures of the Temple of Olympia 317, 318

The Victory of Paionios 319

The Scholars of Myron 320

The Phigalian Frieze 321

Callimachos and Demetrios 322

Polycleitos 322-326

The Third Metopes at Selinous 327, 328

The Extent of the School of Attica and Argos. Kephisodotos 329

Scopas 330-333

The Niobids 331, 332

Praxiteles 333

The Scholars of Scopas and Praxiteles. The Sculptures of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassos 334

The Hermes of Olympia 335, 336

The Venus of Melos 338, 339

Silanion and Euphranor 340

Lysippos 340-344

The School of Lysippos 344, 345

The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Period 346, 347

The Altar at Pergamon 347, 348

The so-called Dying Gladiator 348, 349

The School of Pergamon 349, 350

The School of Rhodes. The Laocoon 351-353

The Farnese Bull 353-355

The Apollo Belvedere 356-358

The Introduction of Greek Sculpture into Rome 358-360

The Borghese Gladiator 361

The Belvedere Torso 362

The Hellenic Renaissance in Rome 363-366

PAINTING.

Lack of all Remains 366

Its Early Development Fictitiously Related by Pliny. Eumaros. Kimon 367

Polygnotos 368, 369

The Scenography of Agatharchos. Of Apollodoros 370

Zeuxis 371, 372

Parrhasios 373, 374

Timanthes 374

The School of Sikyon: Eupompos, Pamphilos 375

Melanthios. Pausias 376

The School of Thebes and Athens: Nicomachos, Aristides, Euphranor 377, 378

Nikias 378

Apelles 379-382

Protogenes 383

Antiphilos. Ætion. Asclepiodoros. Theon 384

Hellenistic Painting. Timomachos 385

Trivial and Obscene Subjects. Mosaic. Sosos 386

ETRURIA.

Relationship to the Arts of Greece 387

ARCHITECTURE.

The so-called Cyclopean Walls. Arched Gates 388

Vaulted Canals 389

Cemeteries. Tumuli. The Tomb of Porsena 390

Imitations of Dwellings upon Tombs 391, 392

Grotto Sepulchres 392

Imitations of Temple Façades upon Cliffs 393, 394

Norchia 394, 395

The Etruscan Temple 396, 397

The Dwelling-house 397

Its Court 398, 399

Lack of Progressive Architectural History 399, 400

SCULPTURE.

Museums. The Oldest or Decorative Period. Phœnician Importations 400

The Influence of Western Asia Superseded by that of Greece 401, 402

The Sarcophagus of Cære 402

Realism. Sculpture in Marble 403

The Bronze Chariot from Perugia 404

The Capitoline Wolf. Engraved Mirrors 405

Height of Etruscan Art. Hellenistic Influences 406

Sculptured Sarcophagi 406, 407

Terra-cottas and Bronzes 408

The Similarity of late Etruscan to Roman Sculpture 408, 409

PAINTING.

Its Development Similar to that of Sculpture. The Ornamental and Dependent Period 409

Realistic Characteristics 409, 410

The Wall-paintings of Cære and Corneto 409, 410

The Influence of Greece 411

Artistic Manufactures 411, 412

Sgraffiti. The Importance of Etruscan Art 412

ROME.

The Conditions of Civilization Similar to those of Etruria 413

ARCHITECTURE.

Primitive Walls 414, 415

Gates. Vaulted Canals 416

Temples: their Tuscan Character. The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 417

Hellenic Influences 418

Prostylos and Pseudo-peripteros 419, 420

The Tuscan Order 420

The Doric Order 420, 421

The Ionic Order 421, 422

The Corinthian Order 423, 424

The Composite Capital 424

Constructive Advances. Arching and Vaulting 425

Aqueducts and Sewers 425, 426

Baths 426-429

The Baths of Agrippa. The Pantheon 427

The Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian 428, 429

The Circus, Theatre, and Amphitheatre 430-436

The Theatre of Marcellus 433

The Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) 436

Funeral Monuments 436, 437

Commemorative Columns 437

Triumphal Arches 438-440

Public Buildings. Basilicas 441-443

Dwellings 444

Private Courts of Justice the Prototypes of the Christian Basilica 445-447

SCULPTURE.

Lack of Statues during the Earliest Period. Decorative Work 447, 448

The Influence of Etruria 448

The Influence of Greece 449

Rise of Sculpture after the Samnite War 449, 450

Importations of Statues from Greece 451

Coponius 452

Portrait Sculpture 453-455

Iconic Statues 453

The Horses of St. Mark’s 454

Shortcomings of Roman Reliefs 456, 457

Historical Representations 457-459

Trajan’s Column 458

The Arch of Titus 459

The Monument of Antoninus Pius 460

The Degeneration of Sculpture 461

Portraiture 461, 462

The Arch of Constantine 463

PAINTING.

The Earliest Paintings by Greek Artists. The Temple of Ceres 464

Fabius Pictor 464, 465

Pacuvius and Metrodoros 465

Battle-scenes 465, 466

Panel-painting. Collections 466

Wall Decorations after the Alexandrian Fashion 466-470

The Golden House of Nero 467

Landscapes. Architectural Ornamentation 468, 469

Mosaics 470, 471

From Herculaneum and Pompeii 471

Conclusion 471, 472

The Christian Paintings of the Catacombs 472

GLOSSARY 473

INDEX 479

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

EGYPT.

FIGURE PAGE

1. The Pyramids of Gizeh 1

2. The Great Pyramid of Gizeh. Section N. and S., looking West 6

3. Section of the Great Pyramid of Saccara 9

4. The Pyramid of Meydoun 10

5. Southern Stone Pyramid of Dashour 11

6. Section of the Middle Pyramid of Abousere 13

7. Egyptian Wall-painting. Transport of a Colossus 14

8. Section and Plan of the Northernmost Rock-cut Tomb at Beni-hassan 15

9. Second Rock-cut Tomb at Beni-hassan 16

10. Pier Decoration from the Tombs of Sauiet-el-Meytin 17

11. Lotos-column of Beni-hassan 18

12. Column from Sedinga 19

13. Lotos-columns from Thebes 20

14. Calyx Capital from Carnac 21

15. Capitals from Edfou 22

16. Osiris Pier 23

17. Royal Grave near Thebes 24

18. Southern Temple of Carnac 25

19. Temple of Edfou 26

20. Great Temple of Carnac 27

21. Section of the Hypostyle Hall, Great Temple of Carnac 28

22. Chapel upon the Platform of the Temple of Dendera 29

23. Temple of Philæ 30

24. Façade of the Rock-cut Temple of Abou-Simbel 31

25. Hall of the Rock-cut Temple of Abou-Simbel 32

26. Egyptian Wall-painting. Interior of a House 33

27. Labyrinth of the Fayoum 35

28. Egyptian Profile. Greek Profile 38

29. Husband and Wife. (Munich Glyptothek.) 39

30. The Schoolmaster of Boulac 40

31. Lion of Reddish Granite. (British Museum.) 41

32. Egyptian Wall-painting. Sculptural Work 43

33. Egyptian Wall-painting. Lance-maker 44

34. Egyptian Wall-painting. Prisoners of Different Nationalities 45

CHALDÆA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA.

35. Relief from Corsabad. Assyrian Shrines 48

36. Temple at Mugheir (Ur) 49

37. Ruins of Warka 51

38. Patterned Wall. Warka 51

39. Tomb at Mugheir 52

40. Bors-Nimrud. Temple-terrace at Borsippa 54

41. Plan and Elevation of the Temple at Borsippa 56

42. Plan of Babylon 59

43. Plan of Nineveh 61

44. Plan of the Palace of Kisr-Sargon, Corsabad 63

45. Ornamented Pavement from the Northern Palace of Coyundjic 64

46. Cornice of the Temple Substructure at Corsabad 66

47. Plan of the Northwestern Palace of Nimrud 67

48. Relief from Coyundjic 68

49. Plan of the Palace of Esarhaddon at Nimrud 69

50. Various Capitals and Bases, from Assyrian Reliefs 70

51. Table, from an Assyrian Relief 71

52. Mouth of a Tunnel under the N. E. Palace, Nimrud 72

53. Tunnel under the S. E. Palace, Nimrud 72

54. View of an Assyrian Palace, Restoration 73

55. Terraced Pyramid, from a Relief, Coyundjic 74

56. Plan and Section of the Terraced Pyramid, Nimrud 75

57. Relief from the Northern Palace, Coyundjic 76

58. Entrance to One of the So-called Temples, Nimrud 77

59. Obelisk from Nimrud 78

60. Assyrian Dwellings. Relief from Coyundjic 79

61. Tent-like Dwelling. Relief from Coyundjic 80

62. Susa. Relief from Coyundjic 81

63. Babylonian Seal, and its Impression 82

64. Wall Decoration of Enamelled Tiles 83

65. Statue of a King, from Nimrud 84

66. Winged Lion, ” ” 85

67. Winged Bull, ” ” 85

68. Lion, ” ” 86

69. King and Warrior. Relief from Corsabad 88

70. Heads. Reliefs from Nimrud 89

71. Temple. Relief from Corsabad 90

72. A Besieged City. Relief from Nimrud 91

73. Wounded Lioness. Relief from Coyundjic 92

74. Transportation of Stone. Relief from Coyundjic 93

75. Transport of a Cherubim 94

76. Glazed Terra-cotta, from Nimrud 97

PERSIA.

77. Restoration of the Palace of Darius, Persepolis 99

78. Plan of Persepolis 101

79. Fragment of a Base from Pasargadæ 103

80. Persian Columns with Bull Capitals 104

81. Spiral Ornaments upon Chairs 105

82. Columns from the Eastern Portico of the Hall of Xerxes 106

83. Rock-cut Tomb of Darius 107

84. Entablature of the Palace of Darius 109

85. Plan of the Palace of Darius at Persepolis 110

86. Persian Door-casing 112

87. Relief from the Portal of the Hall of a Hundred Columns 113

88. Propylæa of Xerxes at Persepolis 115

89. Altar Pedestals at Pasargadæ 118

90. The Tomb of Cyrus 119

91. Relief from a Portal, Persepolis 124

92. Relief from the Stairs of the Palace of Darius 127

PHŒNICIA, PALESTINE, AND ASIA MINOR.

93. Rock-cut Tombs at Myra 130

94. Temple Cella (El-Maabed) at Amrith 134

95. The Monuments El-Meghazil at Amrith 136

96. Façade of a Rock-cut Tomb at Jebeil 138

97. From a Relief at Saida 141

98. From the monument El-Meghazil at Amrith 141

99. From Rock-cut Relief at Mashnaka 142

100. The Mosaic Tabernacle 143

101. Relief at Thabarieh 146

102. Vase Discovered in Cyprus 150

103. Hypothetical Plan and Section of Solomon’s Temple 151

104. Rock-cut Tomb at Siloam 158

105. Rock-cut Tomb at Hinnom 158

106. Tomb at Paphos in Cyprus 160

107. Cyprian Pilaster Capitals 161

108. Votive Figure from Cyprus 162

109. Cyprian Head 163

110. Rock-cut Tomb at Antiphellos 164

111. Rock-cut Tomb at Antiphellos 165

112. Rock-cut Tomb at Myra 166

113. The so-called Monument of the Harpies at Xanthos 167

114. Sarcophagus at Antiphellos 168

115. Rock-cut Tomb at Telmissos 169

116. Details of Columns from Telmissos, Myra, and Antiphellos 170

117. The so-called Tomb of Midas 171

118. Phrygian Rock-cut Tomb near Doganlu 172

119. The so-called Grave of Tantalos 174

GREECE.

120. View of the Athenian Propylæa. Restoration 175

121. Plan and Section of the Tholos of Atreus 179

122. Restoration of the Tholos of Atreus. Portal 180

123. Fragments of an Engaged Column from the same 181

124. The Pyramid of Kencreæ 186

125. Plan of the Acropolis of Tiryns 188

126. The Gate of the Lions at Mykenæ 189

127. The Smaller Gate at Mykenæ 189

128. Portal from Samos 190

129. Gateway of Phigalia 190

130. Portal upon Delos 191

131. Gate of Missolonghi 192

132. Gate of Messene 192

133. Gate of Thoricos 193

134. Gate of Ephesos 193

135. Interior of a Structure upon Mount Ocha, Eubœa 194

136. Elevation of the Corner of the Middle Temple, Selinous 203

137. Entablature of the Parthenon 206

138. Scheme of the Doric Entablature 207

139. Plan and Elevation of the so-called Temple of Theseus 208

140. Painting over the Pteroma of the same 209

141. Coffered Pteroma Ceiling, Selinous 211

142. Coffered Ceilings from the Parthenon 212

143. Plan of the Middle Temple, Selinous 213

144. Capital from the Northern Temple, Selinous 216

145. Capital from the Middle Temple, Selinous 216

146. Capital from the Temple at Assos 216

147. Capital from the Eastern Plateau, Selinous 217

148. Capital from the Temple of Zeus, Selinous 217

149. Capital from the Temple of Heracles, Acragas 217

150. Capital from the Temple of Theseus, Athens 218

151. Capital from the Portico of Philip, Delos 218

152. Capital from the Temple of Demeter, Pæstum 218

153. Plan of the Great Temple at Pæstum 219

154. Plan, Section, and Elevation of the Temple of Zeus, Acragas 220

155. Entablatures of the Older and of the Present Parthenon 221

156. Plan of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia 222

157. Plan of the Parthenon 225

158. Plan and View of the Propylæa, Athens 226

159. Plan of the Temple of Apollo, Bassæ 227

160. Plan of the Temenos at Eleusis 228

161. Ionic Order of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassos 232

162. Plan of the Normal Ionic Capital 233

163. Plan of the Corner Ionic Capital 233

164. Ceiling of the Peripteros of the Mausoleum. Restored 235

165. Base and Capital from Bassæ 236

166. Base from the Heraion at Samos 237

167. Base from the Temple of Apollo Didymæos, Miletos 237

168. Base from the Temple of Athene, Priene 237

169. Base from the Propylæa, Cnidos 237

170. ” ” Temple of Wingless Victory, Athens 237

171. Ruins of the Temple at Aphrodisias 239

172. The Temple upon the Ilissos 241

173. Plan of the Erechtheion 242

174. Northwestern View of the Erechtheion 243

175. Order of the Eastern Portico of the Erechtheion 244

176. Corinthian Capital from Bassæ 248

177. ” ” from the Temple of Apollo, Miletos 248

178. Corinthian Capital from the Tower of the Winds, Athens 248

179. Tomb at Mylassa 251

180. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassos. Restoration 252

181. The Monument of the Nereides at Xanthos 253

182. Plan of the Stoa Diple at Thoricos 254

183. Plan of the Stadion at Messene 256

184. Plan of the Hippodrome at Olympia 257

185. Plan of the Greek Theatre, according to Vitruvius 258

186. The Theatre at Segesta. Restored 259

187. The Cover of Dodwell’s Vase. (Munich.) 271

188. The Relief over the Gate of the Lions, Mykenæ 273

189. Steles from the Acropolis of Mykenæ 275

190. Golden Mask from Mykenæ 276

191. Figures from the Vase of Clitias and Ergotimos 277

192. Metope Relief from Selinous 284

193. Statues from Miletos 285

194. The Apollo of Thera 286

195. Archaic Relief from Sparta 287

196. The Stele of Aristion 288

197. A Stele found at Orchomenos 290

198. Head of a Warrior, Selinous 291

199. Archaistic Artemis, from Pompeii 292

200. Central Figures from the Western Gable, Ægina 294

201. Harmodios and Aristogeiton 297

202. Apollo, after Canachos 298

203. The Discos-thrower 302

204. Statuette of the Athene Parthenos 305

205. Fragment Imitated from the Shield of Athene Parthenos 306

206. Coins of Elis 307

207. Demeter and Persephone, from the Parthenon 311

208. Aphrodite and Peitho, from the Parthenon 312

209. Fragment from the Frieze of the Cella of the Parthenon 314

210. Figure from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia 316

211. Figure from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia 317

212. Head of Apollo, from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia 318

213. Metope from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia 319

214. The Victory of Paionios, Olympia 320

215. From the Frieze of the Temple at Phigalia 321

216. Copy of the Doryphoros, Naples 323

217. Amazon, after Polycleitos 325

218. Head of Hera, Naples 326

219. The Ludovisi Juno, Rome 326

220. Metope from the Eastern Plateau, Selinous 328

221. Eirene and Ploutos, after Kephisodotos 329

222. The Apollo Kitharoidos 330

223. Niobids. (Florence.) 331

224. Head of Niobe 332

225. Fragment of the Frieze at Halicarnassos 334

226. Head of Eros. (Vatican.) 335

227. The Hermes of Praxiteles 336

228. The Head of the Hermes 337

229. The Venus of Melos 338

230. Copy of the Apoxyomenos of Lysippos 341

231. The Farnese Hercules 343

232. The Zeus of Otricoli 344

233. Boreas, from the Tower of the Winds 346

234. Notos, from the Tower of the Winds 346

235. Coins of the Diadochi 347

236. The Dying Gladiator 348

237. The Laocoon 352

238. The Farnese Bull 354

239. The Wrestlers 356

240. The Apollo Belvedere 357

241. The Artemis of Versailles 359

242. The Borghese Gladiator 361

243. The Belvedere Torso 362

244. Group from the Villa Ludovisi 364

245. The Capitoline Centaur 365

ETRURIA.

246. The Campana Tomb at Veii 387

247. The Gate of Falerii 388

248. Canal of the Marta 389

249. Restored Plan and Elevation of the Tomb of Porsena 391

250. Ceiling of a Tomb at Cervetri 392

251. Plan and Section of a Tomb at Cervetri 393

252. Interior of a Tomb at Cervetri 394

253. Temple Tomb at Norchia 395

254. Elevation of the Etruscan Temple, according to Vitruvius 397

255. Tomb at Corneto 398

256. Etruscan Sarcophagus 399

257. Bust from the Grotto dell’ Iside in Vulci 402

258. Sarcophagus of Terra-cotta from Cære 403

259. Etruscan Relief 404

260. The Capitoline Wolf 405

261. Etruscan Stone Sarcophagus 407

262. Painting from Cære 410

ROME.

263. The Janus Quadrifrons in the Forum Boarium 413

264. Gateway in the Walls of Norba 414

265. Remains of the Servian Wall 415

266. The Cloaca Maxima 417

267. Plan of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis 419

268. Plan of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina 419

269. Tuscan Column from the Coliseum 420

270. The Temple at Cori 421

21. View of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis 422

272. Corinthian Capital from the Pantheon 424

273. Composite Capital 424

274. Section of the Aqua Marcia Tepula and Julia 426

275. Section of the Pantheon, in its Present Condition 427

276. Section of the Pantheon. Restoration by Adler 428

277. Plan of the Baths of Caracalla 429

278. Chief Hall of the Baths of Caracalla 430

279. Plan of the Circus of Romulus 431

280. Scheme of the Roman Theatre, according to Vitruvius 432

281. Theatre of Marcellus, Rome 433

282. Plan of the Flavian Amphitheatre 434

283. Section of the Auditorium of the Flavian Amphitheatre 435

284. Façade and Section of a Rock-cut Tomb at Petra 438

285. Triumphal Arch of Titus 439

286. ” ” Septimius Severus 440

287. Section of the Primitive Roman Basilica 442

288. Plan of the Primitive Roman Basilica 442

289. Plan of the Basilica of Maxentius 443

290. Section of the House of Pansa in Pompeii 444

291. Plan of the House of Pansa in Pompeii 444

292. The Flavian Palace 445

293. Court of the Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro 446

294. Fragment of the Cista Prænestina 447

295. Janus Bifrons upon an Ancient Roman Coin 448

296. Statue of Isis. (Museum of Naples.) 450

297. Relief of Mithras. (In the Louvre.) 451

298. Vertumnus (Silvanus). (In Berlin.) 452

299. Relief of Bonus Eventus. (British Museum.) 453

300. Statue of Augustus. (In the Vatican.) 454

301. Equestrian Statue of Nonius Balbus, Jun. 455

302. Relief from the Arch of Titus in Rome. 458

303. Relief of Trajan, from the Arch of Constantine in Rome. 450

304. Relief upon the Pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius 460

305. Victory, from the Arch of Constantine 463

306. Wall-painting from the Aurea Domus of Nero 466

307. Ceres. Pompeian Wall-painting 467

308. Wall-painting from Herculaneum 468

309. Landscape-painting from Pompeii 469

310. Wall-painting of Decorative Architecture, Pompeii 470

EGYPT.

It is a curious chance that the most ancient monuments of human civilization should stand upon a land which is one of the youngest geological formations of our earth. The scene of that artistic activity made known to us by the oldest architectural remains of Africa and of the world was not Upper Egypt, where steep primeval cliffs narrow the valley of the Nile, but the alluvion of the river’s delta. It would be difficult to decide whether the impulse of monumental creativeness were here first felt, or whether the mere fact of the preservation of these Egyptian works, secured by the indestructibility of their construction as well as by the unchangeableness of Egyptian art, be sufficient to explain this priority to other nations of antiquity--notably to Mesopotamia. Although no ruins have been found in Chaldæa of earlier date than the twenty-third century B.C., it is not at all impossible that remains of greater antiquity may yet come to light in a country which is by no means thoroughly explored. Nor should we deem the oldest structures now preserved to be necessarily those first erected. The perishable materials of the buildings which stood in the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris, generally sun-dried bricks with asphalt cement, were not calculated to insure long duration, or to prevent their overthrow and obliteration by the continual changes in the course of these rivers, through the silting and swamping of their valleys. Yet, though tradition would incline us to _assume_ that Chaldæan civilization and art were the more ancient, the oldest monuments _known_ exist upon the banks of the Nile.

The changeless blue of the Egyptian sky, the strictly regular return of all the natural phenomena connected with the Nile, that wonderful stream of the land’s life, are entirely in accord with the fixedness of Egyptian civilization in all its branches. Though the high state of advance which we first find in Egyptian art, three thousand years before the Christian era, must necessarily have been preceded by less perfected degrees, it is wholly impossible to perceive such stages of development in any of the monuments known. After Egypt had attained a certain height of civilization, its history, during the thousands of years known to us, shows none of those phases of advance or decline, of development in short, to be observed in Europe during every century, if not during every decade.

The Egyptian completed buildings and statues begun by his remote ancestors without the slightest striving for individual peculiarity. He commenced new works in the same spirit, leaving them for similar execution by his great-grandchildren. Numberless generations thus dragged on without bequeathing a trace of any peculiar character and ability. It is only by the cartouches of the kings in the hieroglyphic inscriptions that it is possible to separate the dynasties, and to group into periods of a thousand years or more, works of art which seem from their style to belong to one and the same age. What gigantic revolutions have affected the civilization of Europe during the fourteen centuries elapsed since the overthrow of the Roman Empire, and how slight are the appreciable changes during the nearly equal number of years of the ancient dynasties of Memphis--the period of the pyramids, or again of the Theban kingdom--from the seventeenth dynasty to the rule of the Ptolemies!

The true age of the monuments of Lower Egypt has not long been known. When Napoleon I. fired the spirits of his troops before the Battle of the Pyramids by the well-known words “Forty centuries look down upon you from the heights of these pyramids,” he must have been aware that, according to the conceptions of the archæological science of the time, he was exaggerating. In fact, however, he was far behind the truth. The pyramids of Abousere, possibly also those of Dashour, are of the third dynasty (3338 to 3124 B.C., according to Lepsius), those of Gizeh of the fourth dynasty of Manetho (3124 to 2840 B.C.). These are structures which have stood for five thousand years. The pyramids of Cochome, referred to as the first dynasty of Manetho, are still older, dating from a time nearly coincident, according to Biblical authority, with the creation of the world itself (3761 B.C.).

It is true we are still so far from chronological certainty that dates often differ astonishingly. Osburn, for instance, places the fourth and fifth dynasties as late as the period between 2228 and 2108 B.C., and notably the two kings of the fourth dynasty, Shofo and Nu-Shofo, about 2170 B.C. The first twelve dynasties of Memphis, dated by Lepsius about 3892 to 2167, and by Osburn as late as 1959 B.C., are now known principally by their monumental tombs. Among these, the sepulchres of the kings are prominent in like manner as the ruler in an absolute and theocratic monarchy is elevated above his subjects.

The enslaved people labored upon the monuments of their masters, often during the entire lifetime of these latter. It may be seen from contemporary wall-paintings that the discipline maintained during the work of construction was not lacking in strictness, but it was certainly not that excessive oppression generally imagined. A body of over one hundred thousand workmen sorely oppressed might, even in Egypt, have been difficult to manage by a hated despot. It was principally during the annual inundations of the Nile that the kings employed and fed the poorer classes, at that time, perhaps, unable otherwise to subsist. During other seasons the rulers could not have taken the tillers of the soil from fields and flocks without great injury to their own interests. It is no mark of a selfish despotism, which builds without reference to the welfare of land and subjects, that the kings removed their enormous sepulchral piles from the vicinity of their residences--from the valuable alluvion of the Nile to the barren edge of the desert. They thus, as Plato recommends, occupied no place with dwellings of the dead where it would be possible for the living to find nourishment. The fertile ground of the valley was not encumbered by the colossal pyramids, which were so numerous in ancient Egypt that Lepsius found the remains of sixty-seven in the forty-eight kilometers alone between Cairo and the Fayoum, on the western bank of the river. Supposing only five score such pyramids, with an average area of one hundred ares each, two elevenths of that of the great pyramid of Gizeh, to have stood in the narrow valley of the Nile, what an enormous loss in the grain production of that most fertile but limited land would so great a reduction of arable surface have caused during the past five thousand years!

The fundamental motive of the pyramid is the funeral mound. A small upheaval above the natural level of the ground results of itself from the earth displaced by the bulk of the buried body. Our present practice of interment clearly illustrates this. Increased dimensions elevate the mound to an independent monument. Many nations, some of a high degree of civilization, have contented themselves with such imposing hills of earth over the grave,--tumuli, which, from the manner of their construction, assumed a conical form. Others placed the mound upon a low cylinder, thus better marking its distinction from accidental natural elevations. The Egyptians and the Mesopotamians rejected the cone entirely, and formed, with plane surfaces upon a square plan, the highly monumental pyramid. Peculiar to the former people are the inclined sides which give to the pyramid its absolute geometrical form, as opposed to the terraced structures of Chaldæa. The sand of the desert ebbed and flowed fifty centuries ago as constantly as in our time, when the sphinx, after being uncovered to its base, has been quickly hidden again to the neck. Rulers, unwilling that their gigantic tombs should be thus submerged, were obliged to secure to them great height, with inclined and unbroken sides, upon which the sand could not lodge.

The typical pyramid of Gizeh, near Cairo--the monument of Cheops (Shofo, Suphis), the first or second king of the fourth dynasty--rises above the broad necropolis of Memphis, by far the largest and one of the most marvellous works of mankind. (_Fig._ 1.) With a ground-line mean of 232.56 m., the great pyramid attained an altitude of 148.21 m., of which the entire apex is now overthrown, leaving a height of about 138 m.[A] The original intention of the builders was doubtless an absolutely square plan. The greatest difference in the length of the ground-lines of the base is 0.45 m. The angle of the upward inclination of the sides has been found, by measurements at various points, to average 51° 51´ 43´´. The entire pyramid is solidly built of massive blocks, pierced by a few narrow passages which lead to small chambers. (_Fig._ 2.) Like most of these monuments, the entrance is situated somewhat above the ground; it opens to a passage which descends with a gentle inclination. The shaft is covered with stones leaning against each other, so as to present the great resistance of a gable to the superimposed mass. In passing out of the masonry it is continued into the natural rock under the same angle, 26° 27´. Near the point of separation it meets with another passage, which ascends with an inclination of 26° 6´ to the centre of the structure, sending off a nearly horizontal branch at half-way. All three shafts lead to grave-chambers, the highest being the most important. As the ascent continues above the horizontal branch, its importance is emphasized by the passage being increased from 1.2 or 1.5 m. high to a corridor 8.5 m. in height, roofed by gradually projecting blocks, and having upon its floor a slide to facilitate the transport of the sarcophagus. Thereupon follows a horizontal vestibule, closed most securely by four blocks of granite which fell like portcullises. Only three of these had been let down; the fourth remained in its original position, the lower grooves never having been cut to allow its descent. The upper chamber, of polished granite, but otherwise not ornamented, is 10.48 m. long, 5.24 m. broad, and 5.84 m. high.[B] It is ceiled horizontally with nine colossal lintels of granite, a detail which seemed at first surprising, as other voids of far less width were more firmly covered, either by projecting and gradually approaching stones, as in the ascending corridor; or with blocks leaned together so as to form a gable, as in the other passages, and in the middle chamber, called that of the Queen. Yet it was for the security of this upper chamber that the greatest care proved to have been taken. The weight of the half-height of the pyramid remaining above it was by no means allowed to rest upon its horizontal lintels. There are above them five low relieving spaces separated by four stone ceilings similar to the first; mighty blocks are inclined over all these to a gable triangle. In case of rupture the horizontal beams would of themselves have formed new triangles and prevented direct downward pressure. Cheops certainly did not need to fear the ceiling of his chamber falling in upon him. Ventilation was provided for the room by two narrow air-channels, which, inclining upwards, took the shortest course to the outside.

The perfectly geometrical form of the pyramids of Gizeh has from early times led to speculations upon their having been erected in conformity with mathematical or astronomical calculations; and endless attempts have been made to discover the fixed proportions which they are supposed to embody, and to determine their symbolical or metrical significance. Too much is often assumed upon the strength of accidental coincidences, generally only approximate; but if such proportions indeed existed, whatever may have been their intention, they are evidently beyond the true province of art.

The second great pyramid, built by the successor of Cheops, Chephren (Sophris), seems not to have been so regular in its interior arrangement. The third, that of Chephren’s successor, Mykerinos (Menkera), is of the most beautiful execution. The unevenness of the ground was so considerable that a substructure of masonry was here necessary. The entire kernel is of rectangular courses of stone, and, with the exception of the exterior casing, is built in the form of steps. This manner of construction was employed in most of the pyramids, but is here particularly noticeable. The casing of granite, highly polished, is still partly intact; the joints of its stones are scarcely perceptible, and are not wider than the thickness of a sheet of paper.

The mechanical excellence of all these pyramids is indeed wonderful; they remain as a marvellous proof of the constructive ability of man in ages far anterior to known periods of the world’s history. Nor are they mere piles of masonry which could have been erected by an enslaved people without the guidance of skilled and thoughtful designers. The arrangement of the passages, of the chambers and their portcullises, of the quarried stone and polished revetment, was admirably adapted to the required ends.

In the third pyramid two corridors have been found, one above the other. The upper, opening within from the first chamber, at some height above the floor, does not reach the exterior surface, but ends suddenly against the unpierced outside casings. This peculiarity is explained by, and in turn gives weight to, the statement that this pyramid, as originally built by Mykerinos, was considerably smaller than it is at present, measuring, according to the end of the unfinished upper corridor, 54.86 m. on the side of the plan, and 42.20 m. in vertical height. Nitocris, the last queen of the sixth dynasty, prepared the pyramid to serve also as her own monument by adding courses of stone which increased these dimensions to 117.29 and 66.75 m. respectively. But as the original entrance, by the prolongation of its inclined line outward, would thereby have opened much too high above the ground, a new corridor beneath the first was rendered necessary. The second chamber, which probably once contained the sarcophagus of the queen, was found entirely plundered. The third and lowest, better protected, had been opened; but in it there still remained in position a magnificent coffer of basalt. The exterior of this sarcophagus was sculptured with lattice-work in imitation of a palace-like structure with portals. Fragments of the wooden coffin, with carved hieroglyphics, once within it, and of the mummy itself, were flung about the room. The sarcophagus, of the greatest value as illustrating the architectural forms of its time, sank in the Mediterranean with the ship which was carrying it away to England. The mummy and the lid of the coffin are in the British Museum. Hieroglyphics upon the latter designate the venerable remains as those of King Menkera, the same Mykerinos whom Herodotos, following traditions of the Egyptian priests, mentions as one of the best rulers of the land. The stone ceiling of the Mykerinos chamber was at first thought to be vaulted, it having the form of a low pointed arch. This peculiarity proved, however, to be due to a hollowing-out of the inclined gable blocks.

Princes and princesses of these early dynasties appear to have been buried in smaller pyramids, like those which stand in groups of three near the first and third great pyramids of Gizeh. Prominent subjects were allowed to take a place in the royal necropolis; but their pyramids were always truncated, in form resembling the Egyptian footstool--the pyramidal point remained the peculiar privilege of the kings. It appears to have been customary to commence all these structures with a few large terraces of masonry, which were not fully developed into the perfectly pyramidal structure until the last stones, the revetments, were put in place. These terraces generally had vertical sides. Occasionally this construction was varied by being formed with sloping sides, which repeated the obtuse ascending angle of the footstool, so that the separate steps, elsewhere with a vertical rise, were here somewhat inclined. It is not certain whether the absolute pyramidal form was always intended to be carried out upon the completion of these latter monuments. The examples of the inclined terraces which have been preserved rather seem to show that various attempts were made to develop architecturally upon the exterior the peculiarity of its inner construction. The arrangement and line of the kernel were more or less strictly adhered to, so that the last course of facing-stones showed the original angle of the interior masonry. The increasing of the terraces by successive courses--coats, as it were--seems to have been generally continued as long as the reign of a Pharaoh would permit. The layers, when inclined, were most numerous at the foot of the pyramid, decreasing in number as they ascend, that the mass might not take the proportions of a tower. This manner of building is displayed by the section of the first pyramid of Saccara (_Fig._ 3.), which, if the courses had been continued in equal number, would have reached a height of at least one hundred and fifty meters, instead of the 57.91 m. effected by its terrace-like contractions. The pyramid of Meydoun shows that this contraction did not necessarily take place in regular and equal steps. (_Fig. 4._) There the layers were added, without decreasing in number, to a considerable height, when the structure was quickly completed by broad and low terraces. Similar to this must have been those pyramids which ended in a platform and served as the mighty pedestals of colossal figures, described by Herodotos as existing in Lake Moeris. A remarkable variation from these forms is finally to be noticed in the stone pyramid of Dashour. (_Fig._ 5.) Rising at first with steep inclination, 54° 14´, it changes its slant at half-height to reach, with a smaller angle, 42° 59´, a more rapid conclusion. This artistically unfortunate form seems to have been owing to a change of plan during the execution of the work; it was doubtless originally designed to have been finished like the pyramid of Meydoun. It is hardly necessary to seek the origin of the double angle in the analogous obtuse termination of Egyptian obelisks. This pyramid of Dashour is further remarkable on account of its magnificent revetment of polished Mocattam limestone, which is almost entirely preserved.

There is as great a difference in the material as in the form of the pyramids. As early as the third dynasty King Asychis (Asuchra) built a pyramid of what Herodotos terms Nile mud; that is to say, of sun-dried bricks. It is not improbable that the great pyramid of Dashour may be identified with this. Besides this peculiarity of material, it is of unusual construction, not having been immediately built upon the natural ground, but standing on a thick layer of sand, which, enclosed by retaining-walls, forms an excellent foundation.

One of the group of pyramids at Abousere is built of rubble-stones, quarried from the high plateau of the desert itself, and roughly cemented with Nile mud. The builder of this irregular masonry held it the more necessary to insure the ceiling of his grave-chamber with the greatest care, and three gables of stones, 10.90 m. long and 3.66 m. thick, provide a resistance as sufficient against the imposed mass as does the sixfold roofing of the King’s Chamber at Gizeh. (_Fig._ 6.) The exterior layers were carefully constructed of blocks from the quarries of Tourah. Immense dikes, forerunners of our modern causeways, led from these quarries to the buildings at Abousere. Although intended only for the conveyance of materials, they were yet so firmly built that they exist at the present time. Egyptian wall-paintings show in the clearest manner the transportation of colossal monolithic statues along these ways upon sledges, either moved upon rollers or dragged over an oiled slide, as in _Fig._ 7. The pyramid of Illahoun, like the northern pyramid of Dashour and others, is built of brick; its masonry was additionally strengthened by walls of stone, the thickest being upon the diagonals of the plan. The pyramid of Meydoun is built of alternate horizontal courses of variously quarried stone. The following are the most important pyramids still standing, with their dimensions in meters: