Chapter XVII: Part 17

The earliest notice of monumental painting in Rome relates to the decoration of the temples of Ceres, Liber, and Libera by the Greek artists of Lower Italy, Gorgasos and Damophilos, in 493 B.C., of which mention has already been made. Although they made use of four colors, their method was that of the time before Polygnotos, and their work was little distinguished from the older painting upon vases, such as those of Ergotimos and Clitias in Florence, the surfaces within the outlines being treated in color, without gradation of light or shade. It may therefore be concluded that, in the two chief temples of the last period of the kings, colored ornament, whether upon the plaster itself, or upon a revetment of terra-cotta slabs, as in the tomb at Cære (_Fig._ 262), was as little wanting as in the temples and tombs of Etruria. It may be judged that in Rome this was specifically Etruscan, since Pliny refers to the ornamentation of the Temple of Ceres only because in this Grecian artists first appear to have taken part, while before “everything in the Roman temple had been Etruscan.” Much as we may be inclined to regard the primitive art of Etruria as dependent upon that of Greece, the difference must have been considerable; and the Grecian wall-paintings in the Temple of Ceres must have been held in great estimation, since, according to Pliny, they were protected when the temple was restored, being removed from the walls with great care, framed upon tablets, and replaced.

It can scarcely be doubted that these wall-paintings opened the way to Hellenic influence, although a guild of Etruscan artists for a long time worked by the side of the Greeks in Rome, for purposes of ordinary decoration. If, according to Pliny, “art came early to be honored in Rome,” and even patricians did not hesitate to devote themselves to it, it would seem that this must have been brought about through Grecian methods. Fabius Pictor, whose wall-paintings, according to Dionysios of Halicarnassos, were carefully drawn, of a fresh, agreeable color, and composed in a grand historical style, acquired his sobriquet and his great fame by his paintings in the Temple of Salus, executed in the year 304 B.C. His rank in regard to drawing may be exemplified by the wonderful _sgraffiti_ of the Cista of Novius Plautius in Rome, although the latter, having flourished half a century later, may take a somewhat higher rank. The paintings of the tragic poet Pacuvius, from 220 to 130 B.C., were still more advanced. Among these a picture, probably upon a panel, in the Temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium, was very celebrated; and it may be assumed that, in order to obtain renown, the artist adopted with success the technical refinements of the period of the Diadochi. The aged artist, before his death, must have witnessed the extensive robberies which brought to the metropolis, besides the sculptural works, the most distinguished pictures of Greece, it having happened in his prime that the Athenian painter and philosopher Metrodoros was called to Rome by Æmilius Paulus--as a philosopher to educate his children, and as an artist to illustrate his triumphs. Metrodoros, who, in his artistic and scholarly versatility, had written a book upon architecture, gave assistance even in the construction of triumphal arches. Still, Æmilius Paulus may well have wished to glorify his deeds by historical paintings, as had been customary with the conquerors for a century. In 293 B.C., M. Valerius Maximus Messala had placed a battle-scene in the Curia Hostilia, illustrating his victory over the Carthaginians and Hiero of Syracuse--an example which was followed by L. Scipio, in 190 B.C., with a representation of his success at Magnesia over Antiochus of Syria. These, however, must be regarded less as works of art than as realistic delineations of the events, analogous to the Roman historical reliefs in the time of the Empire; at least, great importance was given to details in the picture representing the Conquest of Carthage which L. Hostilius Mancinus, in 146 B.C., exhibited upon the Forum and explained to the people, and which especially showed the Roman preparations for a siege. Such works, the background of which was probably treated more or less as a landscape, like the topographical representations of earlier antiquity, must have been similar in conception and composition to the Assyrian reliefs that represent battles and sieges, and to the pictures of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of the Christian era.

In the notices of these panel-paintings there are no names of artists to assist in their classification; but it may be concluded that Metrodoros was encouraged in this work, and Serapion, in 100 B.C., really distinguished himself in such historical scenes. The artists of importance in the last century of the republic, like Sopolis, Dionysios, and their pupil Antiochus Gabinius, found themselves forced into portraiture; the specialty of Iaia, or Laia, of Kyzicos was the painting of women upon ivory, and Arellius portrayed his mistresses as goddesses. But in the beginning of the empire, tablet-painting seems to have been entirely abandoned, being supplanted by a new decorative tendency which again, in quite an unmonumental manner, led back to mural painting.

It is clear from the term “Pinacotheca,” applied to certain halls in the city palaces, that the eagerness for collecting among the Roman emperors and nobles extended as well to the paintings of Greece as to the statues. In sculpture copies were substituted when originals were wanting, but this seems to have been rarely the case with panel-paintings. As the statues were employed for decoration, originality in these was not so important; but with paintings preserved in cabinets, genuineness was more imperative. Painting upon panels, however, became less frequent when pictures came to be imitated upon the wall itself and brought into harmony with the remainder of the mural ornamentation, as, according to Helbig, was customary, particularly in Alexandria, even in the time of the Diadochi. This is shown, not only by the new discoveries among the buildings of Tiberius upon the Palatine, but also in the frescos of those subterranean baths of Titus which may be regarded as part of the ruins of the Golden House of Nero. (_Fig._ 306.) Ornaments, garlands, and architectural designs divide the walls into many spaces, within which groups or single figures (_Fig._ 307), often dancing or floating, are placed directly against a ground of intense color, sometimes black--the paintings of Campania showing unsurpassed lightness and charm in the lines. (_Fig._ 308.)

Sometimes they are ornamented with imitations of framed panel-pictures, mostly containing mythological groups, and scenes in small genre. To these was generally given a background of landscape, so that the figures represented were little more than picturesque accessories; and this custom seems to have led, perhaps even in the Hellenistic period, to true landscape-painting. (_Fig._ 309.) According to Pliny, Ludius, or Studius, introduced this style in the time of Augustus, of which, besides those of Campania, the frieze decorations of the newly discovered house of Tiberius upon the Palatine give the best representations, and form an illustrated commentary upon the descriptions of the works of Ludius. These are characterized as showing “villas and halls, artificial gardens, hedges, woods, hills, water-basins, tombs, rivers, shores, in as great a variety as could be desired;” besides “figures sitting at ease, mariners, and those who, riding upon donkeys or in wagons, look after their farms; fishermen, snarers of birds, hunters, and vine-dressers; also swampy passages before beautiful villas, and women borne by men who stagger under the burden, and other witty things of this nature; finally, views of seaports, everything charming and suitable;” that is to say, of a certain facility and shallowness. The aim was to give an open and cheerful effect, and this could be attained without correct and naturalistic method or unity of idea; on the contrary a fantastic unreality, and even impossibility, was its chief charm, like the painting upon Japanese lacquered wares.

The case was similar with architectural ornamentation, another branch of Roman decorative painting, generally known under the name of the Pompeian style. (_Fig._ 310.) Even in the time of Augustus, Vitruvius complains of a blind seeking after scenic effect, which, in disdain of all constructive laws, and in a manner quite impossible, piled heavy gables and upper stories upon reed-like columns of no supporting power. His blame, however, seems unjustifiable. That architectural painting which aims at illusion should be condemned as worthless; but this is not the case with that which, after the analogy of conventional landscape-painting, renounces all semblance of reality and assiduously avoids all illusion. Spaces may be apparently extended by an architectural painting which, not deceptively, but poetically, opens the narrow walls of small rooms, and carries the eye dreamily through a wide perspective. Hence the fresh and by no means realistic colors, which, tapestry-like, are not intended to deceive, but to ornament and please. They bear witness to the deep feeling for polychromy, inherited from Hellenic, or at least Hellenistic, predecessors, which was characteristic of the Romans even after their decline. What delight must there have been in a work so extended, and yet free from all slavish copying! Not only Amulius, who, by compulsion, painted the Golden House of Nero, and was celebrated by Pliny for his valuable and finely colored pictures, but countless other artists were everywhere busily employed in covering the walls with paintings and ornaments--a work now intrusted to common decorators. In the time of Nero the activity in ornamental painting, judged by the discoveries among the ruined cities of Campania, must have been greater than has ever been known at any other period.

In the consideration of Hellenic painting, mention has been made of the origin of floor-decorations in mosaic by Sosos at the royal court of Pergamon. By this is only meant mosaic painting with illusory effects, as practised by him; imitations of tapestry patterns and merely ornamental mosaic-work must have been older. His drinking-doves in the “unswept hall” appear to have continued a favorite subject, judging from three well-known imitations; one of which, found upon the Aventine, now in the Museum of the Lateran, bears the inscription of the artist Heraclitos. Though the names of other workers in mosaic are known, they as little deserve mention here as do the numerous vase-painters, their mosaic being almost wholly a technical process; its very laboriousness rendered a truly artistic activity almost impossible. Unfortunately, no name is attached to the most important work of this kind, over four meters long and two wide, apparently representing an Alexandrian battle-scene. This is also the best-preserved historical painting of antiquity, but it is related rather to the Grecian types than to the Roman battle-pieces above mentioned. The greater part of the well-known mosaics, being from Herculaneum and Pompeii, may be referred to the time of Nero; but those of Præneste with the Egyptianized conventional landscapes may date back to the time of Sulla, while the extensive example with figures of athletes from the Baths of Caracalla--now in the Lateran--belongs to the time of that emperor. Many others, however, especially those discovered in the distant provinces, are of later times. Vigorous as are some of the representations of landscapes and of animals among them, it is not to be denied that, as Semper says, mosaic oversteps its boundary in going beyond the patterns of woven tapestry, and trying to make us forget that it is outstretched like a level floor upon which we would walk without hindrance.

“It would be difficult, connectedly, to pursue the history of ancient painting later than the eruption of Vesuvius, which, in the year 79 A.D., by a wonderful fortune, preserved for the later world the artistic treasures of three cities of Campania--Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ--and, at the same time, cost the life of Pliny, whom we have to thank for the greatest completeness of written description.” Thus Brunn rightly concludes his “History of the Grecian Painters,” for the works of succeeding generations, even when names of artists are attached, do not deserve to be called art, being nothing more than hasty and crude decorations; such, for example, are the servants’ rooms in the Vigna Nussiner, upon the southern slope of the Palatine, which, in recent times, have acquired some celebrity by the careless scratches of the slaves found upon their walls. The most important illustrations that have been preserved of the shallowness and roughness of this lingering art are in the tombs; and with these in painting, with the basilica in architecture, and the sarcophagi in sculpture, the boundaries of the antique and of the Christian era flow into each other, and are scarcely distinguishable. When Christianity arose from the sepulchre, it allied itself in monumental art to that stage of debasement which painting had reached in the heathen and the Christian catacombs of the fourth century; indeed, art continued still to decline through ages, until the Northern races and the life of the common people breathed into it the spirit of a new life.

GLOSSARY.

It has been the translator’s endeavor to avoid technical terms wherever this was possible without detracting from exactness of expression. Of those which it has proved necessary to introduce into the present History, it is intended in this glossary to define neither words in common usage, like basilica, battlement, column, etc., nor those designations of infrequent occurrence which should be interpreted whenever employed, like the Greek and Latin names of the many divisions of the ancient theatre, bath, and gymnasion. A few of the former--as, for instance, the too often interchanged _channel_, _flute_, and _reed_--have, however, been given for the sake of discrimination. In these cases, and in the case of some other words which are often employed in senses too widely extended to allow of their being used without qualification in careful architectural descriptions, it has been attempted to make some advance towards precision of usage.

=Ab´acus= (Gr. ἄβαξ-ακος. Lat. _abax_ and _abacus_, a slab. Possibly in its architectural signification from βαστάζω, to lift up, to bear). The plinth which forms the upper part of the capital--supporting the entablature by bearing the lower surface of the epistyle beam. The abacus is the crowning member of the capital, as the capital is of the column. In the Doric style it is thick and of square plan, in the Corinthian order thin and curved upon the sides.

=Acrote´rion=, pl. acroteria (Gr. from ἄκρος, outermost). The ornaments, such as statues or anthemion shields, placed upon the angles of the gable--whether of the outer corners or of the apex. The term is also applied to the pedestals of these ornaments.

=Ag´onal=, adj. (from Gr. ἀγών, festive gathering, especially an assembly met to see games; also the place of contest itself). Pertaining to a festive destination. The word _agones_ is used for the arena itself by Grote. (For the hypothetical distinction between agonal temples and those consecrated alone to the worship of a deity, introduced by Boetticher, see p. 214.)

=Ag´ora= (Gr. an assemblage of the people; hence, the place where such meetings were commonly held). A public square or marketplace. Synonymous with the more familiar Latin _forum_.

=Amphiprosty´los=, adj. amphip´rostyle (from Gr. ἀμφί, on both sides; πρό, in front of; and στῦλος, column). A term applied to a temple having a columned portico at the rear (epinaos), as well as at the front (pronaos), but without lateral columns.

=An´nulet= (Lat. _annulus_, or, according to the best manuscripts, _anulus_, ring, terminated by Ital. diminutive). A small fillet encircling the base of the Doric echinos. The number of annulets is commonly three.

=An´ta=, pl. antæ (Lat.). Terminations similar to pilasters upon the ends of the lateral walls of the cella, in pronaos and epinaos. Though a corresponding member, the anta is in form but little allied to the column, because its individual function is so different.

=An´tefix= (from Lat. _ante_, before, and _fixus_, fixed). An upright ornament like a small shield, placed above the corona when the gutter is omitted, to hide the end of the jointing tile ridge.

=Anthe´mion= (Gr. patterned with flowers, from ἀνθέω, to blossom). The so-called palmetto or honeysuckle ornament, employed on acroteria and antefixes, and also as a continuous decoration on bands, gutters, etc., and the necking of some Ionic capitals.

=In an´tis= (Lat.). The simplest variety of temple plan, so called by Vitruvius because the pronaos or portico is formed by the projection of the side walls, terminated by antæ, between which stand columns.

=Apoph´yge= (Gr. escape; from ἀπό, from, and φεύγω, to flee. In its technical employment, of the same significance as the Fr. _congé_ and Ger. _Ablauf_). The hollow, or scotia, beneath the Doric echinos, the juncture between shaft and capital, occurring in archaic examples of the style, and relinquished with its advance.

=Ar´ris= (Lat. _arista_, beard of an ear of grain, bone of a fish. Old Fr. _areste_). The sharp edge formed by two surfaces meeting at an exterior angle. Particularly the ridge between the hollows of Doric channellings.

=As´tragal= (Gr. ἀστράγαλος, knuckle-bone, one of the vertebræ of the neck, the bone of the ankle-joint). A roundlet moulding carved into the form of beads; employed on the Ionic capital, and to separate the projecting faces of the epistyle and coffering beams.

=Atlas=, pl. Atlan´tes (Gr. the fabled upholder of the heavens). Figures of male human beings, generally of colossal size, carved either in the full or half round, and employed in the place of columns or pilasters to support an entablature.

=A´trium= (Lat.; from Gr. αἰθρία, open sky?). The chief space of the Roman dwelling-house; an inner court usually surrounded by columns.

=At´tica= (from Gr. ἀττικός, pertaining to Attica). The upright portion of a building above the main cornice.

=Bar´biton= (Gr.). An ancient Greek musical instrument of many strings, resembling a lyre.

=Caryat´id=, pl. caryat´ides (Gr. pl. priestesses of Artemis at Caryæ in Laconia, the connection of which with the architectural support has not as yet been satisfactorily explained). Figures of female human beings employed in the place of columns to support an entablature.

=Cel´la= (Lat.; from _celare_, to hide). All that portion of the temple structure within the walls. The term cella is comprehensive, including pronaos, naos, and, if such there be, opisthodomos and epinaos.

=Cham´fer= (Fr. _chamfrein_, Old Engl. _chanfer_). A slope or small splay formed by cutting off the edges of an angle.

=Chan´nel= (a modification of canal, from Lat. _canna_, reed). A curved furrow, immediately adjoining its repetition, and separated from it only by an arris, as in the Doric column.

=Chorag´ic= (Gr. χοραγικός or χορηγικός, from χορός, chorus, and ἄγω, to lead). Pertaining to, or in honor of, a choregos, _i. e._ one who superintended a musical or theatrical entertainment among the Greeks, and provided a chorus at his own expense.

=Chryselephan´tine= (Gr. χρυσελεφάντινος, from χρυσός, gold, and ἔλεφας, ivory). A kind of sculpture in gold and ivory overlaying a wooden kernel--the drapery and ornaments being of the former, the exposed flesh of the latter, material.

=Clere´-story= (Fr. _clair-étage_, _claire-voie_, from _clair_, light). That portion of a central aisle which is so raised above the surrounding parts of the building as to permit the illumination of the interior through windows in its side walls.

=Coilanaglyph´ic= (from Gr. κοίλος, hollow, and γλυφή, carving). That species of carving in relief in which no part of the figure represented projects beyond the surrounding plane, the relief being effected by deeply incising the outlines.

=Cor´nice= (Gr. κορωνίς, Lat. coronis, terminating curved line; flourish with the pen at the end of a book). The uppermost division of the entablature--the representative of the roof--consisting of projecting mouldings and blocks, usually divisible into bed-moulding, corona, and gutter. Hence, in general usage, any moulded projection which crowns and terminates the part upon which it is employed.

=Coro´na= (Lat. crown). The chief member of the cornice, directly beneath the gutter, by its great projection and rectilinear faces forming the drip.

=Crepido´ma= (Gr. from κρηπίς-ιδος, boot). The entire foundation of the temple, including the stereobate, the stylobate, and the remaining steps.

=Cy´ma= (Gr. wave). A moulding composed of two distinct curves. The Doric cyma is commonly called the beak-moulding, the Lesbian cyma the _cyma reversa_.

=Den´til= (Lat. _denticulus_, from _dens_, _dentis_, tooth). Small rectangular blocks in the bed-moulding of a cornice, originally representing the ends of the slats which formed the ceiling.

=Diad´ochi= (Gr. successors, from διαδέχομαι, to receive from another), a term applied to the successors of Alexander.

=Diminution.= In architectural usage, the continued contraction of the diameter of the shaft as it ascends.

=Dip´teros=, adj. dip´teral (from Gr. δίς, double, and πτερόν, wing). That variety of a temple plan which has two ranges of columns entirely surrounding the cella.

=Dro´mos= (Gr. course). A road; particularly applied to the entrance-passages to subterranean treasure-houses.

=Echi´nos=, pl. echi´ni (Gr. hedgehog, so called from the resemblance of the member to the shell of the sea-urchin). The curved and projecting moulding which supports the abacus in the Doric capital.

=Egg-and-dart moulding.= Term applied to the well-known carving of the roundel common in the Ionic style.

=Empais´tic= (Gr. ἐμπαιστική; from ἐν, in, and παίω, to stamp). Stamped and embossed work of metal; also sheets of metal applied or inlaid.

=Entab´lature= (Lat. _intabulamentum_; from _tabula_, board, table). In the Greek styles the whole of the structure above the columns, excepting the gable. The entablature consists of three members: the epistyle, or architrave, joining the columns and taking the place of the wall; the frieze, standing before, and in the Doric style imitating, the ceiling and its beams; and the terminal cornice, the representative of the ends of the roof rafters.

=En´tasis= (Gr.; from ἐντείνω, to bend a bow). The swelling of the column towards its middle, the object of which is to counteract an optical delusion causing the diminished shaft, when formed with absolutely straight lines, to appear hollowed in the centre.

=Epina´os= (formed by analogy with pronaos; from Gr. ἐπί, after, behind, and ναός, naos). The open vestibule behind the naos.

=Ep´istyle= (Gr. ἐπιστύλιον; from ἐπί, after, upon, and στῦλος, column). The lower member of the entablature, the representative of the wall, consisting, as the name imports, of beams laid horizontally upon the capitals of the columns. The epistyle is commonly spoken of by its Roman name, architrave.

=Fascine´= (Lat. _fascina_; from _fascis_, bundle). A bundle of long, thin sticks employed in military engineering for filling ditches, raising parapets, etc.

=Fil´let= (Fr. _filet_, thread; from Lat. _filum_). A ribbon; a narrow, flat band used in the separation of one moulding from another. Especially the ridge between the flutes of the Ionic shaft.

=Flute.= In architectural usage, a curved and usually semicircular furrow, separated from its repetition by a narrow fillet, as in the Ionic column. So called from its similarity to the musical instrument.

=Frieze= (Ital. _freggio_, adorned?). The second member of the entablature. When enriched by carvings of men or animals in relief, as is common in the Ionic style, and as occurs upon the cella wall of the Doric Parthenon, the frieze is in classic architecture called _zophoros_.

=Gar´goyle= (Fr. _gargouille_; from _gargouiller_, to dabble, to paddle). A carved waterspout projecting from the gutter.

=Gymna´sion= (Gr.; from γυμνός, naked). Originally an open space, but in later times extensive courts and buildings, devoted to mental as well as bodily instruction and exercises.

=He´lix=, pl. hel´ices (Gr. anything twisted or spiral; from ἑλίσσω, to turn around). A spiral, particularly the volutes of the Ionic capital and the corner leaves and tendrils of the Corinthian.

=Hexasty´los=, adj. hex´astyle (from Gr. ἕξ, six, and στῦλος, column). A building, particularly a temple, upon the front of which are six columns.

=Hip´podrome= (Gr. ἱππόδρομος; from ἵππος, horse, and δρόμος, way). A course prepared for the races of horses and chariots.

=Hypæ´thron=, adj. hypæ´thral (Lat. _hypæthrus_; from Gr. ὑπό, under, and αἰθήρ, clear sky). Term applied to a temple supposed by some writers on Greek architecture to have been lighted from above, by an orifice through roof and ceiling.

=Hyper´oön= (Gr.). The upper stories of a house; particularly the galleries above the side-aisles in the interior of the Greek temple.

=Hyp´ostyle= (Gr. ὑπόστυλον; from ὑπό, under, and στῦλος, column). A space, with or without lateral enclosure, the ceiling of which rests upon columns.

=Inci´sion.= In architectural usage, the deep groove which separates the necking of the column from the upper drum of the shaft beneath. At times repeated to emphasize this separation.

=Intercolumnia´tion= (from Lat. _inter_, between, and _columna_, column). The open space between two columns, measured at the base. The measures are often taken from centre to centre of the columns.

=Lacu´na=, pl. _lacunæ_ (Lat.; from Gr. λάκος, pit, originally anything hollow). A sunken panel in the under surface of any constructive feature, particularly of a horizontal ceiling.

=Log´gia= (Ital.; from Lat. _locus_, place). A covered space enclosed by walls, but with one or, in exceptional instances, two sides entirely open to the air.

=Lychni´tes= (Gr. λυχνίτης λίθος; from λύχνος, light). A variety of fine-grained marble from the island of Paros, probably so called because quarried by torchlight.

=Met´ope= (Gr.; from μετά, between, and ὀπή, opening). Originally the orifice between the beam-ends of the Doric ceiling; hence, in later times, the stones which were employed to close these openings. The nearly square slabs between the triglyphs.

=Monop´teros= (from Gr. μόνος, alone, single, and πτερόν, wing). A circular structure of outstanding columns, commonly without a cella enclosed by walls.

=Mu´tule= (Lat. _mutulus_). A projection upon the soffit of the Doric corona, which originally marked the position of the rafter-ends beneath the sheathing.

=Na´os= (Gr.). The innermost chamber of the Greek temple.

=Neck´ing.= In architectural usage, the space, if such be separated, between the top of the shaft and the projecting members of the capital. In the Doric style, for instance, the continuation of the channellings above the incision or incisions to the annulets of the echinos, including the hypophyge, when this occurs.

=Octosty´los=, adj. oc´tostyle (from Gr. ὀκτώ, eight, and στῦλος, column). A building, particularly a temple, upon the front of which are eight columns.

=Odei´on= (Gr.; from ᾠδή, song). A hall, similar to a modern theatre, devoted to the production of the lyric works of poets and musicians.

=Ogive´= (Fr.). The pointed arch.

=Opisthod´omos= (Gr. from ὄπισθε, behind, and δόμος, house). An enclosed chamber in a temple, entered from the epinaos, commonly employed to contain the treasure of the temple or of the state.

=Palais´tra= (Gr.; from παλαιστής, wrestler). A building or enclosure devoted to wrestling, boxing, and kindred gymnastic exercises; commonly, also, containing baths.

=Perip´teros=, adj. perip´teral (Gr.; from περί, around, and πτερόν, wing). A temple entirely surrounded by columns.

=Per´istyle=, noun and adj. (from Gr. περί, around, and στῦλος, column). A term applied to a secular building, or a court, which is entirely or for the greater part surrounded by a colonnade.

=Pisé= (Fr.; from _piser_, to build with stamped clay). A species of tenacious clayey earth, employed for walls and pavement by being rammed down.

=Plinth= (Lat. _plinthus_, from Gr. πλίνθος, tile). Any rectangular and projecting member of considerable size. A narrow and long plinth is a fillet.

=Po´ros= (Gr.). A light, coarse tufa-limestone almost exclusively employed during the earliest ages of Greek architecture.

=Prona´os= (Gr.; from πρό, before, and ναός). The open vestibule before the naos.

=Propylæ´on=, pl. propylæ´a (Gr.; from πρό, before, and πύλη, gate). The portal structure before the entrance to a Greek temenos.

=Prosty´los=, adj. pro´style (from Gr. πρό, before, and στῦλος, column). That variety of temple plan in which the projecting wall and pilasters of the temple in antis have been transformed to corner columns, thus altering the pronaos from a loggia to an open portico.

=Pseudodip´teros= (pseudo from Gr. ψευδής, false; dipteros, see above). A temple planned upon the dipteral arrangement, in which the inner rank of columns surrounding the cella is wanting.

=Pseudoperip´teros= (pseudo from Gr. ψευδής, false; peripteros, see above). A temple in which the columns surrounding the cella are engaged upon a continuous enclosure wall, as in the great temple of Acragas (Agrigentum).

=Ptero´ma= (Gr.; from πτερόν, wing). The passage surrounding the cella of a peripteral temple.

=Py´lon= (Gr.; from πύλη, gate). The towers of truncated pyramidal form on either side of the gateways of Egyptian temples.

=Quirk.= In architectural usage, a moulding formed by a sharp turn in a continuous line.

=Reed.= In architectural usage, a small convex moulding applied to a regular surface and frequently repeated. The term is commonly employed for the ornamentation of columns by reversed channels or flutes.

=Reg´ula= (Lat. any straight piece of wood, a ruler). The short band, corresponding to the triglyph, beneath the tænia moulding which crowns the epistyle; the listel. Originally determined by the slat of wood which strengthened the wall-plate at the point of its perforation by the trunnels.

=Revet´ment=, vb. to revete (Fr. _revêtement_, from _revêtir_, to clothe). A facing of metal, stone, or wood encasing a kernel--usually of some less firm or sightly material.

=Round´el=, dim. roundlet. A moulding of semicircular profile.

=Scamil´lus= (Lat. little bench, foot-stool). A slight projection, cut by means of a joggle, upon a constructive feature in such a manner as to prevent its adjacent edges from touching and possibly chipping those of the next block. A scamillus thus creates the incision between the upper drum of the shaft and the necking of the Doric capital, and is also occasionally inserted between the top of the abacus and the soffit of the epistyle.

=Sco´tia= (Gr. darkness). A hollow curved moulding, so called from the deep line of shadow which it casts.

=Soc´le= (Lat. _socculus_, dim. of _soccus_, low shoe, slipper). The low, plain foundation of a pedestal or building.

=Sof´fit= (Ital. _soffitta_; from Lat. _suffigere_, to fasten beneath). The under side of any part of a building, particularly of lintels, epistyles, and coronas.

=Sphyrel´aton= (Gr.; from σφῦρα, hammer, and ἐλαύνω], to drive). Metal-work beaten to the shape of a carved kernel by a hammer.

=Spi´na= (Lat.; from Gr. σπινός, lean, thin). The barrier dividing the race-course longitudinally into two tracks.

=Sta´dion= (Gr.; from στάδιος, standing firm). A race-course of fixed dimensions, whence a measure of length, 600 Greek feet.

=Ste´le= (Gr.). An upright stone employed as a monument.

=Ste´reobate= (Gr. στερεοβάτης; from στερεός, firm, solid, and βάσις, base). The substructure of rough masonry beneath a temple.

=Sto´a= (Gr.). An extended colonnade, usually adjoining a public place, and affording protection against the heat of the sun.

=Sty´lobate= (Gr. στυλοβάτης; from στῦλος, column, and βαστάζω, to light up, support). The uppermost step of the peripteros, which forms a continuous base beneath the columns.

=Tæ´nia= (Gr. ribbon). The continuous fillet which crowns the epistyle, representative of the wall-plate of the original timbered Doric construction.

=Ta´lus= (Lat. ankle). The slope or angle of inclination of the sides of a wall.

=Taraxip´pos= (Gr. adj. frightening the horses). An altar upon the turning-point of the Greek race-course.

=Tel´amon= (Gr. bearer). In architectural usage of the same significance as Atlas, which see above.

=Tem´enos= (Gr.; from τέμνω, to cut, to draw a line). A piece of land marked off from common usages and dedicated to a deity. The sacred enclosure around the temple.

=Tetrasty´los=, adj. tet´rastyle (from Gr. τέτρα, four, and στῦλος, column). A building, particularly a temple, upon the front of which are four columns.

=Thal´amos= (Gr.). Term applied by Homer to inner rooms or chambers, especially those of women. In the usage of Xenophon a store-room.

=Tho´los= (Gr.). A chamber of circular plan, generally subterranean, approaching in interior form that of a pointed vault.

=Tore= (Lat. _torus_, swelling, protuberance). A large roundel moulding.

=Trac´ery.= A patterning of thin bars, usually of stone, in a window or other opening.

=Tri´glyph= (Gr. τρίγλυφος; from τρί, three, and γλυφή, carving, because of the three slats originally chamfered). The most prominent member of the Doric frieze, originally significant of the ends of the ceiling beams. A rectangular tablet slightly projecting beyond the face of the metopes, with which it alternates, and emphasized by vertical grooves and chamfers.

=Trun´nel= (allied etymologically to tree-nail and trunnion). A wooden pin or peg. Carved in stone beneath the regulas and mutules of the Doric entablature, the trunnels mark the position of these primitive constructive features. In form they are commonly the frustum of a cone.

=Tym´panon= (Gr. drum). The triangular space enclosed by the inclined mouldings of the gable and the horizontal cornice of the entablature beneath.

=Vela´rium= (Lat.). The great curtain, or awning, extended above the auditories of the Roman theatre and amphitheatre to protect the spectators from the sun and rain.

=Volute´= (Lat. _voluta_; from _volvere_, to roll). A spiral scroll. The term is particularly employed for such features in the Ionic and Corinthian capitals.

=Xo´anon=, pl. xoana (Gr.; from ξέω, to work in wood by scraping). A rude and primitive image carved in wood; particularly antique statues of the deities.

=Zoph´oros= (Gr.; from ζῶον, being, figure, and φέρω, to bear). A continuous frieze, sculptured in relief with the forms of human beings and animals.

INDEX.

(The names of places are in common print, those of artists in italics.)

Abou-Roash, 12.

Abousere, 3, 11.

Abou-Sharein, 50-52, 54.

_Achermos_, 280.

Ackercuf, 50.

Acragas, 219, 220, 222, 253.

Ægina, 222, 224, 282, 293-296, 298, 303.

Æsernia, 414.

_Aetion_, 384.

_Agasias_, 361, 362.

_Agatharchos_, 370.

_Ageladas_, 299, 304.

_Agesandros_, 351.

_Aglaophon_, 368.

_Agoracritos_, 316, 317.

Agrae, 257.

Agrigentum. See Acragas.

Aizanis, 260.

Alabanda, 260.

Alatrium (Alatri), 414, 416.

Albanum (Albano), 390, 436, 437.

_Alcamenes_, 317-319.

Alcantara, 439.

Alexandria, 256, 261, 346, 438.

_Alexandros_, 338.

Algiers, 185.

Alopeke, 322.

Alsium, 399.

_Alxenor_, 290.

Alyzia, 343.

Ambrakia, 281, 346.

_Amphicrates_, 297.

Amphipolis, 375.

Amphissa, 279.

Amran-ibn-Ali, 57.

Amrith, 133, 135-137, 141, 149.

_Amulius_, 470.

Amyclæ, 179, 184, 276, 277.

_Amyclaios_, 299.

Ancona, 439.

Ancyra, 438.

_Androsthenes_, 318.

_Angelion_, 286.

Antaradus, 133.

_Antenor_, 297, 298.

_Antigonos_, 347.

Antioch, 261, 346.

_Antiochos_, 363.

_Antiochos Gabinius_, 466.

Antiphillos, 166, 168.

_Antiphilos_, 384, 386.

Antium, 414.

Aosta, 439.

_Apelles_, 379-382.

Aphrodisias, 240, 257, 366, 436.

Apiolæ, 414.

_Apollodoros_, sculptor, 360;
painter, 370.

_Apollonios_, 353, 362, 363.

Aradus, 133.

Arbola, 62.

Ardea, 414.

_Archias_, 262.

_Archimedes_, 262.

_Arellius_, 466.

Argos, 186, 276, 281, 282, 298, 299, 303.

Aricia, 291, 414.

_Aridikes_, 367.

_Aristeas_, 366.

_Aristiæos_, 377.

_Aristides_, 377.

_Aristocles_, 287, 298, 299.

_Aristogeiton_, 327.

_Aristolaos_, 376.

_Aristomedon_, 299.

_Aristomedos_, 299.

_Aristophon_, 370.

_Arkesilaos_, 366.

Arpinum, 414.

_Arrhachion_, 289.

_Asclepiodoros_, 380, 384.

Asoka, 132.

Aspendos, 433.

Assos, 216, 286, 288.

Assur, 62.

_Athanadoros_, 351.

_Athenis_, 280, 281, 291, 365.

Athens, 191, 221-227, 241-245, 248, 249, 253, 260,
276, 289, 293, 298, 303, 346, 377, 378.

Aufidena, 414.

Aurunca, 414.

Babil, 58.

Babylon, 50, 53, 58, 59, 81, 82.

Bagdad, 57.

Balaneia, 133.

Baphio, 184.

Bara, 439.

Bassæ, 227, 236, 241, 247, 249.

_Bathycles_, 277.

Beni-hassan, 14-18.

Besançon, 439.

Beyrout, 133.

Biban-el-Moluk, 22.

Bi-Sueton, 128.

Boghaz-kieni, 173.

_Boidas_, 344.

Bolymnos, 199.

Bors-Nimrud, 57-59.

Borsippa, 55-57.

Boulac, 41.

_Boutades_, 278.

Boupalos, 281, 291, 365.

Bovillæ, 431.

_Bryaxis_, 251, 333.

Byblus, 133, 148.

Byrsa, 162.

Cadacchio, 216.

Ca-dimirra, 53.

Cære, 391, 392, 406, 409.

Cairo, 4.

Calah, 61, 62.

_Calamis_, 293, 299, 301, 318.

_Calates_, 386.

_Callicles_, 386.

_Callimachos_, 246, 322, 386.

_Calliphon_, 370.

_Calliteles_, 295.

_Callon_, 286, 293, 299.

Calydon, 191.

_Canachos_, 286, 298.

Caparra, 439.

Capua, 339, 359.

Carnac, 24-28.

Carnek, 133.

Carpentras, 439.

Carthage, 139, 159, 162.

Casr, 57.

Castel d’Asso, 394.

Caunos, 383.

Cavaillon, 439.

Cervetri, 392, 394.

_Chares_, 344, 351.

_Charmides_, 304.

_Chersiphron_, 238.

_Chionis_, 299.

Chios, 279-281.

Chiusi, 390, 401, 403, 411.

Circello, 416.

Cirta, 253.

Claros, 240.

_Cleanthes_, 367.

_Clearchos_, 282.

_Cleomenes_, 363.

Cleonæ, 281, 367.

_Clitias_, 277, 464.

Clusium, 390, 408.

Cnidos, 239, 248, 260, 334.

Cochome, 3.

Colophon, 240.

_Colotes_, 317.

Constantina, 253, 436.

Constantinople, 438.

_Coponius_, 452.

Cora, 414.

Corfu, 216.

Corinth, 218, 278, 289, 298, 299.

Corkyra. See Corfu.

Corneto, 392, 398.

Corsabad, 60, 66, 73, 76, 78, 79, 280.

Cos, 334.

_Cossutius_, 249.

Coyundjic, 60, 61, 66, 68, 70, 74-76, 78.

_Craton_, 367.

_Cresilas_, 321.

Crete, 160, 170, 266.

_Critios_, 297.

Ctesiphon, 58, 131.

Cures, 414.

Cussi, 438, 439.

Cyprus, 96, 139, 150, 159, 162, 267, 321.

_Dactylæ_, 266.

_Daidalos_, 267, 268.

_Damophilos_, 449, 464.

_Damophon_, 327.

_Daphnis_, 238.

Darabgerd, 118.

Dashour, 3, 10, 11.

_Deinocrates_, 261, 344.

Delos, 191, 193, 229, 260, 280.

_Demetrios_, 322.

_Dionysios_, 299, 363, 370, 466.

_Diopos_, 401.

_Dipoinos_, 281, 282, 298.

Dium, 342.

_Diyllos_, 299.

Dodona, 192.

_Dontas_, 282.

_Donycleidas_, 282.

Dur-Sargina, 60.

Ecetræ, 414.

_Ecphantos_, 367.

Elateia, 363.

El-Cab, 30.

El-Casr, 439.

Eleusis, 228.

Eleutheræ, 299.

Elis, 222, 254, 299.

_Endoios_, 297, 365.

Enhydra, 133.

Ephesos, 237, 256, 279, 361, 371, 375.

Epidauros, 186, 260.

Erbil, 62.

Erech, 50.

_Ergotimos_, 277, 464.

Eubœa, 193.

_Eucheir_, 401.

_Eugrammos_, 401.

_Eumaros_, 367.

_Eupalamos_, 267.

_Euphranor_, 340, 377, 378.

_Eupompos_, 375.

_Euthycrates_, 344.

_Eutychides_, 344.

Eyuk, 173.

_Fabius Pictor_, 464.

Falerii, 388, 389.

Fanum, 442.

Fayoum, 4, 34, 35.

Ferentinum, 414.

Firuz-Abad, 118, 131.

Florence, 227.

Gabr-Hiram, 133.

Gineh, 141.

Girsheh, 30.

_Gitiades_, 299.

Gizeh, 3, 4-6, 13, 17, 42.

Glanum, 253.

_Glaucos_, 279, 299.

_Glycon_, 343, 362.

_Gorgasos_, 449, 464.

Goshen, 143.

Gozo, 163.

Halicarnassos, 250-252.

Haram-el-Sherif, 147.

_Hegias_, 297, 304.

_Hegylos_, 282.

Heraclea, 371.

_Heraclitos_, 471.

Herculaneum, 436, 471.

_Hermogenes_, 240.

Hierapolis, 256.

Hillah, 57.

Hit, 49.

Hovara, 12.

_Huram_, 148.

_Hypatodoros_, 327.

_Iaia_, 466.

_Icmalios_, 269.

_Ictinos_, 225.

Illahoun, 12.

_Illecles_, 238.

_Isogonos_, 347.

Istakr, 100.

Ithaca, 177, 178, 184.

Jebeil, 133, 136, 138.

Jerusalem, 139, 147-157.

Jumjuma, 57.

Kalwadha, 50.

Kenchreæ, 186.

_Kephisodotos_: the elder, 329; the younger, 338.

Kileh-Shergat, 75.

_Kimon_, 367.

Kisr-Sargon, 57, 60, 62-66, 73, 79, 152.

Kiutahija, 171.

_Kypselos_, 276.

Kyrene, 185.

Kythnos, 374.

Kyzicos, 261.

Lacedæmonia, 282.

Laconia, 187.

_Laia_, 466.

Laodikeia, 260.

Latium, 416.

Lavinium, 414.

Lemnos, 305, 317.

_Leochares_, 251, 331, 333.

Lessa, 187.

_Libon_, 222.

Lindos, 344.

Lisht, 12.

_Ludius_, 467.

Luxor, 24, 25.

_Lykios_, 320.

_Lysippos_, 341, 345, 450, 453.

_Lysistratos_, 342.

Magnesia, 240, 272, 277.

Malta, 163.

Mantinea, 243, 260.

Marathus, 133, 135.

Marseilles. See Massalia.

Mashnaka, 135, 141, 142, 150.

Massalia, 449.

Medinet-Abou, 25, 34.

Medinet-el-Fayoum, 24.

Medullia, 414.

Megalopolis, 260.

Megara, 287.

_Melanthios_, 376, 380.

_Melas_, 280.

Melos, 260.

Memphis, 3, 5, 12, 42.

Mende, 317.

_Menelaos_, 364.

Menidi, 179, 183.

Merida, 439.

Meroe, 12.

Messene, 327, 357.

_Metagenes_, 238.

Metapontion, 216, 217.

_Metrodoros_, 465, 466.

Meydoun, 10, 12.

_Mickiades_, 280.

_Micon_, 368, 369.

Miletos, 238, 247, 285, 288, 298.

_Mnesicles_, 226.

Mœris, 10.

Moriah, 147.

Mosul, 59, 60.

Mt. Barkal, 12.

Mt. Ocha, 193, 194.

Mudjelibeh, 57, 58, 83.

Mugheir, 50, 52, 54, 80.

Murgab, 100, 119.

Mykenæ, 179-185, 188, 189, 192, 198, 273-276, 280.

Mylassa, 250.

Myra, 165, 167, 260.

_Myron_, 299, 301, 303, 320.

Mys, 305.

Naksh-i-Rustam, 120, 121.

Naxos, 288, 290.

Nebbi-Jonas, 61.

Nemea, 211.

_Nesiotes_, 297.

_Nicomachos_, 377.

Nicomedia, 346.

_Nicophanes_, 376.

_Nicopolis_, 375.

Niffer, 50.

_Nikias_, 378.

Nimrud, 57-60, 66, 67, 69, 71, 75, 77, 78, 85, 87.

Nineveh, 53, 59, 61, 62, 80, 84, 95, 140.

Nipur, 50, 53.

Norba, 414, 415.

Norchia, 394-397.

Norma, 414.

_Novius Plautius_, 450.

Nubia, 12, 40.

Nus, 14.

Olevano, 414, 416.

Olympia, 209, 222, 223, 258, 276, 278, 282, 307,
308, 317, 319, 335, 336, 386.

_Onatas_, 293, 295, 297.

Orange, 433, 439.

Orchomenos, 179, 184, 287, 288.

Ortygia, 218, 221.

Otricoli, 309.

_Ovius_, 451.

_Pacuvius_, 465.

Pæstum, 206, 223, 229, 255.

_Paionios_, architect, 238.

_Paionios_, sculptor, 317, 319.

_Palamaon_, 268.

Palestrina, 450.

Palma, 291.

Paltus, 133.

_Pamphilos_, 375, 382.

_Panainos_, 368, 369.

Paphos, 160.

_Papias_, 366.

Paros, 317.

_Parrhasios_, 305, 371, 373, 374.

Pasargadæ, 100, 103, 118, 120, 123.

_Pasiteles_, 364.

Patara, 260.

_Pausias_, 376.

_Pauson_, 370.

_Peiræicos_, 386.

Pergamon, 261, 346-350, 353, 356, 358, 362.

Persepolis, 100-102, 107, 117, 120, 122, 123.

Perugia, 286, 400, 404.

Pessinus, 240.

Petra, 437, 438.

Pharsalos, 179.

_Pheidias_, 225, 299, 304-322.

Phellos, 167.

Pheneos, 185.

Phigalia, 190, 227, 287, 321.

Philæ, 30, 47, 105, 135.

_Phileas_, 279.

_Philocles_, 367.

Phokis, 363.

_Phycomachos_, 347.

Piraios, 255.

Plataia, 305, 368.

Pola, 436.

Politorium, 414.

_Polycleitos_, 299, 323, 328.

_Polycles_, 363.

_Polydoros_, 351.

_Polygnotos_, 254, 368-370, 383.

Pompeii, 436, 442, 444, 468, 471.

Præneste, 414, 450, 471.

_Praxias_, 318.

_Praxiteles_, 300, 330, 332-336, 338, 340.

Priene, 238.

_Protogenes_, 383, 384.

_Pythagoras_, 299, 301.

_Pythios_, 238, 251.

Redesie, 30.

Reggio, 436.

Reson, 62.

Rhamnous, 228, 330.

Rhegion, 282, 299, 301, 303.

Rheims, 438.

Rhodes, 267, 344, 351, 353, 356, 358, 362, 363.

_Rhoicos_, 279.

Rimini, 439.

Ruad, 133, 148.

Saccara, 9.

Saida, 133, 138, 141, 149.

Saint-Remi, 253, 437, 439.

Samos, 141, 190, 238, 260, 280.

Sarbistan, 131, 171.

Sardinia, 163.

Sardis, 174.

Satricum, 414.

_Satyros_, 251.

Sauiet-el-Meytin, 16.

_Saurias_, 367.

Scaptia, 414.

_Scopas_, 251, 330-333.

Scythopolis, 148.

Segesta, 211, 222, 259, 260.

Segni, 414, 416.

Seid-el-Ar, 172.

Selamiyeh, 62.

Seleucia, 58, 131, 346.

Selinous, 216, 218, 222, 283, 288, 290, 327.

_Serapion_, 466.

Serpul-Zohab, 121.

Side, 260.

Sidon, 133, 138.

Signia, 414, 415.

Sikyon, 243, 276, 281, 282, 298, 299, 303, 322, 340, 375-378.

_Silanion_, 340, 341.

Siloam, 152.

Silsilis, 30.

Sipylos, 173, 272.

Sivrihissar, 171.

_Skyllis_, 281, 282, 298.

_Smilis_, 282.

Smyrna, 173.

_Socrates_, 299.

Soleb, 27.

Sopolis, 466.

Sora, 414.

_Sosibios_, 365.

_Sosos_, 386, 470.

Spalatro, 447.

Sparta, 183, 255, 260, 282, 287, 299.

Stabiæ, 471.

_Stephanos_, 364.

Stoura, 193.

_Stratonicos_, 347.

_Studius_, 467.

_Styppax_, 321.

Sunion, 228.

Sur, 133, 138.

Sura, 50.

Susa, Italy, 439.

Susa, Persia, 100.

Sutri, 436.

Syracuse, 217, 260, 262.

Tak-i-Gero, 132.

Tarention, 242, 243, 249.

_Tauriscos_, 353.

Tauromenium, 260.

_Tectaios_, 286.

_Telchinœ_, 266.

_Telecles_, 260, 279.

Telenæ, 414.

_Telephanes_, 367.

Telmissos, 260.

Tel-Sifr, 50.

Tenea, 267, 287, 288.

Teos, 240.

Thabarieh, 146.

Thasos, 289, 368.

Thebes, Egypt, 22, 47.

Thebes, Greece, 191, 298, 299, 375, 377.

_Theocles_, 282.

_Theodoros_, 238, 260, 279, 280.

_Theon_, 386.

Thera, 287, 288.

Thespeia, 368.

Thessalonica, 255.

Theveste, 439.

Thoricos, 254.

Tibur, 414.

_Timanthes_, 374, 375.

_Timarchides_, 363.

_Timarchos_, 338.

_Timocles_, 363.

_Timomachos_, 385.

_Timotheos_, 251, 333.

Tiryns, 187, 188, 192.

Todi, 408.

Tortosa, 133.

Tourah, 11.

Tralles, 353.

Treves, 436.

Troezen, 199.

Troy, 185, 191, 267, 268.

Tusculum, 414, 433, 436.

Tyndaris, 260.

Tyre, 133, 138, 140.

Um-el-Auamid, 133, 138, 145.

Ur, 48, 50, 53, 80.

Veii, 388, 391, 401, 448.

Velabro, 416.

Venice, 450.

Verulæ, 414.

Viterbo, 394.

_Volca_ (_Vulcanius_), 401, 448.

Volsinii, 405.

Volterra, 408.

Vulci, 390, 401, 406, 407.

Warka, 50, 52, 54, 80.

Xanthos, 167, 170, 252, 288, 339.

_Xenaios_, 261.

_Zeuxis_, 371-374.

THE END.

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Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:

referred to the first dynasty of Manetho=> referred to as the first dynasty of Manetho {pg 3}

The greatest diference=> The greatest difference {pg 5}

Mesopotomia=> Mesopotamia {pg 78}

sepaated by sharp arrises=> separated by sharp arrises {pg 104}

who had caused Deionocrates=> who had caused Deinocrates {pg 261}

impression of a pantomine=> impression of a pantomime {pg 295}

Temple of Apollo at Phigalea=> Temple of Apollo at Phigalia {pg 321}

Benihassan, 14-18.=> Beni-hassan, 14-18. {pg 479}

_Skyllis_, 251, 330-333.=> _Skyllis_, 281, 282, 298. {pg 481}

FOOTNOTES:

[A] The measurements in the text are the mean of the results attained by the French academicians in 1799, and by Colonel Howard Vyse in 1837. The recent measurements of Mr. Thomas Inglis make the north side 231.64 m., the south 231.49 m., the east and west sides alike 231.19 m., or an average of 231.38 m.

[B] According to Piazzi Smyth.

[C] The fellow of this monolith, known as Cleopatra’s Needle, until recently stood at Alexandria, whither it had been moved from Heliopolis; but having been presented by the late Khedive to the city of New York, it has been shipped across the Atlantic, and erected in the Central Park of that city.

[D] _Discoveries_, p. 444.

[E] _Nineveh and Babylon_, p. 508.

[F] “Geschichte der Baukunst im Alterthum.” Franz Reber. Leipzig, 1864-1866.