Chapter XXIII: Part 23

898 On the influence of the Lake school of poetry, see D. M. Moir’s
_Sketches of the Poetical Literature of the past half century_,
1851, ch. i. and ii. The Lake school being a reaction against the
materialist school, which almost degraded spirit to matter, traced a
soul in nature, and was in danger of elevating matter to spirit.
Other branches of art besides poetry exhibit a similar change of
tone. This is remarkably manifest in the modern landscape art of
England, and is developed incidentally in Mr. Ruskin’s work, _The
Modern Painters_. We have already had occasion, in Lecture VI, to
advert to the similarity in result of the Lake school of English
poetry to the Romantic school of Germany. Both were spiritual
schools; but the former strove to learn from the freshness of
nature, the latter from the freshness of an earlier stage of
civilization.

899 A very able analysis of the mental character of Wordsworth, to whom
the words in the text allude, was given in the _National Review_,
No. 7, Jan. 1857.

900 Two very valuable essays occur, on Bentham and Coleridge
respectively, in Mr. J. S. Mill’s _Essays and Dissertations_, vol.
i. (reprinted from the _Westminster Review_, Aug. 1838 and March
1840). See especially the comparison of these two philosophers at p.
395 seq.

901 This is shown in a very striking manner in the _National Review_,
Oct. 1856, in which a comparison is instituted of the effects on the
English mind of the three teachers, J. H. Newman, Coleridge, and
Carlyle.

902 This is the arrangement adopted in Mr. Pearson’s work on Infidelity,
named on p. 13, note.

903 Concerning Comte’s philosophy see the note on p. 295. The
_Westminster Review_ is the periodical which at present embodies its
spirit. The works of Mr. G. H. Lewes, his _History of Philosophy_,
and his exposition of Comte (Bohn 1853), may be noticed as books in
which the philosophical, and, to some extent, the theological spirit
of positivism prevails. The mind of Mr. J. S. Mill has been largely
influenced by this philosophy, to which his tastes for natural
science disposed him; though the influence on him of the philosophy
of his father, James Mill, and of Bentham, as well as his own
originality of mind, prevents him from being a mere disciple of
Comte. These writers however have almost abstained from touching
directly on the subject of religion. The character of Positivism, as
an intellectual tendency, has been sketched by Mr. Morell, in the
_Lectures on the Philosophical tendencies of the Age_, 1848.

904 The view of religion as a worship of the ideal of humanity, in the
form of practical ethics and social study, which is taken by the
better class of Positivists, is stated at length in the _Westminster
Review_ for April 1858, together with an explanation of the
extravagant views of Comte, in the _Catéchisme Positiviste_, which
has been translated by one who was formerly highly respected as an
indefatigable teacher, in one of the public schools, and afterwards
in one of the universities.

905 Secularism is the name adopted a few years ago by Mr. G. J.
Holyoake. See _Christianity and Secularism; Report of the Public
Discussion between the Rev. B. Grant and Mr. Holyoake_; also,
_Modern Atheism, or the Pretensions of Secularism examined; a course
of Four Lectures, delivered in the Athenæum, Bradford_, by the Rev.
J. Gregory, &c. 1852; _Secular Tracts_, by the Rev. J. H. Hinton;
_The Outcast and the Poor of London_, Whitehall Sermons, by the Rev.
F. Meyrick, p. 91 seq. In its social aspect it is the form of
naturalism which has been borrowed from Owen and Combe; in its
religious, from Comte. The political tone of this system is
expressed in a poem, _The Purgatory of Suicides; a Prison Rhyme, by
Thomas Cooper the Chartist_, 1858; and the religious in _the
Confessions of Joseph Barker, a Convert from Christianity_, 1858.
Also in the tracts of Mr. Holyoake, e.g. _The Logic of Death_,
written in 1849, during the cholera. These last two writers are the
chief teachers of the system. Some small magazines are devoted to
its propagation. A criticism on these tendencies among the working
classes will be found, from the Unitarian point of view, in the
_National Review_, No. 15, Jan. 1859, where this class of political
and religious obstacles, encountered in dealing with the working
classes, is contrasted with the mere animalism described in Miss
Marsh’s _English Hearts and Hands_; and from a more sceptical point
of view, in the _Westminster Review_ for Jan. 1862, where an extract
is given (p. 83) concerning Holyoake’s view of Deity. The following
terrible utterance, taken from his _Discussion with Townley_ (p.
68), will give an idea of his tone: “Science has shown us that we
are under the dominion of general laws, and that there is no special
Providence. Nature acts with fearful uniformity: stern as fate,
absolute as tyranny, merciless as death; too vast to praise, too
inexplicable to worship, too inexorable to propitiate; it has no ear
for prayer, no heart for sympathy, no arm to save.”

906 The chief points against which the objections have been taken are,
the scriptural account of the character of Christ, the doctrine of
atonement, and the necessity of faith to salvation. See the Report
of the discussion which is referred to at the commencement of the
last note.

907 Mr. Buckle’s work on the History of Civilization is an instance to
which these statements apply.

908 The difficulties alluded to are, those suggested by geology,
concerning the narrative of creation, the deluge, and the date of
the creation of man; or by physiology, concerning the longevity of
the patriarchs; or by ethnology, concerning the unity of mankind.

909 T. Carlyle. The character of his writings and philosophy is
explained and criticised in Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, ii.
249 seq.; and in an able manner in the _Westminster Review_, Oct.
1839; both which sources have been much used in the following brief
account. The latter article would be considered probably to need a
slight alteration, in consequence of the slight change of character
in Carlyle’s more recent works.

910 Cfr. his _Life of Sterling_, 1850, pp. 126, 7.

911 It may be enough to refer to such a passage as _Past and Present_,
pp. 305-9.

_ 912 Past and Present_, pp. 193, 4.

913 Id. pp. 271, 2.

914 Mr. Emerson: it ought to be noticed however that the following
remarks are applicable mainly, if not wholly, to his earlier works;
on which there is a criticism, similar to that cited in reference to
Carlyle, in the _Westminster Review_, March 1840.

915 “I am nothing—I see all—the currents of the universal being
circulate through me—I am part or particle of God.”—_Nature_, p. 13.
These were the words which this author formerly used. The same
tendency can probably be traced in the characters of Plato and
Goethe in his _Representative Men_. See also the _Oration on the
Christian Teacher_.

916 R. W. Mackay, whose two works are, _The Progress of the Intellect as
exemplified in the Religious Development of the Greeks and Hebrews_,
2 vols. 1850, and _The Rise and Progress of Christianity_, 1854.
(No. 7 of _Chapman’s Quarterly Series_.)

_ 917 Progress of Intellect_, vol. i. ch. ii. on “Mythical Geography and
Cosmogony.”

918 Ch. iii.

919 Ch. iv.

920 Vol. ii. ch. v. § 3 and 9. He illustrates from natural processes;
such as the decay of nature.

921 Ch. vi.

922 Ch. vii.

923 Ch. viii. The types of thought which he traces in it are, the
conception of prophet as taught by Moses; the idea of a supernatural
incarnation; the Davidic conception of a temporal sovereign; and the
suffering Messiah of the book of Daniel.

924 Ch. ix. and x.

_ 925 Rise of Christianity_, parts i. and ii.

926 Part iii.

927 Part iv.

928 Parts v. and vii.

_ 929 The Creed of Christendom, its Foundation and Superstructure_, by W.
Rathbone Greg. 1851. A review of it by Mr. Martineau may be seen in
_Studies on Christianity_ (reprinted from the _Westminster Review_),
and by Remusat in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Jan. 1859.

930 Ch. i. and ii.

931 Ch. iii.

932 Ch. iv.

933 Ch. v.

934 Ch. vi.

935 Ch. vii.

936 Ch. viii-xii. He adopts the view of the new Tübingen school, in
exaggerating the contrast between the description of the character
and teaching of Christ in the “Synoptical” evangelists, and in the
fourth Gospel.

937 Ch. xiii.

938 Ch. xiv.

939 Ch. xv.

940 Ch. xvi.

941 Ch. xvii. He quotes the beautiful lines of Wordsworth, (_Ode on
Intimations of Immortality_, § 5,) “Heaven lies about us in our
infancy,” &c. as illustrative of the instinctive feeling of man in
reference to immortality.

942 Page 303.

943 Miss S. Hennell, whose chief writings are, _Christianity and
Infidelity_, a prize essay, an exposition of the arguments on both
sides, 1857; _The Sceptical Tendency of Butler’s Analogy_, 1859;
_The Early Christian Anticipation of the End of the World_, 1860;
_Thoughts in Aid of Faith, gathered chiefly from recent works in
Theology and Philosophy_, 1860. Her views originally were the same
as those of her brother, a deceased unitarian minister, author of a
work on Theism (1852), in which the use of miracles as an evidence
was depreciated. It is hoped that it will not be considered improper
to have named a writer, whose sex might be expected to shelter her
from remark; but her writings are too able to be unproductive of
influence.

_ 944 Thoughts in Aid of Faith_, ch. i. This work was reviewed in the
_Westminster Review_, July 1860, and the _North British Review_ for
Nov. 1860.

945 Ch. ii.

946 E.g. ch. v.

947 Ch. vi. and vii. It is a result not unlike that of positivism, but
reached from the ontological instead of the physical side.

948 Mr. Theodore Parker of Boston.

949 Mr. F. Newman. The wide spread of the works of these two writers,
especially of the latter, is the reason why it is thought desirable
to exhibit their views at some length. The pathos and eloquence
which belong to their writings impart to them a fascination which
makes it the more necessary that readers should be on their guard,
by understanding the position which these authors hold in relation
to faith and to unbelief.

950 The particulars are obtained from the account of Mr. Parker’s
ministry, prefixed to his _Sermons on Theism_. He was at first a
unitarian minister; but, changing from unitarianism into deism, he
left that body, and became a preacher in Boston, until he was
compelled to visit Europe on account of enfeebled health. He died at
Florence, 1860. His doctrinal views may be learned from the
_Discourse on Matters pertaining to Religion_, written in 1846, and
the _Sermons on Theism, Atheism, and the Popular Theology_, 1853;
and his critical and literary views, from the _Introduction to the
Old Testament_, based on De Wette; and from his _Miscellaneous
Writings_, 1848. A comparison of him with Strauss, which has been
here used, was given in the _Westm. Rev._ for April 1847. His
character and life have also been sketched in the _Nat. Rev._ Jan.
1860, and especially by A. Reville in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_,
Oct. 1861.

951 E. Renan. See p. 303.

952 In the _Discourse pertaining to Matters of Religion_, books ii, iii,
iv. The writer is unable to put the exact references to this work in
the remarks which follow; having omitted to note them down when he
had the book at hand.

_ 953 Discourse_, book i.

954 The steps through which he considers that the idea of God is
developed into a conception are, Fetishism, Polytheism, and
Monotheism; Dualism and Pantheism being errors which lead astray
from Monotheism.

_ 955 Sermons on Theism_, sermons i. and ii.

956 Id. sermons ix. and x.

_ 957 Discourse on Religion_, books ii. and iv.

958 E.g. in _Discourse_, book iii. and several passages in the
_Introduction to the Old Testament_.

959 Mr. F. W. Newman.

_ 960 The Phases of Faith_, 1850.

961 Ch. i.

962 Ch. ii.

963 Ch. iii.

964 Ch. iv.

965 Ch. v. and vi.

966 To complete this account it is necessary to add, that Mr. Newman has
developed some portion of the critical investigations of his studies
of Jewish history in the _History of the Hebrew Monarchy_, 1847. It
is a treatment of the Old Testament analogous to that to which we
are accustomed in classical history; the answer to which would be by
denying that the records of the Hebrew history are amenable to
criticism, inasmuch as they do not partake of the ordinary
conditions which appertain to human literature.

_ 967 The Soul, her Sorrows and her Aspirations_, 1849. In the date of
publication this preceded the _Phases_. Mr. Newman has subsequently
published, _Theism, Doctrinal, Practical, or Didactic_, 1858. The
most complete view of his scheme, but of course wholly favourable to
him, is in the _Westminster Review_, Oct. 1858.

968 Ch. i.

969 Ch. ii.

970 Ch. iii. and iv.

971 Ch. i. The scheme much resembles that of Schleiermacher.

972 Deism and Unitarianism are both monotheistic; but the latter allows
the existence of a revelation, the former denies it. The modern
school of Unitarians, however, nearly approach to the position of
Mr. Newman. See end of Note 6, at the close of this book.

973 In many respects it resembles the “Mediation school” of Germany,
described in Lectures VI and VII, and the modern school of the
French protestant church, described in p. 304, and in Note 46, p.
448.

974 It would be more delicate perhaps to leave to the reader the
application of these tendencies, and to omit the mention of names;
but as the practice in this work has been to give the names even in
contemporary history, fairness requires the enumeration. The
tendencies in the text however are rather a combination from the
views of different modern authors, and cannot be definitely referred
as a whole to any one single writer. Probably the reader will
himself conjecture that the first tendency is meant in the main to
describe the teaching of Mr. Maurice and Mr. Kingsley; the second,
of Professor Jowett; the third, of some of the writers in _Essays
and Reviews_. But if this be approximately true, it must not be
supposed that every specific statement in the following account is
intended to be charged upon these respective authors. The
description is meant to indicate certain tendencies of free thought,
of which their writings among others seem to exhibit instances. It
is always hard to judge of a movement which is in progress, and of
which we are ourselves spectators. The view here taken is the result
of the attempt which the writer of these lectures has made in his
own studies, to adjust the existing forms of free thought into their
true position in the history of speculation. If injustice is done,
it is at least not intended.

975 It may be useful to draw attention to a book on the relation of
Coleridge to recent theological thought, _Modern Anglican Theology,
by the Rev. J. H. Rigg_, 1857. The book is by a Wesleyan minister,
and is written from that point of view. The tone of censure on the
writers criticised is in some parts severe, and has, it is
understood, caused pain to some of them. Apart from its tone,
objection may perhaps be taken to it, as discovering in their works
as positive teaching, doctrines which probably only exist as
incipient tendencies. Nevertheless it contains material suggestive
of serious thought; and certainly gives the clue to the
interpretation of many points which are usually felt to be obscure
in the systems of several of the writers described. The author does
not however appear to have distinguished sufficiently between the
two forms of modern historical inquiry (see Note 9 of these
lectures, at the end of the book). He consequently makes the last of
the list of writers whom he criticises (ch. xiii.) to be a disciple
of Coleridge; whereas he rather belongs to the other form of the
historico-philosophical school.

976 Page 310.

977 The reference to Mr. J. S. Mill’s dissertation on Coleridge has been
already given (p. 310.) See also the Essay by Mr. Hort in the
_Cambridge Essays_, 1856; the _British Quarterly Review_, Jan. 1854;
Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, ii. 343 seq.; and Remusat in
_Revue des Deux Mondes_, Oct. 1856. Coleridge’s philosophy of
religion is especially to be found in his _Aids to Reflection_; and
his critical views of inspiration in the _Confessions of an
Inquiring Spirit_.

978 The distinctness of the “reason” (νοῦς) from the “understanding”
(λόγος or διάνοια) has been allowed in these lectures; but only as
guaranteeing the reality of the objects of intuition, not as
allowing the mind to create a religion _à priori_. The objection in
the text is accordingly not so much directed against the
psychological theory as its theological application.

979 The sources for studying Neo-Platonism have been given in Note 10
(p. 399). Among writers influenced by Coleridge, the element of
thought which is derived from Neo-Platonism is stronger in the
writings of Mr. Kingsley than in those of Mr. Maurice; but it is
sufficiently observable in both to form a separation, by marked
philosophical features, between their teaching and the system of
Schleiermacher.

980 The Λόγος of Philo and of the Neo-Platonists is not to be contrasted
with the faculty called _reason_ by Coleridge, and νοῦς by other
authors, but to be identified with it. For Philo’s views, see
Gfrörer, _Philo_, and Dähne’s article _Philo_ in Ersch and Grueber’s
_Encyclopædia_: see also Jowett’s _Commentary on St Paul’s
Epistles_, vol. i. (_Essay on Philo_, § 1).

981 The existence of a divine teacher in the human mind in the faculty
of conscience would be generally allowed; especially by those who
adopt the theory of the distinctness of the faculty of _reason_ from
that of _understanding_; but the idea implied in the hypothesis
referred to in the text is the existence of a faculty which is
supreme over revelation.

982 Cfr. _Biogr. Lit._ p. 321, and _Aids to Reflection_, vol. i. 204
seq.

983 On the school of the Alexandrian fathers, see note on p. 59.

984 Cfr. the note on p. 29, where we have conceded the probability that
inspiration is, if analysed psychologically, a form of the “reason;”
but considered it, if viewed theologically, to be an elevated state
of this faculty, brought about by the miraculous and direct
operation of God’s Spirit: so that in this view it differs in kind,
and not merely in degree, from human genius.

985 Lect. VI. pp. 245-48.

986 Cfr. note (80) on p. 329.

987 Cfr. Note 9, at the end of the book, and the remarks in the Preface
on the historic method of study.

988 It is a truth indeed to which all will assent, that we must learn
from scripture what is meant by inspiration: but the difference
between the view here described and the view of the church of Christ
is this: the Church discovers in scripture the statements of the
writers concerning the reality and nature and authority of their own
inspiration; and considers henceforth that the character of the
revelation is in its substance removed beyond the limits of critical
investigation; and can only admit that an empirical inquiry can be
useful in settling the limits to which inspiration extends, and
determining the question as to the writings to be accounted the
subject of it.

989 Pages 330 and 334.

990 The existence of this movement in foreign churches is stated in
Lect. VII, and also in Notes 43 and 46, pp. 444, 448. In America,
besides those instances which have occurred in this lecture, the
writings of Mr. Bushnell are thought to exhibit a free spirit. They
however deviate very slightly from traditional dogmas, and may be
compared with the writings of the late archdeacon Hare. In England,
in the established church, there have been several works, besides
those referred to in p. 330. They chiefly belong to the first and
third classes of the three named in the text. The sermons of the
late F. W. Robertson of Brighton, matchless in freshness, but most
unsound in questions of vital doctrine; the sermons, &c. of the Rev.
J. L. Davies; bishop Colenso’s Commentary on the Epistle to the
Romans (1861); and the _Tracts for Priests and People_ (1861, 62),
may be considered to be examples of the first type of thought; but,
if breathing the same spirit as Coleridge, they express his thoughts
with a clearness which was wanting in him. The doubts of Blanco
White and Sterling; and of Mr. Macnaught, in his work on Inspiration
(1856); Mr. Foxton’s _Popular Christianity_ (1849); bishop Colenso’s
work on the Pentateuch (1862); and the _Christian Orthodoxy_ (1857)
of Dr. Donaldson, a name honoured by the philological student; are
instances of the third tendency named in the text. A tribute of
acknowledgment is nevertheless due to many of these writers, for the
earnest and truth-seeking tone which pervades their works. The
movement of free thought exists also outside the national church.
The recent work of Dr. S. Davidson, _Introduction to the Old
Testament_ (second edition) is an instance. The views however of
this eminent biblical scholar met with so little sympathy in his own
denomination, that he was made to suffer for an earlier edition
(1856) of the same work, which deviated in a much slighter degree
from received opinions. In the Unitarian body also free thought has
wrought a change. (See Note 7, at the end of this book.) The
influence of Cousin has expelled the old utilitarianism. Mr.
Martineau and Mr. W. J. Fox (see his _Religious Ideas_, 1849,) are
illustrations of the new spirit.

991 Cfr. p. 312, and the note to it. Positivism only differs from
Naturalism (see Note 21, at the end of this book), in that it
expresses a particular theory concerning the limits and method of
science, as well as the disbelief in the supernatural implied by the
latter term.

992 Cfr. p. 317.

993 An instructive sketch of the tendencies of modern thought was given
by principal Tullock, in his Inaugural Lecture at St. Andrew’s,
1845.

994 See p. 10. This crisis has occupied our attention since the middle
of Lecture III, p. 105.

995 Lect. I. page 1.

996 Page 7.

997 Page 7.

998 This was treated in Lecture II.

999 Lecture III, page 76 seq.

1000 Lecture III. page 92 seq.

1001 Lectures IV. to VIII.

1002 Page 2.

1003 Page 13.

1004 Pages 16, 17.

1005 Pages 14-17.

1006 Page 20.

1007 Page 21.

1008 Cfr. remarks in Note 9, at the end of this volume.

1009 This remark does not apply to the principal writers (named in Note
49), nor to the literature called out by the “Essays and Reviews”
controversy; but it applies to many of the popular manuals which are
directed against old deist literature, and are not adapted to modern
critical doubts.

1010 See note on p. 22.

1011 Van Mildert so exclusively adopted this latter view in his Boyle
Lectures, that his opponents charged him with Manichæism. See
remarks on him in the Preface to this volume.

1012 Cfr. the notes on pp. 26 and 32.

1013 Pages 14, 71, &c.

1014 Page 3.

1015 This is seen in their scrupulous care against heresy, and is
attested by the very complaint of their opponent Celsus. (Orig.
_Contr. Cels._ i. 9, iii. 44.)

1016 H. T. Buckle, the news of whose death, at the end of May 1862, had
just reached England when this lecture was delivered.

_ 1017 History of Civilisation_, vol. i. ch. iv.

_ 1018 History of Civilisation_, ch. xii and xiii.

1019 An article by a distinguished scientific writer appeared in the
_North British Review_ for Nov. 1860; in which the question of
Galileo’s trial was discussed in reference to the recent
re-examination of the subject.

1020 Cfr. Grote’s _History of Greece_, vol. viii. ch. lxvii; Lewes,
_History of Philosophy_ (chapter on Sophists); Grant, _Aristotle’s
Ethics_, vol. i; essay ii.

1021 See above, Lecture IV. p. 159.

1022 Cfr. Mill’s _Logic_, vol. i. book iii. ch. xiii. § 7.

1023 The allusion is to the discoveries, such as that of Kirchoff, of the
existence of some of the material elements in the solar atmosphere,
which exist in our own; also of the connexion between the periodic
recurrence of the solar spots, and terrestrial magnetism; and
especially to the discussion on “the correlation of physical
forces,” contained in Mr. Grove’s work, and in Sir H. Holland’s
_Essays_ (essays i. and ii.), reprinted from the _Edinburgh Review_,
July 1858 and Jan. 1859.

1024 The discoveries of the distinction between the sensational and motor
nerves, by Sir C. Bell; of the phenomena of reflex action, by Dr. M.
Hall; of the connexion of the same phenomena with those of
sensation, by Dr. Carpenter; and the identification of the centres
of conscious activity with separate departments of the cerebral
organism, by Dr. Laycock; are instances of hints toward the solution
of this problem. Many continental physiologists, such as Müller,
Carus, Wagner, and Brown-Séquard, have worked toward the same end.
J. F. Herbart in Germany, and Mr. H. Spencer in England, are writers
who have approached the psychological problem from the physiological
side.

1025 Bayn’s _Senses and Intellect_, 1855; _Emotions and Will_, 1859; and
Spencer’s _Principles of Psychology_, 1855, are works in which
analysis of this character is carried farther than in former works.
A popular view of past attempts of this kind is given in an article
on _Mental Association_, in the _Edinburgh Review_ for Oct. 1859.

1026 An example is seen in Strauss. No one can be more inimical to the
dogmatic and historical Christianity of the church than he; yet he
asserts firmly that Christ and Christianity is the highest moral
ideal to which the world can ever expect to attain. (_Soliloquies_,
E. T. 1845, part ii. § 27-30.)

1027 E. de Pressensé. _Histoire_ 2e Série, ii. 524.

1028 Pressensé has devoted attention to this point. (vol. iv. book iv.)

1029 Cfr. Pressensé, vol. iv. book iv. 161, 521.

1030 This is the view at which Guizot arrives; _Hist. de la Civil._ leçon
v, vi, x.

1031 E.g. in Kant, Jacobi, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. See Lectures VI.
and VII.

1032 References for the study of Neander’s life are given in a note on
page 250.

1033 See Acts xvii. 22-31.

1034 Cfr. Pressensé on Clement and Origen, _Hist._ iv. pp. 203, 360, and
the references there given.

1035 Page 73.

1036 E.g. Justin Martyr, who gives the account of his own conversion to
Christianity in the introduction to the Dialogue with Trypho; and
Clement of Alexandria.

1037 Cfr. Lect. I. p. 28. Suggestions on this point are given in Miller’s
_Bampton Lectures_, 1817. “The Divine Authority of Holy Scripture
asserted from its adaptation to Human Nature.”

1038 See above, p. 277.

1039 The question of the attacks made on the historic character of the
Acts was not noticed in Lecture VII. The statement of the
difficulties which have given rise to them may be seen in Baur’s
_Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi_, 1845, and in an article in the
_National Review_, No. 20, for April 1860; and a refutation of them
in Dr. S. Davidson’s _Introduction to the New Testament_, vol. ii.

_ 1040 Observations on the Conversion and Apostleship of St. Paul_, by
Lord Lyttleton, 1747. Cfr. also the note above, on p. 209.

1041 The history of the doctrine of the atonement is given in Bp.
Thomson’s _Bampton Lectures_, 1853 (lectures vi. and vii.), and in
the essay on the Atonement in _Aids to Faith_, 1862; also in
Hagenbach’s _Doqmengeschichte_, § 68, 134, 180, 268, and 300. The
two chief works on the subject are, Chr. Baur’s _Lehre von der
Versöhnung_, 1838, and Dorner’s _Lehre von der Person Christi_. The
fair conclusion in respect to the doctrine of the early church on
the subject seems to be the one stated in the text. The doctrine of
the atonement was believed and taught; but for the reason here named
it was not drawn out into such explicit statement as in modern
times. Anselm developed it by eliciting what was already contained
in it, not by superadding any human elements which did not exist
there before. It is Baur, to whom allusion is made in the text, who
implies the contrary; and some English writers have followed him.

1042 The work of the late Professor Blunt on the right use of the Fathers
may be consulted for a true and right view of their value.

1043 We _apprehend_ a fact when we recognise its existence; we
_comprehend_ it when we can refer it to the cause which produces it.

1044 Cfr. the remarks in Dr. Whewell’s preface to his edition of Butler’s
first three sermons for some suggestions on the nature of
conscience. His object is to show that Butler taught only its
psychological supremacy, not its moral infallibility. Cfr. also his
_Lecture on Moral Philosophy in England_, p. 129 seq.

1045 Page 84. Cfr. also bishop Thomson’s _Bampton Lectures_ (lect. v. p.
125).

1046 Page 245 seq.

1047 Similarly, an innate law of thought is _logically_ prior as a
condition in attaining knowledge; but experience is
_chronologically_ prior.

1048 It has been shown above (p. 310) that this very reaction is itself
indirectly a result of the subjective tendency.

1049 E.g. in R. E. H. Greyson (H. Rogers) _Correspondence_. Cfr. the
remarks on it in the _National Review_ for Oct. 1857.

1050 Matt. xxviii. 20.

1051 E.g. Augustin, Anselm, and in modern times such men as Bengel and
Neander.

1052 Rev. xii. 11.

1053 1 Cor. iii. 12.

1054 In the able work on _Tite Live_ by H. Taine, (Couronné, 1856,) will
be found a study of Livy as a critic and as a philosopher; which
illustrates not only the scientific aspect of history, but the
influence of science in the special determination of the facts,
which has frequently been attributed to art.

_ 1055 Voyage dans l’Inde par C. Fakian, traduit par A. Remusat_, 1837.
and _Hist. de la Vie de Hiouen Thsang_, being vol. i. of _Mémoires
sur les Contrées Occidentales_, 1858. by Stan. Julien. The former
travelled about A.D. 400: the latter in the seventh century.

1056 The abbé Migne is publishing in French, _Livres Sacrés de toutes les
Religions sauf la Religion Chrétienne_.

1057 In the work quoted above, _Science in Theology_, the date of this
Rabbin was erroneously given as the seventeenth century (p. 123).
This was the date when Wagenseil by great good fortune obtained a
copy of his work, and first made it public. The writer avails
himself of this opportunity, in which he has occasion to name his
own volume, to correct a few mistakes, and make a few alterations
where subsequent study has convinced him that he was in error. E.g.
In Sermon IV. the illustration from Indian history (p. 111) is based
on the view, now known to be wrong, that Buddhism preceded
Brahminism in origin. Also the view (p. 109) of the date of the
introduction of the Chaldee character has been rendered doubtful by
the arguments which Hupfeld has directed to the subject
(_Ausführliche Hebraische Grammatik_), in which he shows that the
corruption of the language was gradual, and that the adoption of the
square Chaldee character did not take place till after Christ. (See
a brief account of his views in Davidson’s _Introd. to Old Test._
1856, ch. ii.) Also, p. 121, the use of the word “surnamed” for
Jarchi disguises the origin of the name. In Sermon I. (2d div.) the
order of chronology is not sufficiently observed in the quotations
from the Old Testament. In Serm. VIII. (p. 244) the apologetic worth
of miracles (suggested by a remarkable speech of Bp. Wilberforce in
the Town Hall, Oxford, Nov. 28, 1846. See _Oxford Herald_ of Dec. 5)
is perhaps hardly sufficient. In Serm. VI. the view that the early
church held the doctrine of atonement implicitly rather than
explicitly, in life rather than dogma, till Anselm’s time, is
insufficient and liable to convey an erroneous impression. (See Bp.
Thomson’s restatement of the historic question in _Aids to Faith_,
pp. 339-352.) The revelation of God in the New Testament is most
express on the subject of substitutional atonement. Of this the
writer of these Sermons never had any doubt; but he now thinks that
there are clearer evidences of it in the fathers than he had stated.
Reasons are perceivable in the circumstance of the constant struggle
against heathen religions, in which the fathers were involved, which
led them to dwell on the incarnation rather than on the atonement.
Anselm only gave expression to the doctrine which the apostles had
clearly taught.

1058 There are congregations of reformed Jews in some countries who
reject the Talmud as a system of interpretation. They are Jewish
protestants. Their standpoint only differs from that of the old Jews
in laying stress on the ethical aspect of religion. Sermons by one
of them, the Rabbin Marks, have lately been published in England. It
will be understood from the above account that the modern Jews
include three parties; the orthodox Jews, the reformed, and the
rationalistic.

1059 Cfr. Hävernick’s _Introd. to Old Test._ (E. T.) § 23, 24.

1060 Cfr. Bp. Horsley’s _Letters against Priestley_, Lett. xvi, p. 264.

1061 The nearest English parallel to the teaching of Arminius personally
(as distinct from that of his successors), on the quinquarticular
controversy, is the doctrine of John Wesley. The nearest parallel to
the general views of Episcopius and Limborch was Hey of Cambridge at
the close of the last century.

1062 A sketch of Priestley is given in Mr. Martineau’s _Miscellanies_.

1063 But see Pressensé, _Hist. de l’Eglise_, 2e Ser. t. ii. p. 154.

1064 The transition of the word _miscreant_ from its original meaning of
misbeliever (mécroyant, miscredente), to its modern use as a mark of
opprobrium, is a similar instance. This change is a proof of the
instinctive association of the dependence of right conduct on right
belief. It is about the time of Shakspeare that the change of
meaning begins to appear. See _Richardson’s Dictionary,_ _sub voc._

1065 It is hardly necessary to state, that when the tone of the English
theological writers of the eighteenth century is described as
rationalism, it is used in a good sense. (E.g. _Essays and Reviews_,
Ess. vi.) The writers of that century would be classified under the
school of supernaturalists here named.

1066 In the time of Napoleon I. the circumstance that the ideological
philosophers sympathised with the Revolution, in opposition to his
regime, led to an application of the term as synonymous with
Republican.

1067 These references to Guhrauer were kindly suggested by the Rev. E. H.
Hansell, Prælector of Theology in Magdalen College, who studied the
Fragments a few years ago for lectures which he delivered on
Lessing.

1068 For a description of the division of Theological study implied by
this term, see Credner’s Introduction to Kitto’s _Bibl. Cyclop._;
and the translation of Tholuck’s Lectures, given in the American
_Bibloith. Sacra_, 1844.

1069 Hegel used to claim that his doctrine was merely giving expression
to the ancient speculations of Heracleitus concerning the union of
opposites. It is probable that the fundamental idea was the same,
but Hegel supplied an interpretation and application of the
principle which the ancient philosopher could not contemplate. Both
in truth committed the same fundamental mistake, of making the mind
the measure of things. The union of opposites is an act of thought,
not a fact relating to things.

1070 This statement is taken from a paper on the history of German
Theology, in the _Spectator_, May 24, 1862.

1071 His work on _Dogmatique_ is in his earlier manner.

1072 The strict difference would be, that analogy is the resemblance of
ratios, where the objects, in which the ratios are perceived, are
not known to be referable to the same general class; παράδειγμα on
the contrary where they are so.

1073 A plan of arrangement of this kind is used by Mr. Bolton in the
Hulsean Prize Essay for 1852, _The Evidences of Christianity, as
exhibited in the writings of the Apologists down to Augustine_.

1074 Cfr. Gerard, _Compendium of Evidences_, 1828, part ii. ch. i.

1075 Notes 14, 15, 17, 19, afford illustrations bearing upon the same
subject.

1076 This remark is only intended to apply to the apologetic writings,
which are not the best works, of the fathers. In the fourth century
we meet with a group of fathers of a higher type of mind than those
of the first three; e.g. Eusebius Athanasius, Basil, the Gregories,
Ambrose, and Jerome. Speaking generally, however, the three writers,
Origen, Chrysostom, and Augustin, are probably the only ones who had
minds of the highest class, and who thoroughly exceed the
contemporary heathen writers of their day in mental penetration,
freshness, and compass, respectively. If we have compared Origen in
mind with Hugo St. Victor, and Schleiermacher, as a Christian
philosopher (Lect. VI.), we might also venture to compare Augustin
with Aquinas or Calvin, in power to grasp systematic truth; and
Chrysostom with Bernard, and in some respects with Bossuet, in
eloquence, learning, and vigour. Eusebius perhaps almost demands a
place with these three, but he was a man of knowledge rather than
originality.

_ 1077 Démonstrations Evangeliques_: (tome 1.) _de Tertullien, Orígène,
Eusèbe_ (Præp. Ev.); (2.) _Eusèbe_ (Dem. Ev.), _S. Augustin,
Montaigne, Bacon, Grotius, Descartes_; (3.) _Richelieu, Arnauld, De
Choiseul du Plessis-Praslin, Pascal, Pélisson, Nicole_; (4.) _Boyle,
Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Locke, Lami, Burnet, Malebranche, Lesley,
Leibnitz, La Bruyére, Fenelon_; (5.) _Huet, Clarke_; (6.) _Duguet,
Stanhope, Bayle, Leclerc, Du Pin_; (7.) _Jacquelot, Tillotson, De
Haller, Sherlock, Le Moine, Pope, Leland_; (8.) _L. Racine,
Massillon, Ditton, Derham, D’Aguesseau, De Polignac_; (9.) _Saurin,
Buffier, Warburton, Tournemine, Bentley, Littleton, Seed, Fabricius,
Addison, De Bernis, J. J. Rousseau_; (10.) _Pard du Phanjas, Le roi
Stanislas, Turgot, Stattler, West, Beauzée_; (11.) _Bergíer; Gerdil,
Thomas, Bonnet, De Crillon, Euler, Delamarre, Caraccioli, Jennings_;
(12.) _Duhamel, S. Liguori, Butler, Bullet, Vauvenargues, Guenard,
Blair, De Pompignan, De Luc, Porteus, Gérard_; (13.) _Diessbach,
Jacques, Lamourette, Laharpe, Le Coz, Du Voisin, De la Luzerne,
Schmitt, Pointer_; (14) _Moore, Silvio Pellico, Lingard, Brunati,
Manzoni, Paley, Perrone, Lambruschini, Dorléans, Campien, Fr.
Pérennès_; (15.) _Wiseman, Buckland, Marcel de Serres, Keith,
Chalmers_; (16.) _Dupin Aíné, Grégoire XVI_; (17.) _Cattet, Milner,
Sabatier_; (18.) _Bolgeni, Morris, Chassay, Lombroso et
Consoni—contenant les apologies de 117 auteurs, répandues dans_ 180
vol.; _traduites pour la plupart des diverses langues dans
lesquelles elles avaient été écrites; reproduites integraiement non
par extraits. Ouvrage également nécessaire à ceux qui ne croient
pas, à ceux qui doutent, et a ceux qui croient_, 20 vol. in 4to.
Prix: 120 fr. Chaque volume se vend séparément, 7 fr. The references
in the above title are to the volumes of the work.

There is an important article on the literature of Apologetics in
the _North British Review_, No. 30, August 1851, the writer of which
says that the claim that the above works are translated
“integralement” is not literally correct; passages which assault the
church of Rome being omitted. He considers that among the works of
the above-named series which are not known in England, the most
important are, Stattler, _Certitude de la Religion révèlée par Jesus
Christ_; Beauzée, _Exposition des Preuves Historiques de la Religion
Chrétienne_; Abbè Para du Phanjas, _Les Principes de la Sainte
Philosophie conciliés avec ceux de la Religion_; Cardinal de Vernis,
_La Religion Vengée_; Cardinal Polignac, _Anti-Lucretius_.

1078 In naming the _Boyle Lectures_, it may be permitted to the writer of
these lectures to express the regret which he has often felt, that
there is no history written of the various apologetic Lectures, and
of the works which they called forth, such, e.g. as the Boyle
(1692), Lady Moyer (1719), Warburton (1772), Bampton (1760),
Donnellan (1794), and Hulsean Lectures (1820), in the Church; and
the Lime Street (1730), Berry Street (1733), Coward (1739), and
Congregational Lectures (1833), among the Dissenters; and more
generally that there is no history of English theology and of
English theological literature. Much as we need a fair account of
the English Church, viewed in its external and its constitutional
history, we still more need a history which would enter into the
inner life, and give its intellectual and spiritual history. Such a
work would not only give a detailed account of the various works on
evidence and of the other literature, but would enter into the
causes and character of the various schools of thought which have
existed in each age,—e.g. of the struggle of semi-Romanist and
Calvinistic principles in Elizabeth’s reign:—in the next age, the
reproduction of the teaching of the Greek as distinct from the Latin
Fathers in Andrewes and Laud; the Arminianism of Hales and
Chillingworth; the Calvinism of the Puritans: again, later, the rise
of the philosophical latitudinarianism of Whichcote, More, and
Cudworth; the theological position of the non-jurors; the Arian
tendencies of Clarke and Whiston; the cold want of spirituality of
divines of the type of Hoadley; the reasoning school of Butler, the
evangelical revival of Wesley and Simeon; and, in the nineteenth
century, the philosophical revival under Coleridge, and the
ecclesiastical in the Tracts for the Times. Subjects like these, if
treated not only in a literary manner, but in connection with their
philosophical relations, would lift the history above a merely
national purpose, and make it a lasting contribution to the history
of the human mind. If executed worthily, such a work might take a
rank along with the grand works on literature of Hallam. Much as the
present taste for documentary history is to be commended, and the
publication of ancient historic documents to be desired, it is to be
hoped that it will not lead to the divorce of history from
philosophy. History becomes mere antiquarianism, if the philosopher
is not at hand to build its parts into the general history of
humanity. Philosophy becomes an hypothesis, if it is disconnected
from the actual exemplification of its principles on the theatre of
the world.

1079 Paley’s argument has been extended to the Gospels and other parts of
Scripture by the lamented Professor Blunt. (Cfr. also his Essay on
Paley, reprinted from the _Quarterly Review_, Oct. 1828.)

1080 The course for 1849, on the Evidences, by Mr. Michell, marked the
commencement of the consciousness of the spread of free thought; but
was not directed to the novel foreign forms of it.

1081 The Lectures however of Dr. Hessey in 1860, though directed to a
different subject, evince a knowledge of the literary studies of
foreign theologians.

1082 The writer hopes that the note on p. 374 will not be considered an
ungenerous censure of Mr. Rogers, who is selected because he is the
ablest and wisest of those writers who have used this argument.

1083 It is hardly necessary to state, that Mr. Maurice and Mr. Goldwin
Smith, besides others, have criticised this work in distinct
publications.

1084 Ellis’s work on _The Knowledge of Divine Things_, 1811, breathes a
similar spirit in modern times. Cfr. Note 44.

1085 The anti-Straussian Literature described in Note 38 is an
illustration of the German apologetic.

1086 Dr. Pusey also, in his _Hist. Inq. on German Theol._ p. 2. ch. v,
quoted many passages illustrative of the history of the same fact.
He has, however, subsequently disavowed all concurrence in the
opinions of the writers cited.

1087 Among writers who lived earlier than the periods alluded to in the
passages of Lectures III. and VIII., the following are also cited in
the works before named: Origen (_Comm. in Joan._ ii. 151. ed. Huet),
Jerome (_Comm. in Gal._ iii. vol. iv); Augustin (_in Joan_, iv. 1);
Zuinglius (_Schrift.-von Usteri_, ii. 247); Calvin (_Comm. on Hebr._
ii. 21. Rom. iii. 4. Rom. ii. 8); Bullinger (on 1 Cor. x. 8).
Castellio (_Dial._ ii. _de Elect._ on Rom. ix), Erasmus (on Matt.
ii); Grotius (_Vot pro Pac. art. de Can. Script._); Episcoplus
(_Inst. Theol._ iv. § 1). Passages of Hooker and Chillingworth were
also cited by Mr. Stephen.