Chapter I: Preface (1)

As Mr. _Tull_’s Essay on _Horse-hoeing Husbandry_ has been published some Years, it may be presumed that the World hath by this time formed some Judgment of his Performance; which renders it the less necessary for the Editors of this Impression to say much concerning it. For every Man who has attended to the Subject, and duly considered the Principles upon which our Author’s Method of Culture is founded, is an equal Judge how far his Theory is agreeable to Nature: Though it is but too true, that few have made sufficient Experiments to be fully informed of its Worth.

How it has happened, that a Method of Culture, which proposes such Advantages to those who shall duly prosecute it, hath been so long neglected in this Country, may be matter of Surprize to such as are not acquainted with the Characters of the Men on whom the Practice thereof depends; but to those who know them thoroughly it can be none. For it is certain that very few of them can be prevailed on to alter their usual Methods upon any Consideration; though they are convinced that their continuing therein disables them from paying their Rents, and maintaining their Families.

And, what is still more to be lamented, these People are so much attached to their old Customs, that they are not only averse to alter them themselves, but are moreover industrious to prevent others from succeeding, who attempt to introduce any thing new; and indeed have it too generally in their Power, to defeat any Scheme which is not agreeable to their own Notions; seeing it must be executed by the same Sort of Hands.

This naturally accounts for Mr. _Tull_’s Husbandry having been so little practised. But as the Methods commonly used, together with the mean Price of Grain for some Years past, have brought the Farmers every-where so low, that they pay their Rents very ill, and in many Places have thrown up their Farms; the Cure of these Evils is certainly an Object worthy of the public Attention: For if the Proprietor must be reduced to cultivate his own Lands, which cannot be done but by the Hands of these indocile People, it is easy to guess on which Side his Balance of Profit and Loss will turn.

This Consideration, together with many others which might be enumerated, hath induced the Editors to recommend this Treatise once more to the serious Attention of every one who wishes well to his Country; in hopes that some may be prevailed upon, by regard either to the public Good or their own private Interest, to give the Method here proposed a fair and impartial Trial: For could it be introduced into several Parts of this Country by Men of generous Principles, their Example might, in time, establish the Practice thereof, and bring it into general Use; which is not to be expected by any other means.

It is therefore to such only, as are qualified to judge of a Theory from the Principles on which it is founded, that the Editors address themselves, desiring they will give this Essay another Reading with due Attention: and at the same time they beg leave to remind them how unfit the common Practisers of Husbandry are to pass Judgment, either on the Theory or Practice of this Method; for which Reason it is hoped that none will be influenced by such, but try the Experiment themselves with proper Care.

As a Motive to this, it is to be observed that, although the Method of Culture here proposed has made little Progress in _England_, it is not like to meet with the same Neglect abroad, especially in _France_; where a Translation of Mr. _Tull_’s Book was undertaken, at one and the same time, by three different Persons of Consideration, without the Privity of each other: But afterwards, Two of them put their Papers into the Hands of the Third, Mr. _Du Hamel du Manceau_, of the _Royal Academy of Sciences_ at _Paris_, and of the _Royal Society_ at _London_; who has published a Book, intituled, _A Treatise of Tillage on the Principles of Mr._ Tull. The ingenious Author has indeed altered the Method observed by Mr. _Tull_ in his Book; yet has very exactly given his Principles and Rules: But as he had only seen the First Edition of the _Horse-hoeing Husbandry_, so he is very defective in his Descriptions of the Ploughs and Drills, which in that were very imperfect, and were afterwards amended by Mr. _Tull_ in his Additions to that Essay.

One of our principal Reasons for taking Notice of this Book is, to shew the Comparison this Author has made between the Old Method of Husbandry and the New. By his Calculation the Profits arising from the New, are considerably more than double those of the Old. For, according to him, the Profits of Twenty Acres of Land for Ten Years, amount, at 10_d._ ¹⁄₂ _per_ Livre,

_l._ _s._ _d._
By the Old Method, to 3000 Livres, or 131 5 0 } _Sterling_.
By the New Method, to 7650 Livres, or 334 13 9 }

which makes a prodigious Difference in favour of the latter. As this Computation was made by one who cannot be supposed to have any Prejudice in favour of Mr. _Tull_’s Scheme, it will naturally find more Credit with the Public than any Comparison made by Mr. _Tull_ himself, or by such as may have an Attachment to his Principles.

It may probably be expected, that the Editors should take Notice of such Objections as have been made, either to Mr. _Tull_’s Theory or Practice; but we do not know any that in the least affect his Principles: They stand uncontroverted: Nor are there any to the Practice, which may not be equally urged against every Sort of Improvement. One of the principal which have come to our Knowlege is, its being impracticable in common Fields, which make a great Part of this Country, without the Concurrence of every one who occupies Land in the same Field. But doth not this equally affect the Old Husbandry? For every such Person is obliged to keep the Turns of plowing, fallowing, _&c._ with the other Occupiers; so that if any of them were inclinable to improve their Lands, by sowing Grass-seeds, or any other Method of Culture, they are now under the same Difficulties as they would be, were they to practise Mr. _Tull_’s Method. Therefore this is rather to be lamented as a public Misfortune, than to be brought as an Objection to the Practicableness of that Method. Others object, that the introducing this Sort of Husbandry is unnecessary, seeing the Improvements which are made by Grass-seeds are so considerable; besides, that the Returns made by the Fold and the Dairy, being much quicker than those of Grain, engage the Farmer to mix Plowing and Grazing together. But when this is duly considered it can have no sort of Weight: for is it not well known that, in those Farms where the greatest Improvements have been made by Grass-seeds, the Quantity of Dressing required for the Arable Land often runs away with most of the Profit of the whole Farm? especially when the Price of Grain is low. And if this be the Situation of the most improved Farms, what must be the Case of those which chiefly consist of Arable Land; where most of the Dressing must be purchased at a great Price, and often fetched from a considerable Distance? Add to this the great Expence of Servants and Horses, unavoidable in Arable Farms; and it will appear how great the Advantages are which the Grasier hath over the plowing Farmer. So that it is much to be wished, the Practice of mixing the Two Sorts of Husbandry were more generally used in every Part of the Kingdom; which would be far from rendering Mr. _Tull_’s Method of Culture useless; seeing that, when it is well understood, it will be found the surest Method to improve both.

For although Mr. _Tull_ chiefly confined the Practice of his Method to the Production of Grain (which is a great Pity), yet it may be extended to every Vegetable which is the Object of Culture in the Fields, Gardens, Woods, _&c._ and perhaps may be applied to many other Crops, to equal, if not greater Advantage, than to Corn.

In the Vineyard it has been long practised with Success; and may be used in the Hop-Ground with no less Advantage. For the Culture of Beans, Peas, Woad, Madder, and other large-growing Vegetables; as also for Lucern, Saintfoin, and the larger Grasses; we dare venture to pronounce it the only Method of Culture for Profit to the Farmer; seeing that, in all these Crops, one Sixth Part of the Seeds now commonly sown will be sufficient for the same Quantity of Land, and the Crop in Return will be much greater; which, when the Expence of Seeds is duly considered, will be found no small Saving to the Farmer.

Nor should this Method of Culture be confined to _Europe_: for it may be practised to as great Advantage in the _British_ Colonies in _America_, where, in the Culture of the Sugar-Cane, Indigo, Cotton, Rice, and almost all the Crops of that Country, it will certainly save a great Expence of Labour, and improve the Growth of every Plant, more than can be imagined by such as are ignorant of the Benefit arising from this Culture. And should the Subjects of _Great Britain_ neglect to introduce this Method into her Colonies, it may be presumed our Neighbours will take care not to _be blameable on this Head_; for they seem to be as intent upon extending every Branch of Trade, and making the greatest Improvements of their Land, as we are indifferent to both: So that, unless a contrary Spirit be soon exerted, the Balance of Trade, Power, and every other Advantage, must be against us.

There have been Objections made by some to Mr. _Tull_’s Method, as if it were practicable only on such Lands as are soft and light, and not at all on stiff and stony Ground. That it hath not been practised on either of these Lands in _England_ we are willing to grant; but we must not from thence infer that it is impossible to apply it to them. For the Hoe-Plough has been very long used in the Vineyards in many Countries, where the Soil is stronger, and abounds with Stones full as much as any Part of this Country. However, though the Use of this Plough may be attended with some Difficulties upon such Land, for Wheat, or Plants of low Growth, whose Roots may be in Danger of being turned out of the Ground, or their Tops buried by the Clods or Stones; yet none of the larger-growing Plants are subject to the same Inconveniencies. Besides, the stronger the Soil is, the more Benefit will it receive from this Method of Culture, if the Land be thereby more pulverized; which will certainly be the Consequence, where the Method laid down by Mr. _Tull_ is duly observed.

But as most Instruments, in their First Use, are attended with some Difficulty, especially in the Hands of such as are indocile, the Hoe-plough has been complained of, as cumbersome and unwieldy to the Horse and Ploughman. But perhaps this arises chiefly from the Unwillingness of the Workmen to introduce any new Instrument: Indeed, seeing little is to be expected from those who have been long attached to different Methods, the surest Way to promote the Use of it, is to engage young Persons, who may probably be better disposed, to make the Trial at their first entering into Business; and then a little Use will make it easy. It is proper to observe here, that the Swing-plough, which is commonly used in the deep Land about _London_, will do the Business of the Hoe-plough in all Ground that is not very strong, or very stony; and that where it is so, the Foot-plough, made proportionably strong, will completely answer all Purposes. But it must be remembered, that when these are used to hoe Corn, the Board on the Left Hand of the Plough, answering the Mould-Board, must be taken off; otherwise so much Earth will run to the Left Side, as to injure the Crop when it is low.

The _Drills_ are excellent Instruments; yet we imagine them capable of some farther Improvement. Parallel Grooves, at about an Inch asunder, round the Inside of the Hopper, would shew the Man who follows the Drill, whether or no both Boxes vent the Seed equally. By an Hitch from the Plank to the Harrow, the latter may be lifted to a proper Height, so as not to be in the Way when the Ploughman turns at the Headland. Two light Handles on the Plank, like those of the common Plough, would enable the Person who follows the Drill to keep it from falling off the Middle of the Ridge. It may also be useful, in wet Weather, to double the Drills; by which means Two Ridges may be sown at the same time, the Horse going between them: For the Planks of Two Drills, each Plank having one of the Shafts fixed to it, may be joined End for End by Two flat Bars of Iron, one on each Side, well secured by Iron Pins and Screws; and, by corresponding Holes in the Planks and Bars, the Distance between the Drills may be altered, according to the different Spaces between the Ridges.

The Alterations made by the Editors of this Impression are little more than omitting the controversial Parts of the Book, which were judged of no Service to the Reader, as they no-ways affected the Merits of Mr. _Tull_’s Principles.

But as he endeavoured to recommend his Theory by drawing a Comparison between the Old Method of Culture and the New, so we beg leave to annex a Computation of the Expence and Profit of each; for which we are obliged to a Gentleman, who for some Years practised both in a Country where the Soil was of the same Nature with that from whence Mr. _Tull_ drew his Observations, _viz._ light and chalky. And we chuse to give this the rather, as it comes from one who has no Attachment to Mr. _Tull_’s Method, farther than that he found it answer in his Trials. We appeal to Experience, whether every Article in this Calculation is not estimated in favour of the Common Husbandry; whether the Expence be not rated lower than most Farmers find it, and the Crop such as they would rejoice to see, but seldom do, in the Country where this Computation was made.

In the New Husbandry every Article is put at its full Value, and the Crop of each Year is Four Bushels short of the other; tho’, in several Years Experience, it has equalled, and generally exceeded, those of the Neighbourhood in the Old Way.

_An Estimate of the Expence and Profit of Ten Acres of Land in Twenty Years._

I. _In the Old Way._

First Year, for Wheat, costs 33_l._
5_s._ _viz._ _l._ _s._ _d._ _l._ _s._ _d._

First Plowing, at 6_s._ _per_ Acre 3 0 0
Second and Third Ditto, at 8_s._ _per_
Acre 4 0 0
Manure, 30_s._ _per_ Acre 15 0 0
------------ 22 0 0

Two Harrowings, and Sowing, at 2_s._
6_d._ _per_ Acre 1 5 0
Seed, three Bushels _per_ Acre, at
4_s._ _per_ Bush. 6 0 0
Weeding, at 2_s._ _per_ Acre 1 0 0
Reaping, Binding, and Carrying, at 3 0 0
6_s._ _per_ Acre
------------ 11 5 0
-------------
33 5 0

Second Year, for Barley, costs 11_l._ 6_s._ 8_d._ _viz._

Once Plowing, at 6_s._ _per_ Acre 3 0 0
Harrowing and Sowing, at 1_s._ 6_d._
_per_ Acre, 0 15 0
Weeding, at 1_s._ _per_ Acre 0 10 0
Seed, 4 Bushels _per_ Acre, at 2_s._
_per_ Bushel 4 0 0
Cutting, Raking, and Carrying, at 3_s._
2_d._ _per_ Acre 1 11 8
Grass-Seeds, at 3_s._ _per_ Acre 1 10 0
------------ 11 6 8
-------------
44 11 8
-------------
Third and Fourth Years, lying in Grass, cost nothing:
So that the Expence of Ten Acres in Four Years comes
to 44_l._ 11_s._ 8_d._ and in Twenty Years to 222 18 4

First Year’s Produce is half a Load of
Wheat _per_ Acre, at 7_l._ 35 0 0
Second Years Produce is Two Quarters
of Barley _per_ Acre, at 1_l._ 20 0 0
Third and Fourth Years Grass is valued
at 1_l._ 10_s._ _per_ Acre 15 0 0
------------
So that the Produce of Ten Acres in
Four Years is 70 0 0
------------
And in Twenty Years it will be 350 0 0
-------------
Deduct the Expence, and there remains clear Profit
on Ten Acres in 20 Years by the Old Way 127 1 8
-------------

II. _In the New Way._

First Year’s extraordinary Expence is, for plowing
and manuring the Land, the same as in Old Way 22 0 0

Plowing once more, at 4_s._ _per_ Acre 2 0 0
Seed, 9 Gallons _per_ Acre, at 4_s._
_per_ Bushel 2 5 0
Drilling, at 7_d._ _per_ Acre 0 5 10
Hand-hoeing and Weeding, at 2_s._ 6_d._
_per_ Acre 1 5 0
Horse-hoeing Six times, at 10_s._ _per_
Acre 5 0 0
Reaping, Binding, and Carrying, at 6_s._
_per_ Acre 3 0 0
------------
The standing annual Charge on Ten Acres
is 13 15 10
------------
Therefore the Expence on Ten Acres in Twenty Years is 275 16 8
-------------
Add the Extraordinaries of the First Year, and the
Sum is 297 16 8
-------------
The yearly Produce is at least Two Quarters of Wheat
_per_ Acre, at 1_l._ 8_s._ _per_ Quarter; which, on
Ten Acres in Twenty Years, amounts to 560 0 0
-------------
Therefore, all things paid, there remains clear Profit
on Ten Acres in Twenty Years by the New Way 262 3 4
-------------

So that the Profit on Ten Acres of Land in Twenty Years, in the New Way, exceeds that in the Old by 135_l._ 1_s._ 8_d._ and consequently is considerably more than double thereof: an ample Encouragement to practise a Scheme, whereby so great Advantage will arise from so small a Quantity of Land, in the Compass of a Twenty-one Years Lease; One Year being allowed, both in the Old and New Way, for preparing the Ground.

It ought withal to be observed, that Mr. _Tull_’s Husbandry requires no Manure at all, tho’ we have here, to prevent Objections, allowed the Charge thereof for the first Year; and moreover, that tho’ the Crop of Wheat from the _Drill-plough_ is here put only at Two Quarters on an Acre, yet Mr. _Tull_ himself, by actual Experiment and Measure, found the Produce of his drilled Wheat-crop amounted to almost Four Quarters on an Acre: And, as he has delivered this Fact upon his own Knowlege, so there is no Reason to doubt of his Veracity, which has never yet been called in question. But that we might not be supposed to have any Prejudice in favour of his Scheme, we have chosen to take the Calculations of others rather than his, having no other View in what we have said, than to promote the Cause of Truth, and the public Welfare.

The Wheat and Turnep Drill-Boxes, or the Drill-Plough complete,
mentioned in this Treatise, may be had at Mr. _Mulford_’s in
_Cursitor-street, Chancery-lane, London_.

CHAP. I.

_Of_ ROOTS _and_ LEAVES.

Since the most immediate Use of _Agriculture_, in feeding Plants, relates to their _Roots_, they ought to be treated of in the first Place.

_Roots_ are very different in different Plants: But ’tis not necessary here to take notice of all the nice Distinctions of them; therefore I shall only divide them in general into two Sorts, _viz._ _Horizontal-Roots_, and _Tap-Roots_, which may include them all.

All have Branchings and Fibres going all manner of ways, ready to fill the Earth that is open.

But such _Roots_ as I call Horizontal (except of Trees) have seldom any of their Branchings deeper than the Surface or Staple of the Earth, that is commonly mov’d by the Plough or Spade.

The Tap-Root commonly runs down Single and Perpendicular[1] reaching sometimes many Fathoms below.

[1] In this manner descends the first Root of every Seed; but of Corn
very little, if at all, deeper than the Earth is tilled.

These first Seed-Roots of Corn die as soon as the other Roots come
out near the Surface, above the Grain: and therefore this first is
not called a Tap Root; but yet some of the next Roots that come out
near the Surface of the Ground, always reach down to the Bottom of
the pulveriz’d Staple; as may be seen, if you carefully examine it
in the Spring time; but this first Root in Saint-foin becomes a Tap
Root.

This (tho’ it goes never so deep) has horizontal ones passing out all round the Sides; and extend to several Yards Distance from it, after they are by their Minuteness, and earthly Tincture, become invisible to the naked Eye.

_A Method how to find the Distance to which_ Roots _extend Horizontally._

_Pl._ 6. _Fig._ 7. Is a Piece or Plot dug and made fine in whole hard Ground, the End _A_ 2 Feet, the End _B_ 12 Feet, the Length of the Piece 20 Yards; the Figures in the middle of it are 20 _Turneps_, sown early, and well ho’d.

The manner of this Hoing must be at first near the Plants, with a Spade, and each time afterwards, a Foot farther Distance, till all the Earth be once well dug; and if Weeds appear where it has been so dug, hoe them out shallow with the Hand-Hoe. But dig all the Piece next the out Lines deep every time, that it may be the finer for the _Roots_ to enter, when they are permitted to come thither.

If these _Turneps_ are all gradually bigger, as they stand nearer to the End _B_, ’tis a Proof they all extend to the Outside of the Piece; and the _Turnep_ 20 will appear to draw Nourishment from six Feet Distance from its Centre.

But if the _Turneps_ 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, acquire no greater Bulk than the _Turnep_ 15, it will be clear, that their _Roots_ extend no farther than those of the _Turnep_ 15 does; which is but about 4 Feet.

By this Method the Distance of the Extent of _Roots_ of any Plant may be discover’d.

What put me upon this Method was an Observation of two Lands (or Ridges) drill’d with _Turneps_ in Rows, a Foot asunder, and very even in them; the Ground, at both Ends, and one Side, was hard and unplow’d; the _Turneps_ not being ho’d, were very poor, small, and yellow, except the Three outside Rows, _B_, _C_, _D_, which stood next to the Land (or Ridge) _E_, which Land being plow’d and harrow’d, at the time the Land _A_ ought to have been ho’d, gave a dark flourishing Colour to these three Rows; and the _Turneps_ in the Row _D_, which stood farthest off from the new-plow’d Land _E_, received so much Benefit from it, as to grow twice as big as any of the more distant Rows. The Row _C_, being a Foot nearer to the new-plow’d Land, became twice as large as those in _D_; but the Row _B_, which was next to the Land _E_, grew much larger yet[2].

[2] A like Observation to this on the Land E, has been made in
several Turnep Fields of divers Farmers, where Lands adjoining to
the Turneps have been well tilled; all the Turneps of the contiguous
Lands that were within three or four Feet, or more, of the newly
pulveriz’d Earth, received as great, or greater increase, in the
Manner as my Rows B C D did; and what is yet a greater Proof of the
Length of Roots, and of the Benefit of deep Hoing, all these Turneps
have been well Hand-ho’d; which is a good Reason why the Benefit of
the deep Pulveration should be perceivable at a greater Distance from
it than mine, because my Turneps, not being hoed at all, had not
Strength to send out their Roots through so many Feet of unpulveriz’d
Earth, as these can through their Earth pulveriz’d by the Hoe, tho’
but shallowly.

This Observation, as ’tis related to me (I being unable to go far
enough to see it myself) sufficiently demonstrates the mighty
Difference there is between Hand-hoing and Horse-hoing.

_F_ Plate 6. is a Piece of hard whole Ground, of about two Perch in Length, and about two or three Feet broad, lying betwixt those two Lands, which had not been plow’d that Year; ’twas remarkable, that during the Length of this interjacent hard Ground, the Rows _B_, _C_, _D_, were as small and yellow as any in the Land.

The _Turneps_ in the Row _D_, about three Feet distant from the Land _E_, receiving a double Increase, proves they had as much Nourishment from the Land _E_, as from the Land _A_, wherein they stood; which Nourishment was brought by less than half the Number of _Roots_ of each of these _Turneps_.

In their own Land they must have extended a Yard all round, else they could not have reach’d the Land _E_, wherein ’tis probable these few Roots went more than another Yard, to give each _Turnep_ as much Increase as all the Roots had done in their own Land.

Except that it will hereafter appear, that the new Nourishment taken at the Extremities of the Roots in the Land _E_, might enable the Plants to send out more new Roots in their own Land, and receive something more from thence.

The Row _C_ being twice as big as the Row _D_, must be suppos’d to extend twice as far; and the Row _B_, four times as far, in proportion as it was of a Bulk quadruple to the Row _D_.

A _Turnep_ has a Tap-Root, from whence all these Horizontal Roots are deriv’d.

And ’tis observable; that betwixt these two Lands there was a Trench, or Furrow, of about the Depth of nine or ten Inches, where these Roots must descend first, and then ascend into the Land _E_: But it must be noted, that some small Quantity of Earth was, by the Harrowing, fall’n into this Furrow, else the Roots could not have pass’d thro’ it.

_Roots_ will follow the open Mould[3], by descending perpendicularly, and mounting again in the same manner: As I have observ’d the Roots of a Hedge to do, that have pass’d a steep Ditch two Feet deep, and reach’d the Mould on the other side, and there fill it; and digging Five Feet distant from the Ditch, found the Roots large, tho’ this Mould was very shallow, and no Roots below the good Mould.

[3] A Chalk-Pit, contiguous to a Barn, the Area of which being about
40 Perch of Ground, was made clean and swept; so that there was not
the Appearance of any Part of a Vegetable, more than in the Barn’s
Floor: Straw was thrown from thence into the Pit, for Cattle to lie
on; the Dung made thereby was haled away about three Years after the
Pit had been cleansed; when, at the Bottom of it, and upon the Top of
the Chalk, the Pit was covered all over with Roots, which came from
a Witch-Elm, not more than Five or Six Yards in Length, from Top to
Bottom, and which was about Five Yards above, and Eleven Yards from
the Area of the Pit; so that in three Years the Roots of this Tree
extended themselves Eight times the Length of the Tree, beyond the
Extremities of the old Roots, at Eleven Yards Distance from the Body:
The annual-increased Length of the Roots was near Three times as much
as the Height of the Tree.

I’m told an Objection hath been made from hence against the Growth of
a Plant’s being in proportion to the Length of its Roots; but when
the Case is fully stated, the Objection may vanish. This Witch-Elm is
a very old decay’d Stump, which is here called a _Staggar_, appearing
by its Crookedness to have been formerly a _Plasher_ in an old
White-thorn Hedge wherein it stands: It had been lopped many Years
before that accidental Increase of Roots happened; it was stunted,
and sent out poor Shoots; but in the third Year of these Roots, its
Boughs being most of them horizontally inclined, were observed to
grow vigorously, and the Leaves were broad, and of a flourishing
Colour; at the End of the third Year all these Roots were taken away,
and the _Area_ being a Chalk-Rock lying uncovered, round the Place
where the Single Root, that produced all these, came out of the Bank,
no more Roots could run out on the bare Chalk, and the Growth of the
Boughs has been but little since.

_Wheat_, drill’d in double Rows in _November_, in a Field well till’d
before Planting, look’d yellow, when about Eighteen Inches high; at
Two Feet Distance from the Plants, the Earth was Ho-plow’d, which
gave such Nourishment to ’em, that they recovered their Health, and
changed their sickly Yellow, to a lively Green Colour.

So in an Orchard, where the Trees are planted too deep, below the Staple or good Mould, the Roots, at a little Distance from the Stem, are all as near the upper Superficies of the Ground, as of those Trees, which are planted higher than the Level of the Earth’s Surface.

But the Damage of planting a Tree too low in moist Ground is, that in passing thro’ this low Part, standing in Water, the Sap is chill’d, and its Circulation thereby retarded.

One Cause of Peoples not suspecting Roots to extend to the Twentieth Part of the Distance which in reality they do, was from observing these Horizontal-Roots, near the Plant, to be pretty taper; and if they did diminish on, in proportion to what they do there, they must soon come to an End. But the Truth is, that after a few Inches, they are not discernibly taper, but pass on to their Ends very nearly of the same Bigness; this may be seen in _Roots_ growing in Water, and in some other, tho’ with much Care and Difficulty.

In pulling up the aforemention’d _Turneps_, their Roots seem’d to end at few Inches Distance from the Plants, they being, farther off, too fine to be perceiv’d by ordinary Observation.

I found an extreme small Fibre on the Side of a _Carrot_, much less than a Hair; but thro’ a Microscope it appear’d a large Root, not taper, but broken off short at the End, which it is probable might have (before broken off) extended near as far as the _Turnep_ Roots did. It had many Fibres going out of it, and I have seen that a _Carrot_ will draw Nourishment from a great Distance, tho’ the Roots are almost invisible, where they come out of the _Carrot_ itself.

By the Piece _F_ Plate 6. may be seen, that those Roots cannot penetrate, unless the Land be open’d by Tillage, _&c._

As Animals of different Species have their Guts bearing different Proportions to the Length of their Bodies; so ’tis probable, different Species of Plants may have their Roots as different. But if those which have shorter Roots have more in Number, and having set down the means how to know the Length of them in the Earth, I leave the different Lengths of different Species to be examin’d by those who will take the Pains of more Trials. This is enough for me, that there is no Plant commonly propagated, but what will send out its Roots far enough, to have the Benefit of all the ho’d Spaces or Intervals I in the following Chapters allot them, even tho’ they should not have Roots so long as their Stalks or Stems.

And this great Length of Roots will appear very reasonable, if we compare the Largeness of the Leaves (which are the Parts ordain’d for Excretion) with the Smalness of the Capillary Roots, which must make up in Length or Number what they want in Bigness, being destin’d to range far in the Earth, to find out a Supply of Matter to maintain the whole Plant; whereas the chief Office of the Stalks and Leaves is only to receive the same, and to discharge into the Atmosphere such Part thereof as is found unfit for Nutrition; a much easier Task than the other, and consequently fewer Passages suffice, these ending in an obtuse Form; for otherwise the Air would not be able to sustain the Stalks and Leaves in their upright Posture: but the Roots, tho’ very weak and slender, are easily supported by the Earth, notwithstanding their Length, Smalness, and Flexibility.

Plants have no Stomach, nor _Oesophagus_, which are necessary to convey the Mass of Food to an Animal: Which Mass, being exhausted by the Lacteals, is eliminated by way of Excrements, but the Earth itself being that Mass to the Guts (or Roots) of Plants, they have only fine Recrements, which are thrown off by the Leaves.

In this, Animal and Vegetable Bodies agree, that Guts and Roots are both injured by the open Air; and Nature has taken an equal Care, that both may be supply’d with Nourishment, without being expos’d to it. Guts are supply’d from their Insides, and Roots from their Outsides.

All the Nutriment (or _Pabulum_) which Guts receive for the Use of an Animal, is brought to them; but Roots must search out and fetch themselves all the _Pabulum_ of a Plant; therefore a greater Quantity of Roots, in Length or Number, is necessary to a Plant, than of Guts to an Animal.

All _Roots_ are as the Intestines of Animals, and have their Mouths or Lacteal Vessels opening on their outer spongy Superficies, as the Guts of Animals have theirs opening in their inner spongy Superficies.

The Animal Lacteals take in their Food by the Pressure that is made from the Peristaltic Motion, and that Motion caus’d by the Action of Respiration, both which Motions press the Mouths of the Lacteals against the Mass or Soil which is within the Guts, and bring them into closer Contact with it.

Both these Motions are supply’d in Roots by the Pressure occasion’d by the Increase of their Diameters in the Earth, which presses their Lacteal Mouths against the Soil without. But in such Roots as live in Water, a Pressure is constantly made against the Roots by the Weight and Fluidity of the Water; this presses such fine Particles of Earth it contains, and which come into Contact with their Mouths, the closer to them.

And when _Roots_ are in a till’d Soil, a great Pressure is made against them by the Earth, which constantly subsides, and presses their Food closer and closer, even into their Mouths; until itself becomes so hard and close, that the weak Sorts of Roots can penetrate no farther into it, unless re-open’d by new Tillage, which is call’d Hoing.

When a good Number of Single-Mint Stalks had stood in Water, until they were well stock’d with Roots from their two lower Joints, and some of them from three Joints, I set one in a Mint-Glass full of Salt Water; this Mint became perfectly dead within three Days.

Another Mint I put into a Glass of fair Water; but I immers’d one String of its Roots (being brought over the Top of that Glass into another Glass of Salt-water, contiguous to the Top of the other Glass: This _Mint_ dy’d also very soon.

Of another (standing in a Glass of Water and Earth till it grew vigorously) I ty’d one single Root into a Bag, which held a Spoonful of dry Salt, adjoining to the Top of the Glass, which kill’d this strong Mint also. I found that this Salt was soon dissolv’d, tho’ on the Outside of the Glass; and tho’ no Water reach’d so high, as to be within Two Inches of the Joint which produc’d this Root: The Leaves of all these were salt as Brine to the Taste.

Of another, I put an upper Root into a small Glass of Ink, instead of a Bag of Salt, in the Manner above-mention’d; this Plant was also kill’d by some of the Ink Ingredients. The Blackness was not communicated to the Stalk, or Leaves, which inclin’d rather to a yellowish Colour as they died, which seem’d owing to the _Copperas_.

I made a very strong Liquor with Water, and bruised Seeds of _Wild-Garlick_, and, filling a Glass therewith, plac’d the Top of it close to the Top of another Glass, having in it a Mint, two or three of whose upper Roots, put into this stinking Liquor, full of the bruised Seeds, and there remaining, it kill’d the Mint in some time; but it was much longer in dying than the others were with Salt and Ink. It might be, because these Roots in the _Garlick_ were very small, and did not bear so great a Proportion to their whole System of Roots, as the Roots, by which the other Mints were poison’d, did to theirs.

When the Edges of the Leaves began to change Colour, I chew’d many of them in my Mouth, and found at first the strong aromatic Flavour of Mint, but that was soon over; and then the nauseous Taste of _Garlick_ was very perceptible to my Palate.

I observ’d, that when the _Mint_ had stood in a Glass of Water, until it seem’d to have finish’d its Growth, the Roots being about a Foot long, and of an earthy Colour, after putting in some fine Earth, which sunk down to the Bottom, there came from the upper Joint a new Set of white Roots, taking their Course on the Outside of the Heap of old Roots downwards, until they reach’d the Earth at the Bottom; and then, after some time, came to be of the same earthy Colour with the old ones.

Another _Mint_ being well rooted from Two Joints, about Four Inches asunder; I plac’d the Roots of the lower Joint in a deep Mint-Glass, having Water at the Bottom, and the Roots of the upper Joint into a square Box, contriv’d for the Purpose, standing over the Glass, and having a Bottom, that open’d in the Middle, with a Hole, that shut together close to the Stalk, just below the upper Joint; then laying all these upper Roots to one Corner of the Box, I fill’d it with Sand, dry’d in a Fire-shovel, and found, that in one Night’s time, the Roots of the lower Joint, which reach’d the Water at the Bottom of the Glass, had drawn it up, and imparted so much thereof to those Roots in the Box above, that the Sand, at that Corner where they lay, was very wet, and the other three Corners dry. This Experiment I repeated very often, and it always succeeded as that did.

And for the same Purpose I prepar’d a small Trough, about two Foot long, and plac’d a Mint-Glass under each End of the Trough; over each Glass I plac’d a Mint, with half its Roots in the Glass, the other half in the Trough: The Mints stood just upon the Ends of the Trough. Then I cover’d these Roots with pulveriz’d Earth, and kept the Glasses supply’d with Water; and as oft as the white fibrous Roots shot thro’ the Earth, I threw on more Earth, till the Trough would hold no more; and still the white Fibres came thro’, and appear’d above it; but all seem’d (as I saw by the Help of a coarse Microscope) to turn, and when they came above-ground, their Ends enter’d into it again. These two _Mints_ grew thrice as large as any other _Mint_ I had, which were many, that stood in Water, and much larger than those which stood in Water with Earth in it: They being all of an equal Bigness when set in, and set at the same time. Tho’ these two, standing in my Chamber, never had any Water in their Earth, but what those Roots, which reach’d the Water in the Glasses, sent up to the Roots, which grew in the Trough. The vast Quantity of Water these Roots sent up, being sufficient to keep all the Earth in the Troughs moist, tho’ of a thousand times greater Quantity than the Roots which water’d it, makes it probable, that the Water pass’d out of the Roots into the Earth, without mixing at all with the Sap, or being alter’d to any Degree. The Earth kept always moist, and in the hot Weather there would not remain a Drop of Water in the Glasses, when they had not been fresh supply’d in two Days and one Night; and yet these Roots in the Glasses were not dry’d, tho’ they stood sometimes a whole Day and Night thus in the empty Glasses. These two Mints have thus liv’d all one Summer.

_Remarks on the_ Mints, _&c._

Tho’ the Vessels of Marine Plants be some ways fortify’d against the Acrimony of Salt, as Sea-fish are, yet the Mints all shew, that Salt is poison to other Plants.

The Reason why the Salts in Dung, Brine, or Urine, do not kill Plants in the Field or Garden, is, that their Force is spent in acting upon, and dividing the Parts of Earth; neither do these Salts, or at least any considerable Quantity of them, reach the Roots.

I try’d Salt to many Potatoes in the Ground being undermin’d, and a few of their Roots put into a Dish of Salt-water, they all died sooner or later, according to their Bigness, and to the Proportions the Quantity of Salt apply’d did bear to them.

By the Mints it appears, that Roots make no Distinctions in the Liquor they imbibe, whether it be for their Nourishment or Destruction; and that they do not insume what is disagreeable, or Poison to them, for lack of other Sustenance; since they were very vigorous, and well fed in the Glasses, at the time when the most inconsiderable Part of their Number had the Salt, Garlick, and Ink offer’d to them.

The sixth _Mint_ shews, that when new Earth is apply’d to the old Roots, a Plant sends out new Roots on Purpose to feed on it: And that the more Earth is given it, the more Roots will be form’d, by the new Vigour the Plant takes from the Addition of Earth. This corresponds with the Action of Hoing; for every time the Earth is mov’d about Roots, they have a Change of Earth, which is new to them.

The seventh _Mint_ proves, that there is such a Communication betwixt all the Roots, that when any of them have Water, they do impart a Share thereof to all the rest: And that the Root of the lower Joint of this Mint had Passages (or Vessels) leading from them, through the Stalk, to the Roots of the upper Joint; tho’ the clear Stalk (through which it must have pass’d) that was betwixt these two Joints, was several Inches in Length.

This accounts for the great Produce of long tap-rooted Plants, such as _Lusern_ and _St. Foin_, in very dry Weather: for the Earth at a great Depth is always moist. It accounts also for the good Crops we have in dry Summers, upon Land that has a Clay Bottom; for there the Water is retain’d a long time, and the lower Roots of Plants which reach it, do, like those of this Mint, send up a Share to all the higher Roots.

If those Roots of a Plant, which lie at the Surface of the Ground, did not receive Moisture from other Roots, which lie deeper, they could be of no Use in dry Weather. But ’tis certain, that if this dry Surface be mov’d or dung’d, the Plant will be found to grow the faster, tho’ no Rain falls; which seems to prove, both that the deep Roots communicate to the shallow a Share of their Water, and receive in Return from them a Share of Food, in common with all the rest of the Plant, as in the Mints they did.

The two last _Mints_ shew, that when the upper Roots have Moisture (as they had in the Earth in the Trough, carried thither first by the lower Roots) they impart some of it to the lower, else these could not have continu’d plump and fresh, as they did for 24 Hours in the empty Glass. And I have since observed them to do so, in the cooler Season of the Year, for several Weeks together, without any other Water, than what the upper Roots convey’d to them, from the moist Earth above in the Trough[4]. I know not what Time these Roots might continue to be supply’d thus in the hot Weather, because I did not try any longer, for fear of killing them.

[4] ’Tis certain, that Roots and other Chyle Vessels of a Plant have
a free Communication throughout all their Cavities, and the Liquor in
them will run towards that Part where there is least Resistance; and
such is that which is the most empty, whether it be above or below;
for there are no _Valves_ that can hinder the Descent or Ascent of
Liquor in these Vessels, as appears by the growing of a Plant in an
inverted Posture.

But it must be noted, that the Depth of the Glass protected the Roots therein from the Injury of the Motion of the free Air, which would have dry’d them, if they had been out of the Glass.

In this Trough is shewn most of the Hoing Effects; _viz._ That Roots, by being broken off near the Ends, increase their Number, and send out several where one is broken off.

That the Roots increase their Fibres every time the Earth is stirr’d about them.

That the stirring the Earth makes the Plants grow the faster.

LEAVES are the Parts or Bowels of a Plant, which perform the same Office to Sap, as the Lungs of an Animal do to Blood; that is, they purify or cleanse it of the Recrements, or fuliginous Steams, received in the Circulation, being the unfit Parts of the Food; and perhaps some decay’d Particles, which fly off the Vessels, through which Blood and Sap do pass respectively.

Besides which Use, the Nitro-aerous Particles may there enter, to keep up the vital Ferment or Flame.

Mr. _Papin_ shews, that Air will pass in at the Leaves, and out thro’ the Plant at the Roots, but Water will not pass in at the Leaves; and that if the Leaves have no Air, a Plant will die; but if the Leaves have Air, tho’ the Root remain in Water _in vacuo_, the Plant will live and grow.

Dr. _Grew_, in his Anatomy of Plants, mentions Vessels, which he calls, Net-work, Cobweb, Skeins of Silk, _&c._ but above all, the Multitude of Air-Bladders in them, which I take to be of the same Use in Leaves, as the Vesiculæ are in Lungs. Leaves being as Lungs inverted, and of a broad and thin Form; their Vesiculæ are in Contact with the free open Air, and therefore have no need of Trachea, or Bronchia, nor of Respiration.

CHAP. II.

_Of_ FOOD _of_ PLANTS.

The chief Art of an Husbandman is to feed Plants to the best Advantage; but how shall he do that, unless he knows what is their Food? By Food is meant that Matter, which, being added and united to the first _Stamina_ of Plants, or _Plantulæ_, which were made in little at the Creation, gives them, or rather is their Increase.

’Tis agreed, that all the following Materials contribute, in some manner, to the Increase of Plants; but ’tis disputed which of them is that very Increase or Food. 1. _Nitre_. 2. _Water_. 3. _Air_. 4. _Fire_. 5. _Earth_.

I will not mention, as a Food, that acid Spirit of the Air, so much talk’d of; since by its eating asunder Iron Bars it appears too much of the Nature of _Aqua Fortis_, to be a welcome Guest alone to the tender Vessels of the Roots of Plants.

_Nitre_ is useful to divide and prepare the Food, and may be said to nourish Vegetables in much the same Manner as my Knife nourishes me, by cutting and dividing my Meat: But when _Nitre_ is apply’d to the Root of a Plant, it will kill it as certainly as a Knife misapply’d will kill a Man: Which proves, that _Nitre_ is, in respect of Nourishment, just as much the Food of Plants, as _White Arsenick_ is the Food of Rats. And the same may be said of Salts.

_Water_, from _Van-Helmont_’s Experiment, was by some great Philosophers thought to be it. But these were deceived, in not observing, that Water has always in its Intervals a Charge of Earth, from which no Art can free it. This Hypothesis having been fully confuted by Dr. _Woodward_, no body has, that I know of, maintain’d it since: And to the Doctor’s Arguments I shall add more in the Article of Air.

_Air_, because its Spring, _&c._ is as necessary to the Life of Vegetables, as the Vehicle of Water is; some modern Virtuosi have affirm’d, from the same and worse Arguments than those of the Water-Philosophers, that Air is the Food of Plants. Mr. _Bradley_ being the chief, if not only Author, who has publish’d this Phantasy, which at present seems to get Ground, ’tis fit he should be answer’d: And this will be easily done, if I can shew, that he has answer’d this his own Opinion, by some or all of his own Arguments.

His first is, that of _Helmont_, and is thus related in Mr. _Bradley_’s general Treatise of _Husbandry and Gardening_, Vol. I. _p._ 36. ‘Who dry’d Two hundred Pounds of Earth, and planted a Willow of Five Pounds Weight in it, which he water’d with Rain, or distill’d Water; and to secure it from any other Earth getting in, he covered it with a perforated Tin Cover. Five Years after, weighing the Tree, with all the Leaves it had borne in that Time, he found it to weigh One hundred Sixty-nine Pounds Three Ounces; but the Earth was only diminish’d about two Ounces in its Weight.’

On this Experiment Mr. _Bradley_ grounds his Airy Hypothesis. But let it be but examined fairly, and see what may be thence inferr’d.

The Tin Cover was to prevent any other Earth from getting in. This must also prevent any Earth from getting out, except what enter’d the Roots, and by them pass’d into the Tree.

A Willow is a very thirsty Tree, and must have drank in Five Years time several Tuns of Water, which must necessarily carry in its Interstices a great Quantity of Earth (probably many times more than the Tree’s[5] Weight, which could not get out, but by the Roots of the Willow.

[5] The Body of an Animal receives a much less Increase in Weight
than its Perspirations amount to, as _Sanctorius_’s _Static-Chair_
demonstrates.

Therefore the Two hundred Pounds of Earth not being increased, proves that so much Earth as was poured in with the Water, did enter the Tree.

Whether the Earth did enter to nourish the Tree, or whether only in order to pass through it (by way of Vehicle to the Air), and leave the Air behind for the Augment of the Willow, may appear by examining the Matter of which the Tree did consist.

If the Matter remaining after the Corruption or Putrefaction of the Tree be Earth, will it not be a Proof, that the Earth remained in it, to nourish and augment it? for it could not leave what it did not first take, nor be augmented by what pass’d through it. According to _Aristotle_’s Doctrine, and Mr. _Bradley_’s too, in Vol. I. _pag._ 72. “Putrefaction resolves it again into Earth, its first Principle.”

The Weight of the Tree, even when green, must consist of Earth and Water. Air could be no Part of it, because Air being of no greater specific Gravity than the incumbent Atmosphere, could not be of any Weight in it; therefore was no Part of the One hundred Sixty-nine Pounds Three Ounces.

Nature has directed Animals and Vegetables to seek what is most necessary to them. At the Time when the _Fœtus_ has a Necessity of Respiration, ’tis brought forth into the open Air, and then the Lungs are filled with Air. As soon as a Calf, Lamb, _&c._ is able to stand, it applies to the Teat for Food, without any Teaching. In like manner Mr. _Bradley_ remarks, in his Vol. I. _pag._ 10. ‘That almost every Stem and every Root are formed in a bending manner under Ground; and yet all these Stems become strait and upright when they come above-ground, and meet the Air; and most Roots run as directly downwards, and shun the Air as much as possible.’