Chapter XI: Preface (11)

But to say, that the Soil can cause Wheat to degenerate into Rye, or convert, Rye into Wheat, is what reflects upon the Credit of _Laurembergius_: ’Tis as easy to believe, that an Horse, by feeding in a certain Pasture, will degenerate into a Bull, and in other Pasture revert to an Horse again; these are scarce of more different Species than Wheat and Rye are: If the different Soil of _Wittemberg_ and _Thuringia_ change one Species, they may the other.

CHAP. XVI.

_Of_ RIDGES.

The Method of plowing Land up into Ridges is a particular Sort of Tillage; the chief Use of which is, the Alteration it makes in the Degrees of Heat and Moisture, being two of the grand Requisites of Vegetation; for very different Degrees of these are necessary to different Species of Vegetables.

Those Vegetables commonly sown in our Fields, require a middle Degree of both, not being able to live on the Sides of perpendicular Walls in hot Countries, nor under Water in cold ones, neither are they amphibious, but must have a Surface of Earth not cover’d, nor much soak’d with Water, which deprives them of their necessary Degree of Heat, and causes them to languish. The Symptoms of their Disease are a pale or yellow Colour in their Leaves, and a Cessation of Growth, and Death ensues as sure as from a Dropsy.

The only Remedy to prevent this Disease in Plants is, to lay such wet Land up into Ridges, that the Water may run off into the Furrows, and be convey’d by Ditches or Drains into some River.

The more a Soil is fill’d with Water, the less Heat it will have.

The Two Sorts of Land most liable to be overglutted with Water, are Hills, whereof the _Upper Stratum_ (or Staple) is Mould lying upon a _Second Stratum_ of Clay;

And generally all strong deep Land.

Hills are made wet and spewy by the Rain-water which falls thereon, and soaks into them as into other Land; but being stopp’d by the Clay lying next the Surface or Staple, cannot enter the Clay; and for want of Entrance, spreads itself upon it; and as Water naturally tends downwards, it is by the incumbent Mould partly stopp’d in its Descent from the upper towards the lower Side of an Hill; and being follow’d and press’d on by more Water from above, is forced to rise up into the Mould lying upon it, which it fills as a Cistern does a Fountain (or _Jet d’Eau_). The Land of such an Hill is not the less wet or spewy for being laid up in Ridges, if they be made from the higher to the lower Part of the Field; for the Force of the Water’s Weight continued will raise it so, as to cause it to issue out at the very Tops of those Ridges; the Earth becomes a sort of Pap or Batter, and being like a Quagmire, in going over it, the Feet of Men and Cattle sink in till they come to the Clay.

There are two Methods of draining such a wet Hill: The one is to dig many Trenches, cross the Hill horizontally[217], and either fill them up with Stones loose or archwise, through which the Water, when it soaks into the Trenches, may run off at one or both Ends of them into some Ditch, which is lower, and carries it away; then they cover the Trenches with Mould, and plow over them as in dry level Ground.

[217] For if they are made with the Descent, and not across it,
then they will be parallel to the Rills of Water, that run upon the
Surface of the Clay under the Staple (or upper _Stratum_ of Mould),
and would be no more effectual for draining the Hill, than the
digging of one River parallel to another, without joining it in any
Part, would be effectual for draining the other River of its Water.

This Method has been found effectual for a time, but not of long Continuance; for the Trenches are apt to be stopp’d up, and then the Springs break out again as before: Besides, this is a very chargeable Work, and in many Places the Expence of it may almost equal the Purchase of the Land.

Therefore ’tis a better Method to plow the Ridges cross the Hill almost horizontally, that their parting Furrows, lying open, may each serve as a Drain to the Ridge next below it; for when the Plough has made the Bottom of these horizontal Furrows a few Inches deeper than the Surface of the Clay, the Water will run to their Ends very securely, without rising into the Mould, provided no Part of the Furrows be lower than their Ends.

These parting Furrows, and their Ridges, must be made more or less oblique, according to the Form and Declivity of the Hill; but the more horizontal they are, the sooner the Rain-water will run off the Lands; for in that Case it will run to the Furrows, and reach them at right Angles, which it will not do when the Ridges (or Lands) are oblique; and therefore the Water’s Course cross the Lands will be longer[218]. Every one of these horizontal Trenches receives all the Water from the Rills, or little Gutters, wherein the Water runs betwixt the Mould and the Clay; these are all cut off by the Trenches, which receive the Water at their upper Sides, and carry it away, as the Trunks of Lead plac’d under the Eaves of a House do carry away the Rain-water.

[218] The natural Course of Water being downwards, it would always
run by the nearest Way to the Bottom of the Hill, if nothing stopt
it; but the Water runs from an Hill in Two Manners; _viz._ Upon the
Surface of the Staple, and upon the Surface of the Clay that is under
the Staple; that which runs under keeps its strait Course from the
Top to the Bottom of an Hill, under a Ridge that is made exactly with
the Descent of the Hill, except that Part of the Water that rises
up into the Mould, and a very little that soaks into the Furrows,
for when the Furrows are not made exactly with the Descent, the more
oblique they are to the Descent, the longer will be the Water’s
Course under the Ridges; and the shorter, as they are nearer being at
Right Angles to the Descent. ’Tis also the same with the Water that
falls upon the Surface of the Ridges; for the more horizontal they
are, the shorter its Course will be from them to the Furrows, which
carry it off; and the less of the Water will sink into the Ridges,
the less oblique and the nearer to Right Angles to the Descent they
are made.

If there were no other Manner of plowing Ridges on the Sides of Hills than what is commonly practised on the Plains, this Method of leaving open Furrows (or Drains on Declivities) would be impracticable; because the Plough could not turn up the Furrows against the Hill, and against the Ridge also, from the lower Side of it: But the easy Remedy against that Inconvenience is, to plow such Ridges in Pairs, without throwing any Earth into the Trenches, and then the Ridges will be plain a-top, and the Rain-water will run speedily downward to the next Trench, and thence to the Head-land, and so out of the Field. These Trenches will be made, as well as kept always open, by this plowing in Pairs; and is abundantly more easy than the Way of plowing Ridges singly. This plowing in Pairs prevents also another Inconveniency, which would otherwise happen to these horizontal Ridges; and that is, they being highest in the Middle, the Rain-water could not run freely from the upper Half of a Ridge towards the next Furrow below it, but would be apt to sink in there, and soak thro’ the Ridge; but when Ridges lie in Pairs, the Water will run off from a whole Ridge, as well as off the lower Half of a Ridge that is plow’d singly, and highest in the Middle.

_Note_, That every time of plowing, the Pairs must be changed, so that the Furrow, which had Two Ridges turned towards it one time, must have Two turned from it the next time: This Method keeps the Surfaces of all the Ridges (or Lands) pretty near even[219].

[219] _Note_, This cannot be done on an Hill, whose Declivity is
so great, that the Plough is not able to turn a Furrow against it.
But in this Case, perhaps, it may be sufficient to plow the Ridges
obliquely enough for the Furrow to be turned both Ways.

Farmers are at more Trouble and Pains to drown such Land (it being common to break their Horses Wind in plowing up Hill) than they would be at, if they laid their Ridges in the abovesaid Manner, which would effectually make them dry. Many hundred Acres of good Ground are spoiled; and many a good Horse, in plowing against the Hill, and against all Reason, Demonstration, and Experience too; which might be learned even from the _Irish_, who drain their Bogs, and make them fruitful, whilst some _English_ bestow much Labour to drown and make barren many of their Hills, which would more easily be made dry and fertile.

I have observed, that those Places of such an Hill, that, when plowed with the Descent, were the wettest, and never produced any thing that was sown on them, became the very richest, when made dry by plowing cross the Descent. This shews that Water does not impoverish Land, but the contrary; tho’, whilst it stands thereon, it prevents the Heat which is necessary to the Production of most Sorts of Vegetables: And where it runs swiftly, it carries much Earth away with it; where it runs slowly, it deposits and leaves much behind it.

Though in all Places, where this Way of making the Ridges cross the Descent of Hills is practised, the Land becomes dry; yet very few Farmers will alter their old Method[220]; no, not even to try the Experiment; but still complain their Ground is so wet and spewy, that it brings them little or no Profit; and if the Year prove moist, they are great Losers by sowing it[221].

[220] But some of late are convinced, by observing that an Hill
of mine has been made dry by this means for Fourteen Years past,
which before was always more wet and spewy than any Field in the
Neighbourhood; and from the time of inclosing it out of an Heath (or
Common), and the converting it to arable, which was about Seventy
Years ago, it had been reputed as little better than barren, on
account of its Wetness; and that it has been the most profitable
Field of my Farm ever since it has been under this new Management.
I have also another Field, that lies about a Mile and an half from
me: It doth not belong to the Farm where I live, but was thrown
upon my Hands, no Tenant caring to rent it, because great Part of
it was full of Springs, and barren: This also, having been kept in
Lands plowed cross the Descent (which is but a small Declivity), is
become dry: And now the most prejudiced Farmers agree, that keeping
the Lands or Ridges of wet Ground always cross the Descent doth cure
its Spewiness. Hereupon some have attempted to put this Method in
Practice on their wet Land; and, after it has been well tilled up
Hill and down, have plowed it the last time for sowing of Wheat in
flat Lands cross the Descent; but by Mismanagement their Furrows are
higher at each End than the Middle, so that none of the Water can run
off either downwards or sideways, or any other Way.

Had the Furrows carried off the Water at both or either of their
Ends, it might have been effectual, notwithstanding the broad Lands,
because their Ground hath a much less Declivity, and is much less
spewy, than my Hill was: They will doubtless find their Mistake, and
amend it, having a Precedent before their Eyes; but if they had none
within their own Inspection, I question whether this Mismanagement
might not discourage them from prosecuting their Project any further.

[221] Remember, in making Ridges of all Sorts, and of whatsoever
Figure the Piece is, that no Ridge ought to have any more Furrows
at one End, than at the other End; for if there be, the Plough must
be turned in the Middle of the Piece, which will cause the Land to
be trodden by the Horses; but if each End have an equal Number of
Furrows, the Horses in turning will tread only upon the Head lands,
which may be plowed afterwards; or if design’d to be Horse-ho’d, the
Head-lands should be narrow, and not plowed at all.

The Benefit of laying up strong deep Land into Ridges is very great; tho’ there be no Springs in it, as are in the Hills aforementioned.

This Land, when it lies flat, and is plowed sometimes one Way, sometimes the other, by cross-plowing, retains the Rain-water a long time soaking into it; by that Misfortune, the Plough is kept out Two or Three Weeks longer than if the same were in round Ridges; nay, sometimes its Flatness keeps it from drying till the Season of plowing, and even of sowing too, be lost.

The Reasons commonly given against such Ridges are these following.

I. _They prevent the fansied Benefit of cross-plowing._

II. _Farmers think they lose Part of their Ground, by leaving more
Furrows betwixt Ridges, than when they lay their Land flat, where the
Lands are made much larger than round Ridges can conveniently be;
and because also the Furrows betwixt Ridges must be broader, and lie
open; but the other they fill up by the Harrows._

The first of these I have already answered elsewhere, by shewing, that Cross-plowing is oftener injurious than beneficial.

The Second I shall sufficiently confute, if I can make appear, that no Ground is lost, but much may be gained, by Ridges.

What I mean by gaining of Ground, is the increasing of the Earth’s Surface: For if a flat Piece be plow’d up into Ridges, and if in each Sixteen Feet Breadth there be an empty Furrow of Two Feet; and yet, by the Height and Roundness of the Ridges, they have Eighteen Feet of Surface capable of producing Corn, equally to Eighteen Feet whilst the Piece was flat; there will be one Eighth Part of profitable Ground or Surface gain’d, more than it had when level; and this, I believe, Experience will prove, if the thing were well examined into.

But against this Increase of profitable Ground, there is an Objection, which I must not call a frivolous one, in respect to the Authors who bring it; yet, I hope, the Desire of finding the Truth will justify me to examine it; and the Arguments brought to sustain it.

This Opinion of theirs is founded upon their Notion (which I think very erroneous) of the perpendicular Growth of Vegetables; and is, by Mr. _Bradley_, set in its best Light, in his _Vol._ I. _Pag._ 8. _usque ad Pag._ 13. and in his Cuts, representing Three Hills; but his Arguments seem to be such as all Arguments are, which pretend to prove a thing to be what it is not; _viz._ Sophistical ones.

The Hypothesis he endeavours to prove, is in _Pag._ 8. thus: ‘An Hill may contain Four equal Sides, which meet in a Point at the Top; but the Contents of these Four Sides can produce no more, either of Grain or Trees, than the plain Ground, upon which the Hill stands, or has at its Base: and yet, by the Measure of the Sides, we find twice the Number of Acres, Roods, and Poles, which measure in the Base, or Ground-plat; and therefore _Page_ 9. Hills are worth no more than half their Superficial Measure; _i. e._ Two Acres upon the Side of the Hill to pay as much as one upon the Plain, provided the Soil of both is equally rich.’

To prove it, he gives an Example in _Fig._ III. of Buildings upon an Hill; shewing, that the Two Sides of the Hill will only bear the same Number of Houses, that may stand in the Line at the Base.

This is foreign to the Question, of how much Grain, or how many Trees, the Hill will produce. For Vegetables, being fed by the Earth, require much more of its Surface to nourish them, than is necessary for them to stand on; but Buildings require no more of the Surface but Room to stand on: Therefore no such Argument, taken from Buildings, can be applied to Vegetables.

This Argument of Mr. _Bradley_’s gives no more Satisfaction to the Question about producing of Vegetables, than a Grazier would do, being asked, how many Oxen a certain Pasture-ground would maintain, if he should answer, by satisfying you with the Number of Churches which might stand thereon.

The like Answer, in effect, may be given to the Argument in _Fig._ IV. of the Pales; only he has forgot to shew, that to mound over the Hill would require double the Rails, or double the Hedge-wood (except Stakes) as to mound the Base; if it did not, the Hill would be yet of the more Value, because thereon more Surface might be fenced in at less Expence.

In his _Fig._ II. he gives no good Reason why the Hill should not bear twice the Number of Trees as the Base can do; for there is as much Room for Two hundred Trees on the Hill, as for One hundred on the Base, because he allows the Surface to be double to that of the Base. He ought to measure the Distances of the Trees on the Hill, by a Line parallel to the Surface they grow on, as well as he does the Distances of those below.

And suppose the Row at the Base, together with the Surface they grow on, were rais’d up, so that it should become parallel to half the Row on the Hill, would not the Trees in the Base Row be twice as near to one another as the Trees in the Hill Row are? And suppose a Line had been ty’d from the Tops of all the lower Trees, before the Row was so rais’d up at one End, and then, after the Situation of the Row was so alter’d, if by this Line the Trees should be pull’d from being perpendicular to the Surface they grow on, and made to stand oblique to that, and perpendicular to the Horizon, as the upper Trees are; would the Distances of the Trees from one another be alter’d by this Change of Posture? No, for their Bottoms would be at the same Distances, because not removed; and their Tops, because the same Line holds them, at the same Distances in both Postures.

Mr. _Bradley’s_ Lines, drawn from the Trees below, which are one Perch asunder, make the Two Rows of Trees falsly seem to be at equal Distances, because these Lines are parallel to each other: But this is a Deceit; for, in Truth, the Distances of the Trees are not measured by the Distances of those Lines, but by the extreme Points at the Ends of the Lines[222]; and those Two Points above, where the Lines cut the Row obliquely, and at unequal Angles are twice as far asunder as the endmost or extreme Points below are, where the Lines cut the Row at right Angles. Hence may be inferr’d, that there is Room for twice as many Trees to grow on the Hill as on the Base, and twice as much Grain for the same Reason; because there is twice the Surface for the Roots to spread in. And since Mr. _Bradley_ allows the Hill to contain Two Perches to One of the Base, and the Soil of both to be of equal Goodness; and yet affirms, that the Two can produce no more of Grain or Trees than the one Perch can; I cannot see, why it should not be as reasonable to say, that Two Quarters of Oats will maintain an Horse no longer, nor better, than One Quarter of Oats, of equal Goodness, will do.

[222] These upper Trees are measured by the unequal Length of the
Lines, not by their parallel Distance, as the lower Trees are;
therefore his Measure is a Quibble.

In _Page_ 13. he concludes thus: ‘That Hills, in their Measure, contain only as much profitable Land as the Plain or Plat of Ground they stand upon; and as a Proof of that, all Vegetables or Plants have an erect Method of Growth.’

This Proof of Mr. _Bradley_’s is founded upon an Argument which has no Consequence, unless it were first proved, that the Surface of Earth could produce and maintain as many Vegetables or Plants as could stand thereon in an erect Posture; which Supposition is as impossible, as that half an Acre should produce and maintain an Hecatomb, without Mr. _Bradley_’s teaching Oxen to live upon Air for their Food, as he thinks _Van Helmont_’s Tree did.

All expert Husbandmen must needs be convinced, that the greatest Crop of Vegetables that ever grew, might stand in an erect Posture, upon a twentieth (and I may say the Hundredth) Part of the Surface that produced it; therefore there must be Nineteen Parts for the Roots to spread, unoccupied by the Trunks, Stems, or Stalks.

And tho’ it be true, that an Hill will support no more of these, than its Base, when placed in an erect Posture, close together, as in a Sheaf; yet this close Position is only proper for them when they are dead, and require no more Nourishment than Houses and Pales do; and consequently require no Room but to stand on. Therefore this Argument of Mr. _Bradley_’s must not be admitted in vegetative Growth, where there is always required Nineteen times more Room in the Surface, for the Use of the Roots, than what the Stems, Trunks, or Stalks, do possess upon it: And the more Room there is for the Roots, the greater Number of Plants may be produced.

Neither can I admit, that all Vegetables or Plants have an erect Method of Growth; because the contrary is seen in Chamomile, and divers other Vegetables, which have an horizontal Method of Growth.

But what is more material to this Purpose, to be observed, is, that all Vegetables have horizontal Roots, and Roots parallel to the Earth’s Surface or Superficies; and unless those Roots have a sufficient Superficies of Earth to range in, for Nourishment of a Plant, the Stem and Branches cannot prosper, whatever be their Method of Growth above the Earth; and if there be not a due Quantity of Food for the Roots within the Earth, a very little Space may contain the external Parts of Vegetables upon it.

From what has been said, I think we may conclude, that Mr. _Bradley_’s Hill may produce more Vegetables than the Base whereon it stands; and therefore it is of more Value than half its superficial Measure; _i. e._ Two Acres on the Hill are worth more than one Acre on the Plain, the Soil being equally rich, as he allows it to be, in his Case.

Now, indeed, whether Mr. _Bradley_ might not possibly be deceived in his Opinion of the equal Richness of his Hill, and his Plain, I will not dispute: I will only say this, that ’tis generally otherwise. But where a Plain is plow’d up into moderate Ridges, their Height being in proportion to the Depth of the Staple, below which the Plough must take nothing into the Ridges, the Soil is equally rich, whether it be plowed plain, or ridged up. And as the Surface is in the Ridges increased, there is nothing in all Mr. _Bradley_’s Arguments, that shews, why that increased Surface should not produce more Vegetables than the same Earth could do whilst it was level.

There are other Reasons why it should produce more when ridged[223], besides the Increase of Surface; as,

I. _’Tis then more free from the Injuries of too much Water._

II. _’Tis better protected against cold Winds; because the Ridges are
a Shelter to one another._

III. _If the Surface be much exhausted, by too frequent Sowing, the
Ridges may be made just where the Furrows were, and then the Surface
will be intirely changed._

[223] To the Three we may add a Fourth Reason, _viz._ the raising the
Thickness of the Staple in the Ridges, keeping the Surface drier in
wet Weather, and moister at the Bottom of the Staple in dry Weather.
And I have seen Barley that was drilled on my raised little Ridges
flourish in a dry Summer on the Brow of my chalky Hill, and on my
lowest Land in wet Weather, when the Barley hand-sown contiguous to
it on each Side those Ridges, sown on the Level the same Day that the
Ridges were drilled, have looked yellow and sickly; and yet it is not
wet Land.

The following general Rules ought to be observed about Ridges; _viz._

That, as to their Height, regard must be had to the Nature of the Soil, in its difficult Admission of Water; for the greater that is, the greater Declivities the Ridges should have; and then, if the Soil be not deep, they should generally be made the narrower.

There is one thing which Mr. _Bradley_ takes no notice of; _viz._ That no more of the Rain, or other Benefits of the Atmosphere, which descend perpendicularly, can fall on an Hill, or on a Ridge, than what would fall on the Base, or Ground-plot. But ’tis probable, that more of the fine Vapour, which swims in the Current of the Air horizontally, does strike and break against those Eminences, and so make an Equivalent[224], except that it runs off more quickly.

[224] But though Ridges do alter or increase the Surface, the
Quantity of Soil or Earth remaining the same as on the Level, and
of no greater Depth than can be tilled, it may produce equal Crops
of Corn with the Level, and no more; except from the Advantage the
Ridges may give it in lying drier.

Notwithstanding all I have here said, in behalf of Ridges, I must confess, that, for my Hoeing-Husbandry, I should prefer Land that is naturally dry enough, without a Necessity of being laid up in any larger or higher Ridges than what may contain Six Feet in Breadth[225], that Size being the largest that is proper for the regular Operation of the Horse-hoe.

[225] Since the Printing of my Essay, I find, upon Trial, that these
narrow Ridges are as effectual as any for carrying the Water off from
my clayey Hill; and that they be made much less horizontal than broad
Ridges, whereby their Furrows are the more easily turned upwards
against the Declivity.

I have not tried any narrower Ridge than that of Six Feet upon this
Hill: But I have had full Experience of Five-feet and of Four-feet
Ridges upon other Land; and find that all Sizes of these narrow
Ridges are very advantageous, even where the Crop is to be sown upon
the Level; for fewer Furrows are necessary for the Tilling of an
Acre, when ’tis kept in such Ridges, than in broad Lands; and after
wet Weather the Ridges will be fit to be plowed much sooner than
level Ground.

CHAP. XVII.

_Of_ Differences _between the_ Old _and the_ New Husbandry.

In order to make a Comparison between the Hoeing-Husbandry, and the old Way, there are Four Things, whereof the Differences ought to be very well considered.

I. _The Expence_ }
II. _The Goodness_ } of a Crop.
III. _The Certainty_ }
IV. _The Condition in which the Land is left after a Crop._

The Profit or Loss arising from Land, is not to be computed, only from the Value of the Crop it produces; but from its Value, after all Expences of Seed, Tillage, _&c._ are deducted.

Thus, when an Acre brings a Crop worth _Four Pounds_, and the Expences thereof amount to _Five Pounds_, the Owner’s Loss is _One Pound_; and when an Acre brings a Crop which yields _Thirty Shillings_, and the Expence amounts to no more than _Ten Shillings_, the Owner receives _One Pound_, clear Profit, from this Acre’s very small Crop, as the other loses _One Pound_ by his greater Crop.

_The usual Expences of an Acre of Wheat, sown in the_ old Husbandry, _in the Country where I live, is, in some Places, for Two Bushels and an half of Seed; in other Places Four Bushels and an half; the least of these Quantities at_ Three Shillings per _Bushel, being the present Price, is_ Seven Shillings _and_ Six-pence. _For Three Plowings, Harrowing, and Sowing_, Sixteen Shillings; _but if plow’d Four times, which is better_, One Pound. _For Thirty Load of Dung, to a Statute Acre, is_ Two Pounds Five Shillings. _For Carriage of the Dung, according to the Distance, from_ Two Shillings _to_ Six-pence _the Load_, One Shilling _being the Price most common, is_ One Pound Ten Shillings. _The Price for Weeding is very uncertain; it has sometimes cost_ Twelve Shillings, _sometimes_ Two Shillings per _Acre_.

_l._ _s._ _d._

_In Seed and Tillage, nothing can be abated of_ 01 03 06
_For the Weeding, one Year with another, is more than_ 00 02 00
_For the Rent of the Year’s Fallow_ 00 10 00
_For the Dung; ’tis in some Places a little cheaper,
neither do they always lay on quite so much; therefore
abating_ 15_s._ _in that Article, we may well set Dung
and Carriage at_ 02 10 00
_Reaping commonly_ 5_s._ _sometimes less_ 00 04 06
------------
_Total_ 04 10 00

_Folding of Land with Sheep is reckoned abundantly cheaper than Cart-dung; but this is to be questioned, because much Land must lie still for keeping a Flock (unless there be Downs); and for their whole Year’s keeping, with both Grass and Hay, there are but Three Months of the Twelve wherein the Fold is of any considerable Value; this makes the Price of their Manure quadruple to what it would be, if equally good all the Year, like Cart-dung: And folding Sheep yield little Profit, besides their Dung; because the Wool of a Flock, except it be a large one, will scarce pay the Shepherd and the Shearers. But there is another thing yet, which more inhances the Price of Sheep-Dung; and that is, the dunging the Land with their Bodies, when they all die of the Rot, which happens too frequently in many Places; and then the whole Crop of Corn must go to purchase another Flock, which may have the same Fate the ensuing Year, if the Summer prove wet; and so may the Farmer be served for several more successive Years, unless he should break, and another take his Place, or that dry Summers come in time to prevent it. To avoid this Misfortune, he would be glad to purchase Cart-dung at the highest Price, for supplying the Place of his Fold; but ’tis only near Cities, and great Towns, that a sufficient Quantity can be procured._

_But, supposing the Price of Dunging to be only Two Pounds Ten Shillings, and the general Expence of an Acre of Wheat, when sown, at Three Shillings_ per _Bushel, to be Four Pounds Ten Shillings, with the Year’s Rent of the Fallow_;

The Expences of planting an Acre of Wheat in the Hoeing-Husbandry, is Three Pecks of[226] Seed, at _Three Shillings_ _per_ Bushel, is _Two Shillings_ and _Three-pence_. The whole Tillage, if done by Horses, would be _Eight Shillings_; because our Two Plowings, and Six Hoeings[227], are equal to Two Plowings; the common Price whereof is _Four Shillings_ each; but this we diminish half, when done by Oxen kept on St. Foin, in this manner; _viz._ Land worth _Thirty Shillings_ Rent, drill’d with St. Foin, will well maintain an Ox a Year[228], and sometimes Hay will be left to pay for the Making: We cannot therefore allow more than _One Shilling_ a Week for his Work, because his Keeping comes but to _Seven-pence_ a Week round the Year.

[226] Sometimes half a Bushel is the most just Quantity of Seed, to
drill on an Acre.

[227] But we sometimes plow our Six-feet Ridges before Drilling,
at Five or Six Furrows, which is a Furrow or Two more than I have
reckoned: But we do not always hoe Six times afterwards. But it is
better for successive Wheat-crops to bestow the Labour of as many
Hoeings as amount to three plain Plowings in a Year, it being a
greater Damage to omit one necessary Hoeing, than is the Expence of
several Hoeings.

[228] Or an Ox may be well kept Nine Months, with an Acre of
indifferent Horse-ho’d Turneps; and if we value them only at the
Expence and Rent of the Land, this will be a yet cheaper Way of
maintaining Oxen. Upon more Experience it is found, that St. Foin Hay
alone, or with a small Quantity of Turneps, is best for working Oxen
in the Winter; but a Plenty of Turneps with the same Hay is better
for fatting Oxen that do not work.

In plain Plowing, Six Feet contains Eight Furrows; but we plow a Six-feet Ridge at Four Furrows, because in this there are Two Furrows cover’d in the Middle of it, and one on each Side of it lies open. Now what we call one Hoeing, is only Two Furrows of this Ridge, which is equal to a Fourth Part of one plain Plowing; so that the Hoeing of Four Acres requires an equal Number of Furrows with one Acre that is plow’d plain, and equal Time to do it in (except that the Land, that is kept in Hoeing, works much easier than that which is not).

All the Tillage we ever bestow upon a Crop of Wheat that follows a ho’d Crop, is equal to Eight Hoeings[229]; Two of which may require Four Oxen each, One of them Three Oxen, and the other Five Hoeings Two Oxen each. However, allow Three Oxen to each single Hoeing, taking them all one with another, which is Three Oxen more than it comes to in the Whole.

[229] But the Number of Oxen required will be according to their
Bigness and Strength, and to the Depth and Strength of the Soil,
which also will be the easier Draught for the Oxen, the oftener the
Intervals are hoed.

Begin at Five in the Morning, and in about Six Hours you may hoe Three Acres, being equal in Furrows to Three Rood; _i. e._ Three Quarters of an Acre. Then turn the Oxen to Grass, and after resting, eating, and drinking, Two Hours and an half, with another Set of Oxen begin Hoeing again; and by or before half an Hour after Seven at Night, another like Quantity may be ho’d. These are the Hours the Statute has appointed all Labourers to work, during the Summer Half-year.

To hoe these Six Acres a Day, each Set of Oxen draw the Plough only Eight Miles and a Quarter, which they may very well do in Five Hours; and then the Holder and Driver will be at their Work of Plowing Ten Hours, and will have Four Hours and an half to rest, _&c._

The Expence then of hoeing Six Acres in a Day, in this manner, may be accounted, at _One Shilling_ the Man that holds the Plough, _Six-pence_ the Boy that drives the Plough, _One Shilling_ for the Six Oxen, and _Six-pence_ for keeping the Tackle in Repair. The whole Sum for hoeing these Six Acres is _Three Shillings_, being _Six-pence_ _per_ Acre[230].

[230] But where there is not the Convenience of keeping Oxen, the
Price of Hoeing with Horses is One Shilling each time.

When a Roller is used, which is less than a Hoeing, because one
Person to lead is enough, and that may be a Boy; and once in an
interval may suffice; then ’tis less Labour than half a Hoeing; and
for this we may well abate One Hoeing of the Eight.

They who follow the old Husbandry cannot keep Oxen so cheap, because they can do nothing without the Fold, and Store-sheep will spoil the St. Foin. They may almost as well keep Foxes and Geese together, as Store-sheep and good St. Foin. Besides, the sowed St. Foin cost Ten times as much the Planting as drill’d St. Foin does, and must be frequently manured, or else it will soon decay; especially upon all sorts of chalky Land, whereon ’tis most commonly sown.

The Expence of drilling cannot be much; for as we can hoe Six Acres a Day, at Two Furrows on each Six-feet Ridge, so we may drill Twenty-four Acres a Day, with a Drill that plants Two of those Ridges at once; and this we may reckon a _Peny Half-peny_ an Acre. But because we find it less Trouble to drill single Ridges, we will set the Drilling, at most, _Six-pence_ _per_ Acre.

As every successive Crop (if well managed) is more free from Weeds than the preceding Crop; I will set it all together at _Six-pence_[231] an Acre for Weeding[232].

[231] This is when the Land has been well cleansed of Weeds in the
preceding Crop, or Fallow, or both.

[232] This may be enough, if the Land be well cleansed the Year
before, and considering that several Years in such there is no
Occasion for Weeding at all: And as this Calculation is comparative
with the old Way, we should examine the Price of weeding the sown
Corn, which by the best Information I can get, was in the Year 1735.
about 4_s._ _per_ Acre for Weeding of Barley; and of Wheat, round
about where I live, about 6_s._ and in _Wiltshire_, 15_s._ _per_ Acre
for their Wheat, amongst which much Damage is done by the Weeder’s
Feet, and yet some Weeds are left.

For a Boy or a Woman to follow the Hoe-plough, to uncover the young Wheat, when any Clods of Earth happen to fall on it, for which Trouble there is seldom necessary above once[233] to a Crop, _Two-pence_ an Acre. _One Peny_ is too much for Brine and Lime for an Acre.

[233] But this Expence being so small, ’tis better that a Person
should follow at every Hoeing, where we suspect, that any Damage may
happen from any Earth’s falling on, or pressing too hard against some
of the Plants.

Reaping this Wheat is not worth above half as much as the Reaping of a sown Crop of equal Value; because the drill’d standing upon about a Sixth Part of the Ground, a Reaper may cut almost as much of the Row at one Stroke, as he could at Six, if the same stood dispersed all over the Ground, as the sowed does; and because he who reaps sowed Wheat, must reap the Weeds along with the Wheat; but the drilled has no Weeds; and besides, there go a greater Quantity of Straw, and more Sheaves, to a Bushel of the sowed, than of the drilled[234]. And since some Hundred Acres of drilled Wheat have been reaped at _Two Shillings_ and _Six-pence_ _per_ Acre, I will count that to be the Price.

[234] One Sheaf of the latter will yield more Wheat than Two of the
former of equal Diameter.

_The whole_ Expence _of an Acre of drilled Wheat_.

_l._ _s._ _d._
For Seed 00 02 03
For Tillage 00 04 00
For Drilling 00 00 06
For Weeding 00 00 06
For Uncovering 00 00 02
For Brine and Lime 00 00 01
For Reaping 00 02 06
----------
Total 00 10 00
----------
The Expence of an Acre of sowed Wheat is 04 00 00
To which must be added, for the Year’s Rent of the Fallow 00 10 00
----------
Total 04 10 00

If I have reckoned the Expence of the drilled at the lowest Price, to bring it to an even Sum; I have also abated in the other more than the whole Expence of the drilled amounts unto.

And thus the Expence of a drilled Crop of Wheat is but the Ninth Part of the Expence of a Crop sown in the common Manner.

’Tis also some Advantage, that less Stock is required where no Store-sheep are used.

II. _Of the different Goodness of a Crop._

The Goodness of a Crop consists in the Quality of it, as well as the Quantity; and Wheat being the most useful Grain, a Crop of this is better than a Crop of any other Corn, and the ho’d Wheat has larger Ears (and a fuller Body) than sow’d Wheat. We can have more of it, because the same Land will produce it every Year, and even Land, which, by the Old Husbandry, would not be made to bear Wheat at all: So that, in many Places, the New Husbandry can raise Ten Acres of Wheat for One that the Old can do: because where Land is poor, they sow but a Tenth Part of it with Wheat.

We do not pretend, that we have always greater Crops, or so great as some sown Crops are, especially if those mention’d by Mr. _Houghton_ be not mistaken.

The greatest Produce I ever had from a single Yard in Length of a double Row, was Eighteen Ounces: The Partition of this being Six Inches, and the Interval Thirty Inches, was, by Computation, Ten Quarters (or Eighty Bushels) to an Acre.

I had also Twenty Ounces to a like Yard of a Third successive Crop of Wheat; but this being a treble Row, and the Partitions and Interval being wider, and supposed to be in all Six Feet, was computed to Six Quarters to an Acre. And if these Rows had been better order’d than they were, and the Earth richer, and more pulveriz’d, more Stalks would have tillered out, and more Ears would have attained their full Size, and have equall’d the best, which must have made a much greater Crop than either of these were.

But to compare the different Profit, we may proceed thus: The Rent and Expence of a drill’d Acre being One Pound, and of a sow’d Acre Five Pounds; One Quarter of Corn, produced by the drill’d, bears an equal Proportion in Profit to the One Pound, as Five Quarters, produced by the other, do to the Five Pounds. As suppose it be of Wheat, at Two Shillings and Six-pence a Bushel, there is neither Gain nor Loss in the one nor the other Acre, though the former yield but One Quarter, and the other Five; but if the drill’d Acre yield Two Quarters, and the sow’d Acre Four Quarters at the same Price, the drill’d brings the Farmer One Pound clear Profit, and the sown, by its Four Quarters, brings the other One Pound Loss. Likewise suppose the drilling Farmer to have his Five Pounds laid out on Five Acres of Wheat, and the other to have his Five Pounds laid put on One dung’d Acre; then let the Wheat they produce be at what Price it will, if the Five Acres have an equal Crop to the one Acre, the Gain or Loss must be equal: But when Wheat is cheap, as we say it is when sold at Two and Six-pence a Bushel, then if the Farmer, who follows the old Method, has Five Quarters on his Acre, he must sell it all to pay his Rent and Expence; but the other having Five Quarters on each of his Five Acres, the Crop of One of them will pay the Rent and Expence of all his Five Acres[235], and he may keep the remaining Twenty Quarters, till he can sell them at Five Shillings a Bushel, which amounts to Forty Pounds, wherewith he may be able to buy Four of his Five Acres at Twenty Years Purchase, out of One Year’s Crop, whilst the Farmer who pursues the old Method, must be content to have only his Labour for his Travel; or if he pretends to keep his Wheat till he sells it at Five Shillings a Bushel, he commonly runs in Debt to his Neighbours, and in Arrear of his Rent; and if the Markets do not rise in time, or if his Crops fail in the Interim, his Landlord seizes on his Stock, and then he knows not how it may be sold; Actions are brought against him; the Bailiffs and Attorneys pull him to Pieces; and then he is undone[236].

[235] Or suppose a drill’d Acre to produce no more than One Third
of the sow’d Acre’s Crop, whose Expence is Five times as much as
of the drill’d, ’tis much more profitable, because a Third of Five
Pounds is One Pound Thirteen and Four-pence; and a Fifth of the Rent
and Expence being only One Pound, such drill’d Acre pays the Owner
Thirteen and Four-pence more Profit, than the other which brings a
Crop treble to the drill’d.

[236] Tho’ only Five Acres and one Acre be put, yet we may imagine
them Two hundred and Fifty, and Fifty to enrich the one, or break the
other Farmer.

III. _The Certainty of a Crop._

The Certainty of a Crop is much to be regarded; it being better to be secure of a moderate Crop, than to have but a mere Hazard of a great one. The Farmer who adheres to the old Method is often deceiv’d in his Expectation, when his Crop at coming into Ear is very big, as well as when ’tis in Danger of being too little. Our hoeing Farmer is much less liable to the Hazard of either of those Extremes; for when his Wheat is big, ’tis not apt to lodge or fall down, which Accident is usually the utter Ruin of the other; he is free from the Causes which make the contrary Crop too little.

A very effectual Means to prevent the failing of a Crop of Wheat, is to plow the pulveriz’d Earth for Seed early, and when ’tis dry. The early Season also is more likely to be dry than the latter Season is.

1. _The Advocate for the old Method is commonly late in his sowing;
because he can’t fallow his Ground early, for fear of killing the
Couch, and other Grass that maintains his folding Sheep, which_

2. _are so necessary to his Husbandry: And when ’tis sow’d late, it
must not be sow’d dry, for then the_

3. _Winter might kill the young Wheat. Neither can he at that time
plow dry, and sow wet, because he commonly sows under Furrow; that
is, sows the Seed first, and plows it in as fast as ’tis sown. If he_

4. _sows early (as he may if he will) in light Land, he must not sow
dry, for fear the Poppies and other Weeds should grow, and devour his
Crop; and if his_

5. _Land be strong, let it be sown early, wet or dry (tho’ wet is
worst), ’tis apt to grow so stale and hard by Spring, that his Crop
is in Danger of starving, unless the Land be very rich, or much
dung’d: and then the Winter and Spring proving kind, it may not be in
less Danger of being so big as to fall down, and be spoil’d._

6. _Another thing is, that though he had no other Impediment against
plowing dry, and sowing wet, ’tis seldom that he has time to do it
in; for he must plow all his Ground, which is Eight Furrows in Six
Feet;_

7. _and, whilst it is wet, must lie still with his Plough. When he
sows under Furrow, he fears to plow, deep, lest he bury too much of
his Seed; and if he_

8. _plows shallow, his Crop loses the Benefit of deep plowing, which
is very great. When he sows upon_

9. _Furrow (that is after ’tis plowed) he must harrow the Ground
level to cover the Seed; and that exposes the Wheat the more to the
cold Winds, and suffers the Snow to be blown off it, and the Water to
lie longer on it; all which are great Injuries to it._

Our Hoeing Husbandry is different in all of the fore-mentioned Particulars.

1. We can plow the Two Furrows whereon the next Crop is to stand, immediately after the present Crop is off.

2. We have no Use of the Fold; because our Ground has annually a Crop growing on it, and it must lie still a Year, if we would fold it, and that Crop would be lost; and all the Good the Fold could do to the Land, would be only to help to pulverize it for one single Crop; its Benefit not lasting to the Second Year. And so we should be certain of losing one Crop for the very uncertain Hopes of procuring one the ensuing Year by the Fold; when ’tis manifest by the adjoining Crops, that we can have a much better Crop every Year, without a Fold, or any other Manure.

3. We can plow dry, and drill wet, without any manner of Inconvenience.

4. He fears the Weeds will grow, and destroy his Crop: We hope they will grow, to the end we may destroy them[237].

[237] For, before they grow, they cannot be killed; but if they are
all killed as soon as they appear, there will be no Danger of their
exhausting the Land, or re-stocking it with their Seed; and ’tis
our Fault if we drill more than we can keep clean from Weeds by the
Horse-hoe, Hand-hoe, and Hands; the First for the Intervals, the
Second for the Partitions, and the Third for the Rows: By the Two
former, as soon after they appear as they can; but by the last, when
they are grown high enough to be conveniently taken hold of.

5. We do not fear to plant our Wheat early (so that we plow dry), because we can help the Hardness or Staleness of the Land by Hoeing.

6. The Two Furrows of every Ridge whereon the Rows are to be drilled, we plow dry; and if the Weather prove wet before these are all finished, we can plow the other Two Furrows up to them, until it be dry enough to return to our plowing the first Two Furrows; and after finishing them, let the Weather be wet or dry, we can plow the last Two Furrows. We can plow our Two Furrows in the Fourth Part of the Time they can plow their Eight, which they must plow dry all of them, in every Six Feet; for they cannot plow part dry, and the rest when ’tis wet, as we can.

7. We never plant our Seed under Furrow, but place it just at the Depth which we judge most proper; and that is pretty shallow, about Two Inches deep; and then there is no Danger of burying it.

8. We not only plow a deep Furrow, but also plow to the Depth of Two Furrows; that is, we trench-plow where the Land will allow it[238]; and we have the greatest Convenience imaginable for doing this, because there are Two of our Four Furrows always lying open; and Two plowed Furrows (that is, one plowed under another) are as much more advantageous for the nourishing a Crop, as Two Bushels of Oats are better than one for nourishing an Horse: Or if the Staple of the Land be too thin or shallow, we can help it by raising the Ridges prepared for the Rows the higher above the Level.

[238] Very little of my Land will admit the Plough to go the Depth
of Two common Furrows without reaching the Chalk; But deep Land may
be easily thus Trench-plowed with great Advantage; and even when
there is only the Depth of a single Furrow, that may sometimes be
advantageously plowed at twice.

9. We also raise an high Ridge in the Middle of each Interval above the Wheat before Winter, to protect it from the cold Winds, and to prevent the Snow from being driven away by them. And the Furrows or Trenches, from whence the Earth of these Ridges is taken, serve to drain off the Water from the Wheat, so that, being drier, it must be warmer than the harrowed Wheat, which has neither Furrows to keep it dry, nor Ridges to shelter it[239], as every Row of ours has on both Sides of it.

[239] This is a Mistake; for the Ridges in the Middle of the
Intervals do not always, nor often in thin shallow Land lie high
enough to make a Shelter to the Rows, they being higher: But when
Wheat is drilled on the Level, ’tis sheltered by the Ridges raised in
the Intervals: But we never weed or hand-hoe Wheat before the Spring.

IV. _The Condition in which the Land is left after a Crop._

The different Condition the Land is left in after a Crop[240], by the one and the other Husbandry, is not less considerable than the different Profit of the Crop.