Chapter I: Part 1

How to Visit the English Cathedrals

BOOKS BY MISS SINGLETON

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DUTCH NEW YORK. Manners and Customs of New Amsterdam in the
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HOW TO VISIT THE GREAT PICTURE GALLERIES.

HOW TO VISIT THE ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.

How to Visit
The English Cathedrals

By
Esther Singleton
Member of the Royal Society of Arts

_With Numerous Illustrations_

New York
Dodd, Mead and Company
1912

COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
_Published April, 1912_

PREFACE

This little book is offered to the tourist in the most modest spirit and with the hope that in this convenient form some gleanings from the works of specialists may afford help and pleasure to those who run quickly through the Cathedral towns of England. The subject has been done so often and so well that an additional book would demand an apology if it pretended to compete with the labours of those who have spent long years in the study of special cathedrals, or with the charming recollections of travel that others have given the world from time to time.

My plan has been merely to present in a single volume concise descriptions of the great ecclesiastical buildings of England, together with the story of their construction and historical associations supplemented with criticisms from the best authorities of their most striking architectural and artistic features. These authorities are duly acknowledged by initials.--E. S.

NEW YORK, _March, 1912_.

STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE

The cathedral usually grew architecturally from age to age, or rose like a phœnix from the ashes of an earlier building.

“Not only is there built into a mediæval cathedral the accumulated
thought of all the men who had occupied themselves with building
during the preceding centuries, but you have the dream and
aspiration of the bishop, abbot, or clergy for whom it was
designed; the master mason’s skilled construction; the work of the
carver, the painter, the glazier, the host of men who, each in his
own craft, knew all that had been done before them, and had spent
their lives in struggling to surpass the works of their
forefathers. It is more than this: there is not one shaft, one
moulding, one carving, not one chisel-mark in such a building, that
was not designed specially for the place where it is found, and
which was not the best that the experience of the age could invent
for the purpose to which it is applied; nothing was borrowed; and
nothing that was designed for one purpose was used for another. A
thought or a motive peeps out through every joint; you may wander
in such a building for weeks or for months together, and never know
it all.”--(Fergusson.)

Most English cathedrals are built in the form of a Latin cross, the arms of which are called the transepts. Over their point of intersection the central tower is usually erected. The part of the church running westward from this point to the entrance door is the nave and that running eastward to the high altar is the choir.

Behind, or east of the choir, is situated the Lady-Chapel, or Chapel of the Virgin, which sometimes contained additional altars to other saints. Along the aisles we frequently find side chapels, containing tombs and chantries of dignitaries, local saints and benefactors.

The nave usually consists of the main arcade; the _triforium_ (which opens into a passage or gallery); and the _clerestory_.

The _triforium_ is the arcaded story between the lower range of piers and arches and the clerestory. The name is supposed to be derived from _tres_ and _fores_--three doors or openings, for such is often the number of arches in each bay. Professor Willis, however, believed that the word is traced to a monkish Latin word for thoroughfare.

_Clerestory_, or _clearstory_, is the upper story of the nave of the church above the aisles and pierced with windows. The windows of the clerestories of Norman work are less important than in the later styles. They become larger in the Early English period and more important in the Decorated, always lengthening as the _triforium_ diminishes.

Sometimes the choir occupies two bays of the nave, but usually begins with the screen placed on the east side of the central tower. In olden days this was the rood-screen, so called because a large crucifix, or rood, stood on it. All roods were destroyed during the Reformation. At the present time the organ is frequently placed here; and there is diversity of opinion about the artistic propriety of its position.

Entering the choir we see the high altar often with a reredos (French _l’arrière dos_, i.e., embroidered hangings). Along the sides of the choir are the seats, or stalls, usually of carved oak, surmounted with tracery, arches and pinnacles. Among these is the bishop’s seat, or throne. Frequently the stalls exhibit beautiful tabernacle-work and the misereres (_miséricorde_), which turn up and afford support to a person in a position between sitting and standing, are generally carved with grotesque and quaint figures and caricatures. Vestries for the use of priests and choristers are often situated near the choir.

At the back of the choir (the retro-choir) was placed the chief shrine, where relics of the great saint of the cathedral were kept and to which the streams of pilgrims passed. In many churches the steps and pavements are worn away. Near the shrine was a watching-chamber, where a monk guarded the shrine and its treasures.

Further east the Lady-Chapel was situated, though in a few cases it is found on the north side, e. g. Bristol and Ely.

“In Italy the bones of a saint or martyr were almost invariably
deposited either beneath or immediately in front of the altar. But
in the Gothic nations this original notion of the burial-place of
the Saints became obscured, in the increasing desire to give them a
more honourable place. According to the precise system of
orientation adopted by the German and Celtic nations, the eastern
portion of the church was in those countries regarded as
pre-eminently sacred. Thither the high altar was generally moved,
and to it the eyes of the congregation were specially directed. And
in the eagerness to give a higher and holier even than the highest
and holiest place to any great saint, on whom popular devotion was
fastened, there sprang up in most of the larger churches during the
Thirteenth Century a fashion of throwing out a still further
eastern end, in which the shrine or altar of the saint might be
erected,--and to which, therefore, not merely the gaze of the whole
congregation, but of the officiating priest himself, even as he
stood before the high altar, might be constantly turned. Thus,
according to Fuller’s quaint remark, the superstitious reverence
for the dead reached its highest pitch, ‘the porch saying to the
churchyard, the church to the porch, the chancel to the church, the
east end to all--“Stand further off, I am holier than thou.”’ This
notion happened to coincide in point of time with the burst of
devotion towards the Virgin Mary, which took place under the
Pontificate of Innocent III., during the first years of the
Thirteenth Century; and, therefore, in all cases where there was no
special local saint, this eastern end was dedicated to Our Lady and
the chapel thus formed was called The Lady-Chapel. Such was the
case in the Cathedrals of Salisbury, Norwich, Hereford, Wells,
Gloucester and Chester. But when the popular feeling of any city or
neighbourhood had been directed to some indigenous object of
devotion, this at once took the highest place, and the Lady-Chapel,
if any there were, was thrust down to a less honourable position.
Of this arrangement, the most notable instances in England are, or
were (for in many cases the very sites have perished), the shrines
of St. Alban in Hertfordshire, St. Edmund at Bury, St. Edward in
Westminster Abbey, St. Cuthbert at Durham, and St. Etheldreda at
Ely.”--(A. P. S.)

_Sedilia_, seats used by the priest, deacon and sub-deacon during the pauses in the mass, are generally cut into the south walls of churches, separated by shafts or species of mullions and surmounted by canopies, pinnacles or other elaborate adornments. The _piscina_ and _aumbry_ are sometimes attached to them.

The _piscina_ is a hollowed out niche with drain to carry away the water used in the ablutions during mass. After the Thirteenth Century there is scarcely an altar in England without one. Sometimes the _piscina_ is in the form of a double niche.

Beneath the cathedral there is often a crypt--in reality a second church, often of great size.

“We may be tempted to ask, what is the purpose of a crypt? Some
have said that it was merely meant to give dignity to the church,
or to avoid the damp. It appears, however, to be a custom taken
from the very early Christian churches at Rome, which were in many
cases built over the tomb of a martyr, and had therefore a lower
and an upper church. Indeed if we imagine the central portion of
the choir steps removed so that the nave floor might extend without
interruption to the crypt, and a clear view of the crypt be open to
the nave, we should have an arrangement precisely similar to that
of several Italian churches, notably that of San Zenone, at
Verona.”--(F. and R.)

As a rule, the monastic buildings, refectory, dormitory, infirmary, etc., were built on the south side, and here were also the cloisters, those pleasant walks and seats for exercise and recreation surrounding a peaceful quadrangle. The slype, or passage on the east side, led to the monks’ cemetery.

In the chapter-house the monks transacted their business.

The chapter-house, often one of the richest and most beautiful portions of the cathedral, may be of any form. Those of Canterbury, Exeter, Chester and Gloucester are oblong; those of Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln, York and Westminster are octagonal; and that of Worcester is circular. At Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln and Worcester a single massive shaft supports the vault.

In examining a cathedral we must remember that many changes have taken place since the first stone was laid. If the monks were fortunate enough to have a full treasury, they kept up with the architectural styles. They would pull down the old nave, or choir, or transepts, and erect new buildings, lower the pitch of the roof, add a new porch or door, or insert new windows in the ancient walls. Fires were frequent and lightning and winds often played havoc with towers and spires. Such manifestations of the displeasure of the elements or saints necessitated rebuilding; and, as a rule, this rebuilding was undertaken in the latest fashion. Therefore, we find in most cathedrals specimens of many styles of architecture.

“As we see our cathedrals now, the view that meets us differs much
from that which would have greeted us in mediæval times. Then all
was ablaze with colours. Through the beautiful ancient glass the
light gleamed on tints of gorgeous hues, and rich tapestries and
hangings, on walls bedight with paintings, and every monument, pier
and capital were aglow with coloured decorations. We have lost
much, but still much remains. At the Reformation the avaricious
courtiers of Henry VIII. plundered our sacred shrines, and carried
off under the plea of banishing superstition vast stores of costly
plate and jewels, tapestry and hangings. In the Civil War time
riotous, fanatical soldiers wrought havoc everywhere, hacking
beautifully-carved tombs and canopies, destroying brasses, and
mutilating all that they could find. Ages of neglect have also left
their marks upon our churches; and above all the hand of the
ignorant and injudicious ‘restorer’ has fallen heavily on these
legacies of Gothic art, destroying much that was of singular
beauty, and replacing it by the miserable productions of early
Nineteenth Century fabrication.”--(P. H. D.)

And now, in order to make our visits more enjoyable, let us refresh our memories with a slight _résumé_ of the four leading styles of English Architecture.

The Pointed Arch appeared almost simultaneously in all the civilized countries of Europe. It was probably discovered by the Crusaders in the Holy Land and brought home by them. None of its charming and beautiful accessories, however, accompanied it; the graceful clusters of pillars, the tracery and mullions were to be developed by the Europeans. One of the first to use the word _Gothic_ to define Pointed Architecture was Sir Henry Wotton; and it seems that the word was finally determined as a definition by Sir Christopher Wren. An English critic says:

“The pointed arch was a graft on the Romanesque, Lombard and
Byzantine architecture of Europe, just as the circular arch of the
Romans had been on the columnar ordinances of the Greeks; but with
a widely different result. The amalgamation in the latter case
destroyed the beauty of both the stock and the scion; while in the
former the stock lent itself to the modifying influence of its
parasitical nursling, gradually gave up its heavy, dull and
cheerless forms, and was eventually lost in its beautiful
offspring, as the unlovely caterpillar is in the gay and graceful
butterfly.”

Although Pointed or Gothic Architecture developed with almost equal vigour in every country of Europe, it reached its greatest perfection in France. Many of the finest earliest buildings in England were, to a great extent, French in their origin, or development; but, in the course of time, English Gothic Architecture became very original. In this country

“Gothic architecture seems to have attained its ultimate perfection
in the Fourteenth Century, at which period everything belonging to
it was conceived and executed in a free and bold spirit, all the
forms were graceful and natural, and all the details of foliage and
other sculptures were copied from living types, with a skill and
truth of drawing which has never been surpassed. Conventional forms
were in a great measure abandoned, and it seems to have been
rightly and truly considered that the fittest monuments for the
House of God were faithful copies of His works; and so long as this
principle continued to be acted on, so long did Gothic architecture
remain pure. But in the succeeding century, under the later Henrys
and Edwards, a gradual decline took place: everything was moulded
to suit a preconceived idea, the foliage lost its freshness, and
was moulded into something of a rectangular form; the arches were
depressed, the windows lowered, the flowing curves of the tracery
converted into straight lines, panelling profusely used, and the
square form everywhere introduced; until at length the prevalence
of the horizontal line led easily and naturally to the Renaissance
of the classic styles, though in an impure and much degraded form.
The mixture of the two styles first appears in the time of Henry
VII.,--a period in which (though remarkable for the beauty and
delicacy of its details) the grand conceptions of form and
proportion of the previous century seem to have been lost.
Heaviness or clumsiness of form, combined with exquisite beauty of
detail, are the characteristics of this era.”--(J. H. P.)

The styles are generally classified as follows: I. Norman, or Romanesque; II. Early English; III. Decorated; IV. Perpendicular.

“Soon after the Norman Conquest a great change took place in the
art of building in England. On consulting the history of our
cathedral churches, we find that in almost every instance the
church was rebuilt from its foundations by the first Norman bishop,
either on the same site or on a new one; sometimes, as at Norwich
and Peterborough, the cathedral was removed to a new town
altogether, and built on a spot where there was no church before;
in other cases, as at Winchester, the new church was built near the
old one, which was not pulled down until after the relics had been
translated with great pomp from the old church to the new. In other
instances, as in York and Canterbury, the new church was erected on
the site of the old one, which was pulled down piecemeal as the new
work progressed. These new churches were in all cases on a much
larger and more magnificent scale than the old.

“Strictly speaking, the Norman is one of the Romanesque styles,
which succeeded to the old Roman; but the Gothic was so completely
developed from the Norman that it is impossible to draw a line of
distinction between them; it is also convenient to begin with the
Norman, because the earliest complete buildings that we have in
this country are of the Norman period, and the designs of the
Norman architects, at the end of the Eleventh Century and the
beginning of the Twelfth, were on so grand a scale that many of our
finest cathedrals are built on the foundations of the churches of
that period, and a great part of the walls are frequently found to
be really Norman in construction, although their appearance is so
entirely altered that it is difficult at first to realise this; for
instance, in the grand cathedral of Winchester, William of Wykeham
did not rebuild it, but so entirely altered the appearance that it
is now properly considered as one of the earliest examples of the
English Perpendicular style, of which he was the inventor; this
style is entirely confined to England; it is readily distinguished
from any of the Continental styles by the _perpendicular lines_ in
the tracery of the windows, and in the panelling on the walls; in
all the foreign styles these lines are flowing or flame-like, and
for that reason they are called Flamboyant; a few windows with
tracery of that style are met with in England, but they are quite
exceptions.”--(J. H. P.)

The works of this period were colossal. Peterborough was begun in 1117 and finished in 1143; the nave of Norwich was built between 1122 and 1145; Canterbury was finished in 1130; and part of Rochester in the same year.

In the time of William Rufus all the Saxon cathedrals were being rebuilt on a larger scale. From this reign date the crypt of Worcester; crypt, arches of the nave and part of the transepts of Gloucester; the choir and transepts of Durham; and the choir and transepts of Norwich.

In the reign of Henry I. the choirs of Ely, Rochester, Norwich and Canterbury were dedicated; and among the new works begun were the nave of Durham and the choir of Peterborough.

“The piers in the earlier period are either square solid masses of
masonry, or recessed in the angles in the same manner as the
arches, or they are plain, round massive pillars, with frequently
only an impost of very simple character, but often with capitals.

“The capitals in early work are either plain, cubical masses with
the lower angles rounded off, forming a sort of rude cushion shape,
as at Winchester, or they have a sort of rude volute, apparently in
imitation of the Ionic, cut upon the angles; and in the centre of
each face a plain square block in the form of the Tau cross is left
projecting, as if to be afterwards carved. The scalloped capital
belongs to rather a later period than the plain cushion or the rude
Ionic, and does not occur before the time of Henry I. This form of
capital was perhaps the most common of all in the first half of the
Twelfth Century, and continued in use to the end of the Norman
style. The capitals were frequently carved at a period subsequent
to their erection, as in the crypt at Canterbury, where some of the
capitals are finished, others half-finished, with two sides blank
and others not carved at all. In later Norman work the capitals are
frequently ornamented with foliage, animals, groups of figures,
etc., in endless variety. The abacus throughout the style is the
most characteristic member, and will frequently distinguish a
Norman capital when other parts are doubtful.

“Norman ornaments are of endless variety; the most common is the
chevron, or zigzag, and this is used more and more abundantly as
the work gets later; it is found at all periods even in Roman work
of the Third Century and probably earlier, but in all early work it
is used sparingly, and the profusion with which it is used in late
work is one of the most ready marks by which to distinguish that
the work is late. The sunk star is a very favourite ornament
throughout the style; it occurs on the abacus of the capitals in
the chapel of the White Tower, London, and it seems to have been
the forerunner of the tooth-ornament. The billet is used in the
early part of Peterborough, but discontinued in the later work,
and does not often occur in late work. It is sometimes square,
more frequently rounded. The beak-head, the cat’s-head, the small
medallions with figures and the signs of the zodiac, all belong to
the later Norman period. In the later Norman mouldings a mixture of
Byzantine character is seen on the ornaments as at Durham. It has
also been observed that in the sculpture of the period of the late
Norman style there is frequently a certain mixture of the Byzantine
Greek character brought home from the East by the Crusaders, who
had returned. This is also one of the characteristics of the period
of the Transition.”--(J. H. P.)

The next period--that of the Transition--in which the science of vaulting received great impetus and construction became more elegant and graceful in line, is splendidly exhibited at Canterbury in the work of the French William of Sens and his successor, the English William. Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, is also a fine example of late Norman and Transitional work.

The Early English Style covers the reigns of Richard I., John and Henry III., from 1189 to 1272. It is known also as the First Pointed, or Lancet, and is a purely English variety of Gothic Architecture. The developments were always in the line of greater lightness and elegance. There was also throughout this period a great use of delicate shafts of polished Purbeck marble for doorways, windows and arcades.

Canterbury, Rochester and Lincoln are famous examples. Canterbury was completed in 1184; Rochester in 1201-1227; and much of Lincoln was finished (especially the choir and eastern transept with its chapels) before 1200.

Salisbury Cathedral, however, is usually considered as _The Type_ of the Early English style, because it is less mixed than any other building of the same importance. It was commenced in 1220 and consecrated in 1258.

The choir and apse of Westminster Abbey and the north transept of York Minster are also good examples of this period. We may note here that it was customary to build the west front immediately after the choir and leave the nave to be filled in afterwards.

“New ideas and a new life seem to have been given to architecture,
and the builders appear to have revelled in it even to exuberance
and excess, and it was necessary afterwards in some degree to
soften down and subdue it. At no period has ‘the principle of
verticality’ been so completely carried out as in the Early English
style, and even in some of the earliest examples of it.”--(J. H.
P.)

“The characteristic elegance of the general architectural design
was carried out in all the details. The mouldings were delicately
rounded and alternated with hollows so drawn as to give here
delicate and there most forcible effects of light and shade. Thus
the dark line produced by marble in a pier was continued by means
of a dark shadow in the arch; and without considerable knowledge of
the science of moulding, it is impossible to do justice to this
part of the English Early Pointed work, which has never been
surpassed, if, indeed, it has ever been equalled at any period
elsewhere. The groined roofs were still simple in design, but a
ridge rib was often added to the necessary transverse and diagonal
ribs of the previous period. This gave a certain hardness of line
to the vault; it was the first step to the more elaborate and later
systems of vaulting, and was soon followed by the introduction of
other ribs on the surface of the vaulting cells. Few works are more
admirable than some of the towers and spires of this period.”--(G.
S. S.)

The characteristic of lancet windows applies only to the early part of the style from 1190 to about 1220 or 1230. After that time circles in the head of the windows of two or more lights came in, and the circles became foliated by about 1230, and continued to 1260 or 1270, when the Decorated style began to come into fashion.

“The windows in the earlier examples are plain, lancet-shaped and
generally narrow; sometimes they are richly moulded within and
without, but frequently have nothing but a plain chamfer outside
and a wide splay within. In the Early English style we have, in the
later examples, tracery in the heads of the windows, but it is
almost invariably in the form of circles, either plain or foliated,
and is constructed in a different manner from genuine Decorated
tracery.

“At first the windows have merely openings pierced through the
solid masonry of the head, the solid portions thus left gradually
becoming smaller and the openings larger, until the solid parts are
reduced to nearly the same thickness as the mullions; but they are
not moulded, and do not form continuations of the mullions until we
arrive at real Decorated tracery. This kind of tracery was called
by Professor Willis plate tracery; being in fact, a plate of stone
pierced with holes: it is extensively used in early French work.
The more usual kind of tracery is called _bar_ tracery, to
distinguish it from the earlier kind.”--(J. H. P.)

Doorways are generally pointed or trefoiled, but sometimes round-headed, and small doorways are frequently flat-headed, with the angles corbelled in the form called the square-headed trefoil, or the shouldered arch. Trefoiled arches are characteristic of this style. Arches are frequently, but not always, acutely pointed; and in the more important buildings are generally richly moulded, as in Westminster Abbey, either with or without the tooth-ornament, as the arches at York Minster. The pillars are of various forms, frequently clustered; but the most characteristic pillar of the style is the one with detached shafts, which are generally of Purbeck marble. These are frequently very long and slender and only connected with the central shaft by the capital and base, with or without one or two bands at intervals. These bands sometimes consist of rings of copper gilt, as in the choir of Worcester Cathedral, and are sometimes necessary for holding together the slender shafts of Purbeck marble. The bases generally consist of two rounds, the lowest one the largest, both frequently filleted, with a deep hollow between, placed horizontally, as at Canterbury. In pure Early English work, the upper member of the capital, called the abacus, is circular and consists, in the earlier examples, simply of two rounds, the upper one the largest, with a hollow between them; but in later examples the mouldings are frequently increased in number and filleted.

Mouldings are chiefly bold rounds, with equally bold and deeply cut hollows, which produce a strong effect of light and shade. Vaults are bolder than during the Norman period and differ from succeeding styles by their greater simplicity, as at Salisbury. In the earlier examples there are ribs on the angles of the groins only; at a later period the vaulting becomes more complicated, as at Westminster. There is a longitudinal rib, and a cross rib along the ridge of the cross vaults, and frequently also an intermediate rib on the surface of the vault. The bosses are rare at first, more abundant afterwards: they are generally well worked and enriched with foliage. English vaults are sometimes of wood only, as in York Minster, and the cloisters at Lincoln. A vault is, in fact, a ceiling, having always an outer roof over it. There is a marked distinction in the construction of Gothic vaults in England and France. In England, from the earliest period, each stone is cut to fit its place; in France the stones are cut square or rather oblong, as in the walls, and only wedged out by the thickness of the mortar at the back in the joints. Fan-tracery vaulting is peculiar to England, and it begins, in principle, as early as in the cloister of Lincoln about 1220, where the vault is of wood, but the springings are of stone, and cut to fit the ribs of the wooden vault.

Buttresses project boldly, and flying-buttresses become a prominent feature. There is a fine example of a compound flying-buttress at Westminster Abbey, which supports the vaults of the choir, the triforium and the aisles and carries the thrust of the whole over the cloister to the ground. Early English towers are generally more lofty than the Norman, and their buttresses have a greater projection. The spire is usually a noticeable feature. The East End is usually square; but sometimes terminates with the apse, generally a half-octagon or a half-hexagon, as at Westminster Abbey.

“Throughout the Early English period there is an ornament used in
the hollow mouldings which is as characteristic of this style as
the zigzag is of the Norman; this consists of a small pyramid, more
or less acute, cut into four leaves or petals meeting in the point,
but separate below as in Chester Cathedral. When very acute, and
seen in profile, it may be imagined to have somewhat the appearance
of a row of dog’s-teeth, and from this it has been called the
‘dog-tooth[1] ornament,’ or, by some, the shark’s tooth ornament,
more commonly the tooth-ornament. It is used with the greatest
profusion on arches, between clustered shafts, on the architraves
and jambs of doors, windows, piscinas and indeed in every place
where such ornament can be introduced. It is very characteristic of
this style, and begins quite at the commencement of the style, as
in St. Hugh’s work at Lincoln; for though in the Norman we find an
approach to it, in the Decorated various modifications of it occur;
still the genuine tooth-ornament may be considered to belong
exclusively to the Early English.

“Another peculiarity consists of the _foliage_, which differs
considerably from the Norman: in the latter it has more or less the
appearance of being imitated from that of the Classic orders, while
in this it is entirely original. Its essential form seems to be
that of a trefoil leaf, but this is varied in such a number of ways
that the greatest variety is produced. It is used in cornices, the
bosses of groining, the mouldings of windows and doorways, and
various other places, but particularly in capitals to which it
gives a peculiar and distinctive character. The foliage of these
capitals is technically called ‘stiff-leaf foliage,’ but this
alludes only to the stiff stem or stalk of the leaf, which rises
from the ring of the capital; the foliage itself is frequently as
far removed from stiffness as any can be, as for instance in the
capitals of Lincoln. The stiff stalk is, however, a ready mark to
distinguish the Early English capital from that of the succeeding
style. We must bear in mind, however, that foliage is by no means
an essential feature of the Early English style; many of our finest
buildings, such as Westminster Abbey, have their capitals formed of
a plain bell reversed, with mouldings round the abacus like rings
put upon it, and round the neck.

“The ornaments so well known by the name of crockets were first
introduced in this style. The name is taken from the shepherd’s
crook, adopted by the bishops as emblematical of their office. They
occur at Lincoln, in St. Hugh’s work, the earliest example of this
style, and are there used in the unusual position of being in a
vertical line between the detached shafts. They are found in the
same position also in the beautiful work of the west front of
Wells. Afterwards they were used entirely on the outside of
pediments, or in similar situations, projecting from the face of
the work, or the outer surface of the moulding, as in the very
beautiful tomb of Archbishop Walter Grey in York Cathedral; and
they continued in use in the subsequent styles, although their form
and character gradually change with the style.”--(J. H. P.)

The transition from the Early English to the Decorated was very gradual. It took place during the reign of Edward I. The transepts of Westminster Abbey are held up as models of this transition and contain some of the most beautiful work that can be found anywhere. The crosses erected by Edward I. at all places where the body of Queen Eleanor had rested, on the march from Lincolnshire to Westminster Abbey, where she was buried, are usually regarded as fine early examples of the Decorated style. Easy attitudes and graceful draperies characterise the sculpture of human figures.

The Decorated Period dates from 1300 to 1377. It is also called the Middle Pointed, Geometrical Pointed and the Flowing, or Curvilinear, and also the Edwardian, because it covers the reigns of Edward I., II. and III.

Exeter Cathedral is a superb example of this style. The nave of York Minster and the lantern of Ely are also noteworthy illustrations.

“The general appearance of Decorated buildings is at once simple
and magnificent; simple from the small number of parts, and
magnificent from the size of the windows, and the easy flow of the
lines of tracery. In the interior of large buildings we find great
breadth, and an enlargement of the _clerestory_ windows, with a
corresponding diminution of the _triforium_, which is now rather a
part of the _clerestory_ opening than a distinct member of the
division. The roofing, from the increased richness of the groining,
becomes an object of more attention. On the whole the nave of York,
from the uncommon grandeur and simplicity of the design, is
certainly the finest example; ornament is nowhere spared, yet there
is a simplicity which is peculiarly pleasing.”--(Rickman.)

“The Decorated style is distinguished by its large windows divided
by mullions, and the tracery either in flowing lines, or forming
circles, trefoils and other geometrical figures, and not running
perpendicularly; its ornaments are numerous and very delicately
carved, more strictly faithful to nature and more essentially parts
of the structure than in any other style. There is a very fine
window with reticulated tracery and richly moulded in the south
walk of the cloisters at Westminster. No rule whatever is followed
in the form of the arch over windows in this style; some are very
obtuse, others very acute and the ogee arch is not uncommon.
Decorated tracery is usually divided into three general
classes--geometrical, flowing and flamboyant; the variety is so
great that many sub-divisions may be made, but they were all used
simultaneously for a considerable period. The earliest Decorated
windows have geometrical tracery; Exeter Cathedral is, perhaps, on
the whole, the best typical example of the early part of this
style. The fabric rolls are preserved, and it is now evident that
the existing windows are, for the most part, of the time of Bishop
Quivil, from 1279 to 1291. In some instances windows with
geometrical tracery have the mouldings and the mullions covered
with the ball-flower ornament in great profusion, even to excess;
these examples occur chiefly in Herefordshire, as at Leominster;
and in Gloucestershire, as in the south aisle of the nave of the
Cathedral at Gloucester: they are for the most part, if not
entirely, of the time of Edward II. What is called the netlike
character of tracery, from its general resemblance to a fisherman’s
net, is very characteristic of this style at its best period, about
the middle of the Fourteenth Century. Square-headed windows are
very common. Windows in towers are usually different from those in
other parts of the church. In the upper story, where the bells are,
there is no glass; in some parts of the country there is pierced
stonework for keeping out the birds, but more usually they are of
wood only. These are called sound-holes. Clerestory windows of this
style are often small, and either circular with quatrefoil cusps,
or trefoils or quatrefoils; or the spherical triangle with cusps,
which forms an elegant window. The clever manner in which these
windows are splayed within and especially below, to throw down the
light, should be noticed.”--(J. H. P.)

The large rose-window, so conspicuous a feature on the Continent, is rarely seen in England. When it does occur it is usually found in the transept ends.

The East Front generally consists of one large window at the end of the choir, flanked by tall buttresses. A smaller buttress appears at the end of each aisle. The arrangement of the West Front is the same, with a doorway beneath the central window. The towers of the Decorated style are usually placed at the west end and are, as a rule, similar to the Early English. The spires differ slightly from those of the Early English, except that there are generally more spire-lights and small windows at the bases and sides of the spire. Lichfield Cathedral is one of the best examples of the exterior of a perfect church of the Decorated style. Its three spires are perfect.

The ogee arch is frequently used in small arcades and in the heads of windows. The dripstones, or hood moulds, are generally supported by heads and are frequently enriched with crockets and finials. The arcades that ornament the walls and those over the _sedilia_ are characteristic features of the style. Pillars are clustered and arches richly moulded; they often have the hood-moulding over them. Very often they have what is called a stilted base. The capitals are ornamented with beautiful foliage: each leaf is copied from nature and often arranged round the bell of the capital. The ornamental sculptures in the hollow mouldings are numerous, but there are two which require more particular notice; they are nearly as characteristic of the Decorated style as the zigzag is of the Norman, or the tooth-ornament of the Early English. The first is the ball-flower, which is a globular flower half opened, and showing within a small round ball. It is used with the utmost profusion in the mouldings of windows, doorways, canopies, cornices, arches, etc. The other ornament is the four-leaved flower. This has a raised centre, and four petals cut in high relief; it is frequently much varied, but may be distinguished by its being cut distinctly into four petals, and by its boldness: it is sometimes used abundantly, though not quite so profusely as the ball-flower. In some instances the centre is sunk instead of being raised. The battlement, as an ornamental feature in the interior of buildings, is frequently used in this style, although it is more common in the Perpendicular.

The foliage in this style is more faithfully copied from nature than in any other: the vine-leaf, the maple and the oak with the acorn, are the most usual. The surface of the wall is often covered with flat foliage, arranged in small squares called diaper-work, which is believed to have originated in an imitation of the rich hangings then in general use, and which bore the same name.

The groined roofs or vaults are distinguished from those of the preceding style, chiefly by an additional number of ribs, and by the natural foliage on the bosses. Many fine examples of these remain, as in the Cathedral of Exeter and at York in the chapter-house; at Norwich in the cloisters; at Chester the vault is of wood with stone springers.

After culminating in the Decorated style, Gothic Architecture began to decline in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. The transition from the Decorated to the Perpendicular took place from 1360 to 1399:

“This change began to show itself in the choir and transepts of
Gloucester Cathedral before the middle of the Fourteenth Century.
The panelling and the window-tracery have so much the appearance of
the Perpendicular Style, that they have been commonly supposed to
have been rebuilt or altered at a late period; but the vaultings
and the mouldings are pure Decorated, and the painted glass of the
Fourteenth Century is evidently made for the places which it now
occupies in the heads of the windows with Perpendicular tracery; it
must therefore be considered as the earliest known example of this
great change of style. In this work of alteration the walls and
arches of the Norman church were not rebuilt but cased with
panelling over the inner surface, so as to give the effect of the
latter style to the interior. This was just the same process as was
afterwards followed at Winchester by William of Wykeham, in
changing the Norman to the Perpendicular style without any actual
rebuilding.”--(J. H. P.)

The work at Gloucester was begun as early as 1337. Another fine example is the nave of Winchester Cathedral.

Bishop Edington, who died in 1366, began to alter Winchester into the Perpendicular style. His work was continued by William of Wykeham.

“Before the death of Bishop Edington the great principles of the
Perpendicular style were fully established. These chiefly consist
of the Perpendicular lines through the head of the window, and in
covering the surface of the wall with panelling of the same kind.
These features are as distinctly marked at Winchester as in any
subsequent building, or as they well could be.”--(J. H. P.)

The cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral are decidedly Perpendicular in the fan-tracery of the vaults, but are partly of earlier date and character. Another example of the transition from Decorated to Perpendicular is the choir of York Minster, begun in 1361 and finished in 1408. Its general appearance is Perpendicular.

“This style is exclusively English, _it is never found_ on the
Continent, and it has the advantage of being more _economical_ in
execution than the earlier styles. It remains to describe its
characteristic features. The broad distinction of the Perpendicular
style lies in the form of the tracery in the head of the windows;
and in fully developed examples the distinction is sufficiently
obvious. We have no longer the head of the window filled with the
gracefully flowing lines of the Decorated tracery, but their place
is supplied by the rigid lines of the mullions, which are carried
through to the architrave mouldings, the spaces between being
frequently divided and subdivided by similar Perpendicular lines;
so that _Perpendicularity_ is so clearly the characteristic of
these windows that no other word could have been found which would
at once so well express the predominating feature. The same
character prevails throughout the buildings of this period: the
whole surface of a building, including its buttresses, parapets,
basements, and every part of the flat surface, is frequently
covered with panelling in which the Perpendicular line clearly
predominates; and to such an excess is this carried that the
windows frequently appear to be only openings in the panel-work.
Panelling, indeed, now forms an important feature of the style; for
though it was used in the earlier styles, it was not to the same
extent, and was of very different character, the plain surfaces in
those styles being relieved chiefly by diaper-work.”--(J. H. P.)

The great idea of the architect was to correct and restrain the exuberant tracery by introducing vigorous straight vertical and horizontal lines. Another feature of the Perpendicular style was the groined roof. The ribs of the vaulting were now enriched by cross ribs, which were intersected by more ribs into small panels, which were filled in with tracery. The key-stones were formed into pendants. This network of ribs is called fan-tracery because the ribs spread out like the sticks of a fan. Very beautiful examples occur in Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey, and in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral.

“The light and elegant style of vaulting known as fan-tracery,
which is peculiar to this style, with its delicate pendants and
lace-like ornaments, harmonises finely with the elaborate ornament
of the tabernacle-work ornament. Fan-tracery vaulting is
_peculiarly English_. The principle of it began with the earliest
English Gothic style, as in the cloisters of Lincoln Cathedral,
each stone of the vaulting being cut to fit its place. In France
this is never done, each block of stone is oblong, as in those for
the walls, and is only made to curve over in a vault by the mortar
between the joints.

“Arches are not so acute as in the earlier periods; capitals and
bases of columns are distinguished by the shallowness of the
mouldings; mullions are carried straight through the arch of the
windows; doorways consist of a depressed arch within a square frame
with a label above; the label moulding is frequently filled with
foliage and the space round the arch parallel; towers are often
extremely rich and elaborately ornamented with four or five stories
of windows, canopies, pinnacles and tabernacles; porches are also
fine, highly enriched with panel-work, buttresses and pinnacles,
and often with a richly-groined vault in the interior; and
mouldings are generally more shallow than the earlier ones.

“There is an ornament which was introduced in this style and which
is very characteristic. This is called the ‘Tudor-flower,’ not
because it was introduced in the time of the Tudors, but because it
was so much used at that period. It generally consists of some
modification of the fleur-de-lis alternately with a small trefoil
or ball, and is much used as a crest for screens on fonts, niches,
capitals and in almost all places where such ornament can be used.
The foliage of this style is frequently very beautifully executed,
almost as faithful to nature as in the Decorated style, in which
the fidelity to nature is one of the characteristic features. There
is comparatively a squareness about the Perpendicular foliage,
which takes from the freshness and beauty which distinguished that
of the Decorated style. Indeed, the use of square and angular forms
is one of the characteristics of the style; we have square panels,
square foliage, square crockets and finials, square forms in the
windows--caused by the introduction of so many transoms--and an
approach to squareness in the depressed and low pitch of the roofs
in late examples.”--(J. H. P.)

The woodwork of the Perpendicular period is very beautiful: open timber roofs (met with in the eastern counties), screens and lofts across the chancel-arch and richly carved bench ends exist in considerable numbers.

“The frequent use of figures, simply as corbels between the windows
of the clerestory to carry the roof, is a good characteristic of
the late Perpendicular style; they are generally of the time of
Henry the Seventh or Eighth. The figure used is generally that of
an angel, and each angel is sometimes represented as carrying a
different musical instrument so as to make up a heavenly
choir.”--(J. H. P.)

Among the best examples of late Perpendicular are Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey; St. George’s Chapel, Windsor; King’s College Chapel, Cambridge; and Bath Abbey Church.

In writing of the latter W. D. Howells so beautifully describes this style that no excuse is needed for bringing his definition into this place. He says:

“It is mostly of that Perpendicular Gothic which I suppose more
mystically lifts the soul than any other form of architecture, and
it is in a gracious harmony with itself through its lovely
proportions; from the stems of its clustered column, the tracery of
their fans spreads and delicately feels its way over the vaulted
roof as if it were a living growth of something rooted in the earth
beneath.”

ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORS QUOTED

A. A.--Alexander Ansted

F. B.--Frederic Bond
J. E. B.--J. E. Bygate

A. B. C.--A. B. Clifton
A. C.-B.--A. Clutton-Brock
J. C.-B.--J. Cavis-Brown
H. C. C.--Hubert C. Corlette

A. D.--Arthur Dimock
C. D.--Charles Dickens, Jr.
P. D.--Percy Dearmer
P. H. D.--P. H. Ditchfield
T. F. D.--Thomas Frognall Dibdin

A. H. F.--A. Hugh Fisher
E. A. F.--E. A. Freeman
F. W. F.--F. W. Farrar
W. H. F.--W. H. Fremantle

H.--Hope
C. H.--Cecil Hallet
L. H.--Leigh Hunt
W. H. H.--W. H. Hart

A. F. K.--A. F. Kendrick
G. W. K.--Dean Kitchin
R. J. K.--Richard J. Knight

L.--Dr. Luckock
W. J. L.--W. J. Loftie

M.--Dean Milman
J. McC.--Justin McCarthy
H. J. L. J. M.--H. J. L. J. Massé

P.--Dean Patrick
P.-C.--Dean Pury-Cust
F. A. P.--F. A. Paley
G. H. P.--G. H. Palmer
J. H. P.--J. H. Parker
T. P.--T. Perkins

C. H. B. Q.--C. H. B. Quennell

R.--Rickman
F. and R.--Field and Routledge

S.--Dean Spence
A. P. S.--Dean Stanley
E. F. S.--Edward F. Strange
G. G. S.--G. G. Scott
W. D. S.--W. D. Sweeting

T.--Canon Talbot

W.--Willis
Wal.--Walcott
A.-à-W.--Anthony-à-Wood
C. W.--Winston
E. W.--Edward Walford
F. S. W.--F. S. Waller
G. W.--Gleeson White
Geo. W.--George Worley
H. W.--Hartley Wither

CONTENTS

PAGE

CANTERBURY 1

ROCHESTER 33

WINCHESTER 46

CHICHESTER 66

SALISBURY 76

EXETER 90

WELLS 107

BATH ABBEY 134

BRISTOL 140

GLOUCESTER 151

HEREFORD 174

WORCESTER 188

LICHFIELD 200

CHESTER 215

MANCHESTER 222

CARLISLE 227

DURHAM 233

RIPON 249

YORK MINSTER 260

LINCOLN 284

SOUTHWELL 313

PETERBOROUGH 319

ELY 334

NORWICH 349

ST. ALBANS 360

OXFORD 375

ST. PAUL’S, LONDON 393

ST. SAVIOUR’S, SOUTHWARK 415

WESTMINSTER ABBEY 425

INDEX 445

ILLUSTRATIONS

Salisbury: Cloisters _Frontispiece_

FACING PAGE

Canterbury: South Porch 12

Canterbury: Nave, east 13

Canterbury: Choir, east 24

Rochester: West front 25

Rochester: Nave, east 40

Rochester: Choir, west 41

Winchester: Nave, west 52

Winchester: Font 53

Winchester: Choir, east 64

Winchester: West front 65

Chichester 72

Chichester: Nave, east 73

Chichester: Screen 76

Salisbury: North 77

Salisbury: Nave, east 88

Exeter: South-west 89

Exeter: Nave, east 98

Exeter: Choir, east 99

Wells: West front 114

Wells: North Porch 115

Wells: Nave, east 128

Wells: South-west 129

Bath Abbey: West front 136

Bath Abbey: Choir, west 137

Bristol: North 144

Bristol: Nave, east 145

Gloucester: East 154

Gloucester: Tomb of Edward II 155

Gloucester: Choir, east 164

Gloucester: Cloisters 165

Hereford: Nave, east 176

Hereford: North-east 177

Hereford: Choir 186

Worcester: South-west 187

Worcester: Nave, east 192

Worcester: Choir, east 193

Lichfield: West front 200

Lichfield: Nave, east 201

Lichfield: from East window 212

Chester: North 213

Chester: Choir, west 218

Chester: Choir-stalls 219

Manchester: South 224

Manchester: Nave, east 225

Carlisle: South-west 228

Carlisle: Choir 229

Carlisle: East End 232

Durham: West front 233

Durham: Nave, east 240

Durham: Galilee Chapel 241

Durham: Neville Screen 248

Ripon: South 249

Ripon: Nave, east 254

Ripon: Choir, east 255

York Minster: West front 268

York Minster: South 269

York Minster: Choir, east 278

York Minster: Choir, west 279

Lincoln: West front 288

Lincoln: Great West Door 289

Lincoln: Angel Choir 298

Lincoln: Choir, east 299

Lincoln: East Window 306

Southwell: North-west 307

Southwell: Chapter-House 316

Peterborough: West front 317

Peterborough: Choir, east 328

Peterborough: South 329

Ely: West Towers 336

Ely: Choir, east 337

Ely: East End and Lady-Chapel 346

Ely: Lady-Chapel 347

Norwich: East 356

Norwich: Choir 357

St. Albans: North 366

St. Albans: Nave, east 367

Oxford: Tower and Entrance 382

Oxford: Choir, east 383

Oxford: Latin Chapel 392

St. Paul’s: West front 393

St. Paul’s: Choir, east 414

St. Saviour’s, Southwark 415

St. Saviour’s, Southwark: Nave, east 424

Westminster Abbey: West front 425

Westminster Abbey: Poets’ Corner 432

Westminster Abbey: Choir, east 433

Westminster Abbey: Chapel and Shrine of
Edward the Confessor 436

Westminster Abbey: Henry VII.’s Chapel 437

Westminster Abbey: Cloisters 440

Westminster Abbey: South-west 441

CANTERBURY

DEDICATION: CHRIST CHURCH. FORMERLY THE CHURCH OF A BENEDICTINE
MONASTERY.

SPECIAL FEATURES: BECKET’S CROWN; DOOR OF CHAPTER-HOUSE; WEST
DOORWAY; CRYPT.

Canterbury Cathedral presents a beautiful effect when seen from a distance, keeping watch over the city that lies in the valley of the Stour, girdled by hills. On one of these hills stands the village of Harbledown, the “Bob Up and Down,” where Chaucer’s Pilgrims halted, and from which a charming view of the ancient Cathedral is to be enjoyed.

Another fine prospect is gained from St. Martin’s: