Chapter X: Introduction (9)

_Eggs._--The knot lays four eggs, perhaps sometimes only three. The eggs are ovate pyriform in shape, with a slight gloss. In the set of three eggs, taken by the Crockerland expedition and now in Col. John E. Thayer's collection, the ground colors vary from "pale olive buff" to "olive buff"; they are spotted all over, but more thickly at the larger end, with small spots or scrawls of "sepia," "Saccardo's umber," and "Vandyke brown," with underlying spots of "pallid" and "pale brownish drab."

The other set of four eggs, from the same source and now in the American Museum of Natural History, is thus described for me by Ludlow Griscom:

Ground color varying from white with the faintest tinge of light
olive (1 egg) to "olive buff" (2 eggs) and deep "olive buff" (1
egg); clouded and spotted, especially at the larger end, with
shades of color varying from "dark olive buff" to "olive brownish,"
the intensity varying in direct proportion to the intensity of the
ground color; where the spots coalesce into blotches at the larger
end of the darkest egg, the color is blackish brown; the spotting
is scant at the smaller end.

Referring in his notes to the same two sets of eggs, Doctor Ekblaw describes the ground colors as varying from very light pea-green, almost gray, to dark pea-green, "with brown, umber, and almost black dots and blotches of varying size and shape over the green, and faint subcrustal lavender blotches showing through." Other eggs which I have seen figured or described would fit these descriptions fairly well. The measurements of 42 eggs average 43.1 by 29.6 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =49.8= by =33.8=, =39.9= by 29.7 and 41.5 by =27.7= millimeters.

_Young._--The period of incubation is said to be between 20 and 25 days. Both sexes have been taken with incubation patches, so this duty is doubtless shared by both. I quote from Doctor Ekblaw's notes again:

Though we found but two clutches of eggs, we discovered many
families of young birds. They are able to leave the nest as soon as
hatched, little gray downy chicks with faint blotches of brown, so
like the dried tufts of _dryas_ as to be quite undiscoverable when
hidden among them. Three or four, or rarely five, chicks constitute
the group. Their faint plaintive "cheeps" are so ventriloquistic
and illusory that it is impossible to distinguish the direction
from which they come. When an intruder approaches the little
fellows squat at the signal from the parent bird wherever they
happen to be at the time, and remain immovable as the pebbles and
tufts of _dryas_ until the danger is over, even though it be hours
before the safety seems assured. Even the tiniest of these downy
fledglings seem able to look after themselves. They run eagerly and
constantly about independently pursuing the moths, crane flies, and
flies upon which they feed, often 40 or 50 feet from their mother.
The first signal from the mother, a mellow, solicitous _coo-ee_
transforms them into immovable pebbles or tufts of _dryas_. When
they are discovered and realize that their concealment is no longer
effective, they scatter panic stricken like a flock of little
chickens, chirping appealingly to their "mother" who dashes
valiantly to their defense, quite beside "herself" with concern,
fear, and anger.

Whenever the jaegers, relentless brigands of birdland, appear, the
old knots do not hesitate to attack. In combining their forces,
they drive full into the bigger birds, striking them from beneath
again and again, until they chase them away. The young grow fast.
In three weeks after hatching they are almost full grown and
half-clothed in feathers, quite capable of taking care of
themselves. They stay until they leave among the interior plains
and plateaus, coming down to shore only when they are able to
fly--and then the southward migration begins at once.

Apparently, the knots, like the phalaropes, reverse part of their
secondary sex characteristics, for all the birds caring for the
young that I collected were males, beyond doubt. When I examined
the first bird that I collected with its young, I was surprised to
find that the supposed "mother," who had so valiantly and zealously
shielded "her" little ones, was actually father. I thought then
that perhaps the mother bird had been killed and that in the
emergency the father had assumed the responsibility for the
youngsters; but later I became convinced by examination of many
birds, that invariably it is the male that cares for the fledglings
after they are hatched. The female incubates the eggs, but the male
relieves her of further care in bringing up the family.

_Plumages._--In its natal down the young knot can be easily recognized by the grayish, mottled colors on the upper parts and the absence of browns and bright buffs. The shape of the bill, characteristic of the species, is also diagnostic. The crown, back, rump, wings, and thighs are finely mottled or spotted with black, white, gray and dull "cinnamon buff," the last being the basal color. The forehead, the sides of the head, the throat, and the entire under parts are dull white, tinged with grayish on the flanks and crissum. There is a broad median stripe on the forehead, a broad loral stripe from the bill to the eye and a narrower rictal stripe of black.

The juvenal plumage appears first on the wings, scapulars, and sides of the breast; the primaries burst their sheaths before the young bird is half grown. In the juvenal plumage, as seen on migration in August, the crown is heavily streaked with blackish brown, the feathers being edged with light buff; the feathers of the back and scapulars have an outer border of light buff, then a black border, then another buff, and sometimes a faint black border inside of that; the greater and median wing coverts have a terminal buff and a subterminal black border; the tail feathers are edged with buff and the under parts are more or less suffused with pale buff. Probably the buff is brighter and deeper in fresh plumage and it fades out to white before this plumage is molted.

A postjuvenal molt takes place, between September and December, of the body plumage, some scapulars and some wing coverts. This produces the first winter plumage, which is like that of the adult, except for the retained juvenal scapulars and wing coverts. I have seen birds in this plumage as early as September 30. A partial prenuptial molt, similar to that of the adult, produces during the spring a first nuptial plumage in which young birds can be distinguished from adults by varying amounts of retained winter feathers. At the next complete molt, the first postnuptial young birds assume the fully adult winter plumage.

Adults have a partial prenuptial molt between February and June, involving most of the body plumage, but not all of the scapulars, wing coverts, and tertials. There is much individual variation in the time of this molt. I have seen birds in full nuptial plumage as early as March 21 and in full winter plumage as late as May 13. The complete postnuptial molt begins in July with the body molt, which is usually completed before October. I have seen adults in full nuptial plumage as late as September 6. The red-breasted birds reported by Mr. Mackay (1893) as shot on Cape Cod in December and February must have been exceptional cases of delayed or omitted molt; the February birds may have been cases of early spring molt.

_Food._--Doctor Ekblaw says:

Their food when they first come to the North is scarce, and when
the weather is unduly unfavorable they are hard put to it to find
enough to live. They probe about the grasses and sedges on the wet
moors and along the swales and pools, and sometimes wade breast
deep into the water to pick out the small but abundant life that
swarms in some of the pools, mostly crustacea and larvae. The upper
mandible is relatively soft and pliant. Sometimes they search the
tide pools left at low water, or poke about the rocks and gravel
along shore.

Other Arctic explorers have referred to the scanty food of the knot in the north; H. Chichester Hart (1880) says that "of a number of knots' stomachs examined, only one contained any food; this consisted of two caterpillars, one bee, and pieces of an Alga;" Colonel Feilden (1879) saw knots "feeding eagerly on the buds of _Saxifraga oppositifolia_;" Mr. Manniche (1910) "saw them running on the snow eagerly occupied in picking up the seed of _Carex_ and _Lazula_ tufts, the ends of which here and there appeared over the snow." Later on, when the ponds and marshes are teeming with animal life, they have plenty of food.

With us, on migrations, the knots feed mainly on the sandy and stony beaches, moving deliberately along in compact groups close to the water's edge, probing in the sand for minute mollusks and small crustaceans. On the sandy beaches on the west coast of Florida, the wet sand is filled with minute shellfish known as _Coquinas_, on which the knots seemed to be feeding. They also feed to some extent on the mud flats and sand flats with the black-bellied plover, where they find marine insects and their larvae. Mr. Mackay (1893) says "they also eat the larvae of one of the cutworms (Noctuidae) which they obtain on the marshes," some of which he has found in their throats when shot. Edward H. Forbush (1912) says: "They are fond of the spawn of the horsefoot crab, which, often in company with the turnstone, they dig out of the sand, sometimes fighting the former birds before they can claim their share." W. L. McAtee (1911) says that they also feed on grasshoppers and on marine worms of the genus _Nereis_.

_Behavior._--The knots fly swiftly in compact flocks, twisting and turning in unison like the smaller sandpipers, for which they might easily be mistaken at a distance. On the ground they are rather deliberate in their movements, generally grouped in compact bunches and all moving along together; they are less likely to scatter over their feeding grounds than other waders. When resting on the high beaches between tides they stand quietly in close groups, all facing the wind; their grey plumage renders them quite inconspicuous at such times. F. H. Allen tells me that he has seen half a dozen of them hopping about on one leg in shallow water; this may be a sort of game, frequently indulged in by many small waders.

Mr. Manniche (1910) says:

Peculiar to this species is its restless character. The resident
couples would every day make long excursions, not only to seek
food, but probably also for pleasure. Their great power of flight
makes them able to do this without difficulty. In rapid high flight
they are now here and now there. I often saw them set out in a
northern direction high over the summits of the mountains or in a
southern far out over the ice in the firths, to return after a
short while.

In the breeding season the male is pugnacious and quarrelsome
against birds of its own kin as well as against other small birds,
which appear within his domain. Uttering a short cry he will fly
up and pursue the intruder in the most violent manner and often he
would follow it so far away, that I could not see them, even
through my field glass. He would soon return, and
having--triumphantly fluting--circled around several times, go
down to his mate. I have seen the knot pursue even skuas.

Mr. Mackay (1893) writes:

On the ground they are sluggish and not given to moving about much;
unless very much harassed they are not nearly so vigilant as their
companions, the black-bellied plover, but when they have become shy
they are exceedingly wary and always on the alert for danger. When
the incoming tide drives the knots from the flats they seek the
marshes or some shoal which is sufficiently elevated to remain
uncovered during high water; they also frequent the crest of the
beaches. Here they generally remain quiet until the tide has fallen
sufficiently to permit them to return again to the flats to feed.
When on the marshes during high water they occupy some of the time
in feeding, showing they are by no means dependent on the flats for
all their food. They associate and mingle freely with the turnstone
(_Arenaria interpres_), black-bellied plover (_Charadrius
squatarola_), and red-backed sandpiper (_Tringa alpina pacifica_)
as with their own kind, and apparently evince the same friendship
toward the two former birds as prevails between the American golden
plover (_Charadrius dominicus_) and the Eskimo curlew (_Numenius
borealis_). I have heard of but one instance (at Revere, Mass.,
during a storm) of the knot being noted in the same flock with
adult American golden plover. At this time there were three, one of
which was shot. I have heard, however, of both adult and young
knots mingling with young American golden plover, or
"pale-bellies," as they are locally called.

_Voice._--The same writer says:

They make two notes. One is soft, of two articulations, and sounds
like the word "Wah-quoit" (by which name it is sometimes known on
Cape Cod); although uttered low, it can be heard quite a distance.
This note is particularly noticeable when flocks are coming to the
decoys; it has a faint rolling sound similar to the note of the
American golden plover (_Charadrius dominicus_) under the same
conditions, only more subdued and faint. The other is a single note
resembling a little honk. These birds will also respond to the note
of the black-bellied plover (_Charadrius squatarola_) as readily as
to their own when it is given with a whistle.

Roland C. Ross (1924) gives the following graphic description of the croaking note:

The common call is a low-pitched, hoarse "skeuk," the lowest and
heaviest voice on the flats. It struck me as a dull croak, coming
pretty regularly from the feeding birds, and especially strong when
they took wing. A lone bird in joining the flock would croak his
coming. The sound can be imitated in quality and form but in a
higher pitch. Make the facial contortions necessary to "cluck" to a
horse, but don't "cluck"; make it "skeuk," and locate it in the
wisdom teeth on the side being dislocated. Pitch it low; it will
still be two tones too high. At a distance the sucking or harsh
quality is lost. A softer, more musical rendition is given when the
birds are well bunched and feeding, which came to my ear as
"chook."

John T. Nichols (1920) says: "The flight note of the knot is a low-pitched whistle, frequently in two parts, with a peculiar lisp or buzz in it, _tlu tlu_."

Doctor Ekblaw describes the notes heard on the breeding grounds as follows:

Four distinct calls characterize the mating and nesting season.
Most common are two piercingly shrill calls uttered generally on
the wing, one of them resembling _wah-quoi_ and the other
_wee-a-whit_, easily distinguished, but somewhat alike. The
long-drawn-out _coo-a-hee_, or _coo-hee_, is a soft, flutelike call
also given in flight, but nearly always back among the hills, far
from the shore where the nests are hidden. This flutelike call
appears to be a signal or recognition call. The fourth call is a
sharp, querulous _whit_, _whit_, _whit_, almost like a cluck, often
given singly, but more often many times repeated. When their
nesting haunts are invaded or their feeding grounds disturbed this
call expresses their displeasure.

_Field marks._--In spring plumage the knot is easily recognized by its reddish breast, which, however, is not as conspicuous as might be expected. In immature and winter plumage the best character is the absence of any conspicuous field mark. Even in flight it seems to be a plain gray bird; the rump and tail appear but little lighter than the rest of the upper parts and the faint white line in the wings is hardly noticeable. Its larger size will hardly distinguish it from the smaller sandpipers except by direct comparison. Its short, greenish yellow legs and its prominent bill might help one to recognize it under favorable circumstances.

_Fall._--Doctor Ekblaw says:

As soon as the water begins to grow cold, when insect and other
small life becomes scarce, and when the midnight sun approaches the
horizon, the knots abandon the northland, plump and strong from
their summer stay in the Arctic, and wend their way to the
southland. Not even a belated straggler can be found after August
1.

The adults begin to arrive on Cape Cod about the middle of July; the height of their abundance comes about the first week in August and most of them disappear during that month, although Mr. Mackay (1893) has recorded them in October, December, and February. The young birds begin to arrive there about August 20, but the main flight of "graybacks," as the young are called on this coast, comes along in September and early October, stragglers sometimes lingering into November. When with us, knots frequent the beaches; although they are found on both sandy and stony beaches, I have sometimes thought that they preferred the pebbly beaches, feeding close to the water line, where they are often surprisingly invisible among the variously colored stones. They are not shy, as a rule, and generally allow a close approach before they fly off swiftly, uttering their characteristic notes. At high tide, when their feeding grounds are covered, they resort to the high beaches to rest, preen their plumage, and sleep.

By July 20 the first birds have reached South Carolina, where some remain until October 15. We saw what was probably the last of the migration on the west coast of Florida in 1924. The knots were there when we arrived on November 11. During a northerly gale and after a heavy rain on the 21st I saw several small flocks on the high and dry sand of an exposed beach, huddled together in compact bunches and reluctant to move. The last birds were seen on the 26th.

In the interior the knot seems to be even rarer in the fall than in the spring, but on the Pacific coast the reverse seems to be the case. It is regarded as rather rare in Alaska, but F. S. Hersey collected a small series for me at St. Michael on August 4 and 8, 1915, and H. B. Conover took two at Golovin Bay on August 14, 1924. D. E. Brown's notes record them at Grays Harbor, Washington, from August 21 to November 2, 1917.

_Game._--Although no longer on the game-bird list, the knot is a good game bird. It flies in compact flocks, comes well to the decoys when attracted by the whistle of an experienced caller, flies rather swiftly, and makes a good table bird, for it is of good size and usually fat. It was always included in the list of what we used to call "big birds." On Cape Cod knots in all plumages are called "redbreasts" by the gunners, though the name "grayback" is often applied to the young birds. Mr. Mackay (1893) says:

When shy and coming to decoys to alight, they barely touch their
feet to the sand before they discover their mistake and are off in
an instant. They fly quickly and closely together and, when coming
to decoys, usually pass by them down wind, most of the flock
whistling, then suddenly wheeling with heads to the wind, and up to
the decoys. At such times many are killed at one discharge.

Dr. L. C. Sanford (1903) writes:

One of my pleasant recollections of shore-bird shooting is
associated with this bird. I give the date with some hesitation,
for it was May 10, near Cobb Island. During several days previous
redbreast had been flying, but the tides were not suitable, and it
was useless to try for them. Here the flight is along the outer
beach, at the edge of the surf, the birds stopping to feed on the
mud flats exposed by the falling tide. The sun was not up and the
water still high as we set the decoys off one of the points along
the beach, close to the breaking waves; the blind was of seaweed,
and before we were settled the first flock passed by high up, but a
pair of birds dropped out of it and hovered in front of us; another
minute and 10 more swung in. Flock after flock, from a few birds to
hundreds, passed in the same line, coming into sight over the
ocean, striking the beach and following its edge--now low just over
the surf, now high up--the first light of sunrise giving them a
black appearance. The undulating character of the flight was
unmistakable and was in evidence when the dark line first
appeared--now distinct on the horizon, presently out of sight in
the waves, all of a sudden rising up over the decoys to circle in.
Our chance lasted only a few minutes, for when the flat was exposed
the birds all passed by out of range; occasionally we whistled in
an odd one, but the flocks shied off. As we carried back our basket
of birds it did not occur to us that the experience of that morning
would be our last flight of redbreast, but it was.

DISTRIBUTION

_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the knot in North America is imperfectly known, but appears to extend north to Franklin (Winter Harbor, Victoria Land, and Goose Fiord), and Grinnell Land (Fort Conger). East to Greenland (Floeberg Beach, Cape Sheridan, North Star Bay, Tuctoo Valley, Bowdoin Bay, and Disco Bay). South to southwestern Greenland (Disco Bay) and southern Franklin (Igloolik, Winter Island, and Cambridge Bay). West to Franklin (Cambridge Bay and Winter Harbor). Birds breeding in northeast Greenland may be the European form.

It has also been detected in summer in Alaska at Point Barrow, Point Hope, St. Michael, and other localities, where it may possibly breed.

_Winter range._--Not well known but in the Western Hemisphere, seemingly most of South America, from Patagonia (Tierra del Fuego) and Argentina (Barracus al Sud and Cape San Antonio) on the south, Peru (Santa Luzia and probably Tumbez) on the west, Brazil (Iguape) on the east, to possibly Jamaica, Barbados, rarely Louisiana (Vermilion Bay), and Florida (St. Marks).

_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival on the Atlantic coast are: South Carolina, Frogmore, April 8, and Egg Bank, April 16; North Carolina, Pea and Brodie Islands, April 18; Virginia, Locustville, April 10; New Jersey, Absecon Bay, April 21; New York, Long Beach, Long Island, April 29, and Canandaigua Lake, May 23; Connecticut, Norwalk, May 24, Fairfield, May 29, and Westport, May 30; Massachusetts, Tuckernuck Island, May 11, Franklin, Igloolik, June 14; and Greenland, Jacobshaven, June 3, and Cape Union, June 5.

On the Pacific coast, early dates are: California, Alameda, April 25; Washington, Destruction Island Light, May 6, and Willapa Harbor, May 11 [once at Dungeness, on February 25, 1915 (Cantwell)]; British Colombia, Fort Simpson, May 13; and Alaska, Nulato, May 10, Craig, May 13, Admiralty Island, May 14, St. Michael, May 29, and Point Barrow, May 30.

Late dates of spring departure are: South Carolina, near Charleston, June 5; Virginia, Cape Charles, June 10, Cobb Island, June 25, and Wallop's Island, June 27; New Jersey, Cape May County, June 3, and Elizabeth, June 11; New York, Amityville, May 31, and Geneva, June 8; and Massachusetts, Cape Cod, June 13, Harvard, June 19, Marthas Vineyard, June 24, and Monomoy Island, June 28.

_Fall migration._--Early dates of arrival in fall migration are: Washington, Lake Oxette, July 12; California, Alameda, August 1, Monterey, August 7, and Santa Barbara, August 21; Massachusetts, Cape Cod, July 15, Marthas Vineyard, July 24, Dennis, July 27, and Monomoy Island, July 30; Rhode Island, Newport, August 1; Connecticut, Saybrook, August 21; New York, East Hampton, July 27, Dutchess County, July 30, Rockaway, August 12, Montauk Point Light, August 14, And Amityville, August 23; New Jersey, Tuckerton, July 3; Virginia, Wallops Island, August 12; North Carolina, Pea and Brodie Islands, July 8; South Carolina, near Charleston, July 20; Florida, Marco, July 1, and Lesser Antilles, Barbados, September 6.

Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska, St. Michael, August 14, Point Barrow, August 17, and Homer, August 23; Washington, Grays Harbor, November 2; California, Anaheim Landing, October 3, and San Diego, October 9; Greenland, Discovery Bay, August 25; Franklin, Winter Island, August 17; Prince Edward Island, Alexandra, September 24; Quebec, Godbout, August 7, Henley Harbor, August 23, and Old Fort Island, September 30; Massachusetts, Marthas Vineyard, October 8, and Monomoy Island, October 28; Rhode Island, South Auburn, September 3, and Newport, September 14; Connecticut, Saybrook, September 25; New York, Shinnecock Bay, September 16, Freeport, September 26, Penn Yan, October 15, and Amityville, October 16; Virginia, Wallops Island, September 29; North Carolina, Church's Island, September 30; South Carolina, near Charleston, October 15; Georgia, Savannah, September 24; and Lesser Antilles, Barbados, December 27.

_Casual records._--The knot has on numerous occasions been detected in the Central or Western States or other points outside of its normal range. Among these are Vera Cruz, Rivera, April 13, 1904; Texas, Corpus Christi, July 1 to 10, 1887; Kansas, Hamilton, September 19, 1911, and Lawrence, April 17, 1871; Nebraska, Omaha, September 30, 1893, and Lincoln, May 16, 1896, and August 27, 1896; Indiana, near Millers, August 24, 1896; Minnesota, Lanesboro, September 7, 1885; and Montana, Lake Bowdoin, October 4, 1915; Ohio, Sandusky River, spring of 1894, and Licking Reservoir, May 27, 1878; Ontario (occasionally common in spring), Point Pelee, September 15, 1906, and May 30, 1907, and Ottawa, June 4, 1890; Michigan, Port Austin, September 4, 1899, Benton Harbor, June 23, 1904, Forestville, June 20, 1903, Charity Island, September 1, 1910, and Oak Point, August 20-21, 1908; and Alberta, Beaverhill Lake, May 19-23, 1924.

_Egg dates._--Greenland: 3 records, June 22 and 30, and July 9. Victoria Land: 3 records, July 1, 9, and 22. Grinnell Land: 2 records, June 26 and 27.

CALIDRIS TENUIROSTRIS (Horsfield)

EASTERN ASIATIC KNOT

The only North American record for this little known Asiatic species was established by Alfred M. Bailey (1925), when he captured a single specimen in northwestern Alaska on May 28, 1922. He says:

One specimen of this species, an adult male in light plumage, was
taken at Cape Prince of Wales on May 28. At this date the tundra
was still covered with snow, but the higher benches of the cape
were becoming bare. The first arrivals of many species were just
making their appearance, using these high exposed spots as resting
places. Among these numerous migrants I took this one straggler. It
was so tame I collected it with my .32 aux.

It is larger than our knot and is also known as the Japanese knot. Seebohm (1888) says:

It is the only _Tringa_ with white on the upper tail coverts which
has a straight bill more than an inch and a half long. In summer
plumage it has no chestnut on the under parts, and the chestnut on
the upper parts is principally confined to the scapulars. In winter
plumage the two knots scarcely differ except in size. It is very
closely allied to the common knot.

The breeding grounds of the Japanese knot are unknown, but
Middendorff observed it during the whole summer on the southern
shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, though he obtained no evidence of
its nesting there. It has occurred on migration in the valley of
the Ussuri, on the coasts of Japan and China, and on most of the
islands of the Malay Archipelago. It winters on the coast of
Australia, has occurred on the Andaman Islands, and in
considerable numbers on the coast of Scinde.

ARQUATELLA MARITIMA (Brünnich)

PURPLE SANDPIPER

HABITS

This hardy northern bird has well been called "winter snipe" and "rock snipe," for it is known to us only as a winter visitor on rocky shores. Although it does not breed quite as far north as some species, it migrates for a shorter distance and winters farther north than any other wader; in fact, the southern limit of its winter range is far north of the normal winter range of any other. A. L. V. Manniche (1910) saw only three purple sandpipers during three seasons in northeastern Greenland, and the Crockerland expedition saw only one in northwestern Greenland in four years. Both expeditions were probably north of its normal breeding range.

_Spring._--As soon as spring asserts itself the purple sandpipers begin to desert their main winter range on the coast of New England, some leaving in March and only a very few stragglers lingering into May. On May 29, 1909, we saw a few late migrants on the south coast of Labrador, where I secured one in full nuptial plumage. Ludwig Kumlien (1879) says that the purple sandpiper is the first wader to arrive in the spring at Cumberland Sound.

The 4th of June Is the earliest date I met them at Annanactook;
this was during a heavy snowstorm, and the earliest date possible
that they could have found any of the rocks bare at low tide. The
flock lit on the top of one of the small islands in the harbor and
sheltered themselves from the storm by creeping behind and
underneath ledges of rocks; they then huddled together like a flock
of quails in winter. I have often noticed the same habit with them
in late autumn, while they were waiting for low tide.

_Courtship._--The same writer refers to a courtship performance, as follows:

As the breeding season approaches the males have a peculiar cry,
resembling somewhat that of _Actiturus bartramius_, but lower and
not so prolonged. When this note is uttered they assume a very
dignified strut, and often raise the wings up over the back and
slowly fold them again, like the upland plover.

Aubyn Trevor-Battye (1897) says:

Like all sandpipers, they do much of their courtship on the wing,
chasing one another in circles with rapid turns and shifts. On the
ground I have seen the male bird approach the female with trailing
wings, arched back, and head low down, occasionally hopping, like a
courting pigeon.

This species seems to be rather rare in Baffin Land. I have two sets of eggs, given to me by Capt. Donald B. MacMillan, collected with the parent bird at Cape Dorset. J. Dewey Soper collected a female there, with enlarged ovaries, on June 8; but he saw only three birds during "the spring and summer of 1926 along the south coast of Baffin Island." He says in his notes:

The first sandpiper observed by me the following spring was of this
species, a solitary male collected on June 2, 1925, at Nettilling
Lake. The lakes were still ice-bound and the land mostly covered
with snow, but here and there were small open pools. Along the
border of one of these the bird was feeding in the thin layer of
thawed mud among the grassy hummocks. On June 11, in the same
locality near the Takuirbing River, several were observed and
collected. When flushed they emit a grating _ick-ick-ick_ and when
not too hard pressed will often light again a few yards away. They
flush sluggishly, and when not come upon too abruptly will
frequently elevate the wings leisurely above the back, as though
stretching them before taking flight. On the whole, at this time,
they were comparatively fearless and permitted close approach. Only
one was observed giving a vocal performance on the wing. It rose
slowly from the ground to a height of 15 or 20 feet and leisurely
flying over the tundra gave a series of low, musical staccato notes
resembling _to-wit-to-wit-to-wit-to-wit_, etc. The performance
continues unbrokenly while the bird remains in the air over a
distance of 25 or 30 yards.

_Nesting._--Rev. Henry H. Slater (1898) says:

In the extreme north the nest is often quite close to the sea,
little above high-water mark. But in Iceland and at the southern
borders of its breeding range generally the purple sandpiper
usually nests on the fells. My first nest, from which I shot the
female mentioned above, was near the top of a high ridge in north
Iceland, nearly 1,600 feet above sea level, on a small bare patch
of recently uncovered ground amongst snow fields; it was a slight
hollow in a withered tuft of _Dryas octopetala_, and rather a
substantial nest for a wader, consisting of a good handful of
leaves of _Dryas_ and _Salix lanata_, a little short grass, two
white ptarmigan's feathers and a few of the parents'.

W. C. Hewitson (1856) quotes Mr. Wolley as saying that in the Faeroes, "it breeds sparingly on the very tops of high mountains, where I found its young at the end of June still unable to fly."

Messrs. E. Evans and W. Sturge (1859) found the purple sandpiper breeding in Spitsbergen; they say:

The purple sandpiper (_Tringa maritina_, Brünn.) was very abundant
in Coal Bay (on the south side of Ice Sound, so named on account of
a small quantity of poor coal being found there), and we found four
of their nests on the high field. Beautiful little nests they were,
deep in the ground, and lined with stalks of grass and leaves of
the dwarf birch (_Betula nana_, L.), containing mostly four eggs of
an olive green, handsomely mottled with purplish brown, chiefly at
the larger end. We watched this elegant little bird--the only one
of the _Grallatores_ we saw--with much interest as it waded into
some pool of snow water or ran along the shingle, every now and
then raising its wings over its back and exhibiting the delicate
tint of the under side, at the same time uttering its loud shrill
whistle.

No recent accounts of the nesting habits of this species seem to have been published and the data on eggs in collections seem to be rather scanty. I have never found a nest myself. Both sexes are said to incubate the eggs and share in the care of the young. The period of incubation is over 20 days.

_Eggs._--A very good description of the eggs is given by Seebohm (1884) as follows:

The eggs of the purple sandpiper are four in number and remarkably
handsome. They vary in ground color from pale olive to pale buffish
brown, boldly mottled, blotched, and streaked with reddish brown
and very dark blackish brown. On some eggs the blotches are large,
and chiefly distributed in an oblique direction round the large
end; on others they are more evenly distributed over the entire
surface; and on many a few very dark scratches, spots, or streaks
are scattered here and there amongst the brown markings. The
underlying markings are numerous and conspicuous, and are pale
violet gray or grayish brown in color.

Frank Poynting's (1895) colored plate of 12 selected eggs well illustrates the great variation in the beautiful eggs of this species. There are two distinct types of ground color, green and buff. In the green types the colors vary from "yellowish glaucous" to a light shade of "grape green"; and in the buff types from "cream buff" to "dark olive buff." They are sometimes evenly, but more often irregularly, spotted and blotched with various shades of brown, "sepia," "bister," and "snuff brown," sometimes boldly marked with "chocolate" and "burnt umber" and sometimes with great splashes of "vinaceous brown" overlaid with blotches of "chestnut brown" and "bay," a handsome combination. The measurements of 100 eggs, supplied by Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain, average 37.3 by 26.5 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =40= by =28=, =35.1= by 26.6 and 37.3 by =24.8= millimeters.

_Plumages._--The nestling is described in Witherby's Handbook (1920) as follows:

Fore part of crown warm buff; black-brown median line from base of
upper mandible to crown; crown and upper parts velvety black-brown,
down with numerous cream and warm buff tips; nape light buff, down
with sooty-brown bases; from base of upper mandible above eye to
nape a black-brown streak, another short one from base of lower
mandible, ear coverts as crown; cheeks warm or light buff, down
with black-brown tips; remaining under parts grayish white, down
sooty brown toward base.

The juvenal plumage is much like that of the summer adult, except that the feathers of the crown are tipped with creamy white, as are also the central tail feathers; the feathers of the mantle and scapulars are edged with buffy white; and the wing coverts and tertials are broadly edged with the same color or tipped with pale pinkish buff. The juvenal body plumage is usually molted before the birds reach us on migration, when young birds, in first winter plumage, can be recognized by the broad white edgings of the median coverts and by a few retained scapulars and tertials. Some of these juvenal feathers are retained through the next, the partial prenuptial molt. Subsequent molts and plumages are as in the adult.

Adults have a complete postnuptial molt between August and November and a partial prenuptial molt from January to May; this latter involves most of the body plumage, but not all of the scapulars, back, rump, or upper tail coverts.

_Food._--The favorite feeding places of purple sandpipers are the wave-washed rocky shores of islands or promontories along the seashore, with a decided preference for islands. Here, where the rocks are fringed with rockweed, waving in the restless waves, or covered with barnacles and various slimy products of the sea, these sure-footed little birds are quite at home on the slippery rocks, as they glean abundant food at the water's edge and skillfully avoid being washed away. Yarrell (1871) says that--

it may be seen busily employed turning over stones and searching
among seaweed for the smaller shrimps and sandhoppers which are to
be found there, and it also feeds on young crabs, marine insects,
and the soft bodies of animals inhabiting small shells.

Witherby's Handbook (1920) gives its food as--

varied, including insects: coleoptera (_Otiorhynchus_), diptera
(larvae of _Chironomus_), also spiders, _Thysanura_ (or
_Collembola_), annelida and crustacea (_Amphipoda_, _Isopoda_,
_Orchestia_, _Idotea_, _Gammarus_, and _Podocerus_) as well as
mollusca (_Mytilus_, _Littorina_, _Purpura_, etc.). Vegetable
matter is also eaten including algae, grasses, moss, buds, and
leaves of phanerogams and remains of cryptogams. Seeds of
_Cochlearia_ have been identified and small fish (_Gobius_) nearly
1 inch long, as well as ova of lumpsucker.

_Behavior._--The flight of the purple sandpiper suggests at times that of the spotted sandpiper, for when disturbed singly along the shore it is apt to fly out over the water with rapid downward wing strokes and, describing a large semicircle, return to the shore some distance ahead. When flying in a flock the birds are often closely bunched, the whole flock wheeling and turning in unison, showing alternately their dark bodies and their white bellies, in true sandpiper fashion. As a rule they do not make very long flights or fly very high. Their migrations are short and deliberate. They are rather sedentary birds and can generally be found in certain favorite localities all winter and year after year. But, as they show a decided preference for the outer sides of surf-swept ledges, they are not often seen from the land. They can swim almost as well as phalaropes and in calm weather they will often alight on half submerged seaweed or on the surface of the water. Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1905), who watched a flock on an island off Cape Ann, describes their actions as follows:

They finally alighted on a steeply sloping rock close to the
water's edge on the northeastern point of the island so that they
could be watched with binoculars and telescope from the shore.
Fifty-eight birds were in sight and there were fully half as many
more on the other side of the rock, hidden from view, except when
they jumped up from time to time. The flock must have numbered 75.
The tide was high and the birds were evidently trying to kill time
until low water, when they could gather their food from the seaweed
covered rocks. Most of them were resting, squatting on the rock
with head to the wind, their dark purplish-gray backs contrasting
strongly with their white bellies. Others were slowly raising their
wings over their backs, showing the white under surfaces. Again
they were chasing each other, making the sleepy ones jump suddenly,
or running up the rock to escape an unusually high wave, fluttering
with their wings to help themselves. From time to time they were
joined by bunches of from 5 to 10 others.

_Voice._--This species is a rather silent bird, but John T. Nichols says in his notes: "When about to take wing a flock of purple sandpipers is rather noisy, keeping up a swallowlike chatter, each single-syllabled note suggestive of the _flip_ of the tree swallow and of the _kip_ of the sanderling."

_Field marks._--A sandpiper seen on a rocky shore in New England in winter is likely to be a purple sandpiper. Mr. Nichols suggests the following field characters:

The purple sandpiper is a stockily built bird, which stands low and
has a moderately long bill. Its breast and upper parts of a dark
purplish gray match admirably the rocks on which it lives, and
although darker are not very different in tone from the coloring of
the red-backed sandpiper in fall, with which species it might
possibly be confused. Both have a white line in the wing shown in
flight, but in the purple sandpiper this broadens to a more
conspicuous wedge of white backward on the inner secondaries and
extends across the bases of the primaries as narrow edging to their
coverts, rather than turning the bend of the wing into the
primaries. The best field character is the color of legs and feet,
which are of a dull but strong yellow, appreciable at a
considerable distance. The basal third of the bill is of the same,
but tinged with orange.

_Fall._--The fall migration of the purple sandpiper is a gradual southward movement along the Atlantic coast. It disappears from its breeding grounds early in September, but the main flight does not reach New England until November or December. What few stragglers have been seen on the Great Lakes were probably migrants from Hudson Bay. E. W. Hadeler writes to me that he observed one on the shore of Lake Erie, Painesville, Ohio, from October 22 to November 12, 1916, and again from October 24 to November 11, 1922. It is interesting to note the uniformity of the dates and the fact that the species was seen always on a stone breakwater, apparently feeding exclusively on the water-washed stones.

_Winter._--The purple sandpiper is the "winter snipe" of the New England coast, where flocks of from 25 to 75 or more may be found regularly on certain outlying rocky ledges. Here they seek shelter among the rocks from the flying spray and from the wintry blasts; and here they find their food washed up by the waves or hidden in the half floating beds of rockweed. On December 10, 1913, while we were shooting eiders on one of the outer ledges in Jericho Bay, Maine, a flock of about 50 of these hardy little birds seemed out of place in our rough surroundings. It was a cold, blustering day; the surf was breaking over the rocks and the sea was white with combing breakers; even the hardy sea ducks sought the shelter of the ledges; but these plump little birds seemed quite happy and contented as they huddled together in a compact flock on the slippery rocks. They were very tame and confiding; even the reports of our guns served only to make them circle out around the ledge a few times and then return to its shelter. Evidently this was their winter home. We did not have the heart to shoot any of them.

Mr. Nichols tells me that "very occasionally in winter, early spring or late fall, one finds single birds on the sandy beaches of New York or New Jersey south of the rocks."

DISTRIBUTION

_Range._--Europe, Asia, and northeastern North America.

_Breeding range._--In the Old World the purple sandpiper breeds in the Arctic regions from Iceland, Norway, and Spitsbergen east to Nova Zembla and the Taimyr Peninsula. In North America the breeding range extends north to Franklin (Igloolik); and Greenland (Hare Island, and Shannon Islands). East to Greenland (Shannon Islands and Ivimiut). South to Greenland (Ivimiut and Ivigtut); and Franklin (southern Baffin Island, Cumberland Sound, and Winter Island). West to Franklin (Winter Island and Igloolik). It has been detected in summer still farther north; Franklin (Mercy Bay, Fury Point, Boothia Felix, and Possession Bay); and Greenland (Bowdoin Bay, Thank God Harbor, North Star Bay, and Fort Conger).

_Winter range._--The purple sandpiper winters farther north than any other shore bird. North and east to southern Greenland (Ivigtut); eastern Nova Scotia (St. Peter's Island); Massachusetts (Rockport, Westport, and Boston); Rhode Island (Cormorant Rock); Connecticut (Saybrook and Faulkner Island); and rarely New York (Gull Island, Montauk, and Amityville). South to New York (Amityville). West to New York (Amityville); Connecticut (New Haven); Maine (Cumberland County, Matinicus Island, and Washington County); New Brunswick (Grand Manan and the Bay of Fundy); Prince Edward Island; and southern Greenland (Ivigtut).

_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival are: Franklin, Annanactook, June 4, Winter Island, June 10, Cambridge Bay, June 10, and Igloolik, June 14; Greenland, about 72° north latitude, May 29; and Baffin Island, Cape Dorset, May 30.

Late dates of spring departure are: New York, Sag Harbor, April 18, and Long Beach, May 4, Rhode Island, Sachuest Point, May 15; Massachusetts, Dennis, May 5; and Quebec, Prince of Wales Sound, May 27, Quatachoo, May 29, and Mingan Islands, May 29.

_Fall migration._--Early dates of fall arrival are Quebec, Bras d'Or, August 4; New Brunswick, Grand Manan, August 13; Ontario, Toronto, October 27, Ottawa, October 29, and Hamilton, October 31; Maine, Metinic Green Island, August 6, Saddleback Ledge, August 19; Massachusetts, Cape Cod, September 6, Chatham, September 8, and Nahant, October 13; Rhode Island, Sachuest Point, September 13; and New York, Montauk, November 1, Orient, November 1, and Long Beach, November 2.

Late dates of fall departure are: Greenland, Possession Bay, September 1, and Thank God Harbor, September 3; Mackenzie, Great Bear Lake, September 16; and Franklin, Wellington Channel, August 28, Kingwah Fjord, September 6, Cumberland Gulf, September 13, and Pangnirtung Fjord, October 21.

_Casual records._--The purple sandpiper has been reported as seen at the entrance to St. George Harbor, Bermuda, and there are a few records for the south Atlantic coast and the interior, among which are: New Jersey, Delaware Bay (specimen in British Museum), Beach Haven, October 31, 1896, and one found dead at the Absecon Lighthouse; Georgia, one in the Sennett collection taken, March 5, 1874; Florida, Key Biscayne, October 29, 1857, and Gordan's Pass, November 1, 1886; Missouri, Boonville, between April 16 and May 31, 1854; Illinois, near Chicago, November 7, 1871; Ohio, Sandusky, November 19, 1925, and Painesville, October 22, 1916, and October 24, 1922; and Wisconsin, Door County, May, 1881.

_Egg dates._--Greenland: 18 records, May 16 to June 30; 9 records, June 1 to 19. Iceland: 6 records, May 21 to June 17. Baffin Island; 2 records, July 21 and 28.

ARQUATELLA PTILOCNEMIS PTILOCNEMIS (Coues)

PRIBILOF SANDPIPER

HABITS

As explained under the Aleutian sandpiper, this bird is probably not a subspecies of the purple sandpiper; so the name _maritima_ can not be used for either _ptilocnemis_ or _couesi_. I have therefore thought it best to follow Ridgway (1919) in the use of his names for the Pribilof and Aleutian sandpipers, rather than use the Check List names.

The Pribilof sandpiper has the most restricted distribution of any North American sandpiper. In summer it is confined to the chilly and foggy uplands of the Pribilof Islands, the equally cool, damp lowlands of St. Matthew Island, Hall Island, and perhaps St. Lawrence Island, all in Bering Sea. And its known migration range is limited to a few localities on the mainland of Alaska and in the Aleutian Islands, where it probably winters. It may breed more extensively on St. Lawrence Island than it is now known to do, but it has not yet been found breeding anywhere on the mainland. G. Dallas Hanna (1921) says:

I strongly suspect that the birds have some other extensive
breeding ground than St. George, St. Paul, and St. Matthew Islands,
because in September and October large flocks come to the two
former islands; these appear to contain many more individuals than
are in existence on all three. Whether St. Lawrence Island supplies
the extra number or not remains for future determination. The
winter range of the species is practically unknown, the only
records being from Portage Bay, southeast Alaska, and Lynn Canal,
between Alaska and British Columbia. The appearance of the birds at
the former locality in flocks in spring (if identifications were
correct) indicates that they wintered farther south, probably on
Vancouver and other islands of British Columbia. They could hardly
have come from beyond these localities and have remained
undiscovered.

_Spring._--The same writer says:

Spring migration takes place the latter part of April and the first
half of May. My earliest record for St. Paul Island is April 15
(1915) when a flock appeared at Northeast Point. The height of
migration is a little later than that date and may usually be
expected from the 1st to the 15th of May. Birds are almost
invariably paired upon arrival. Very few spring flocks have been
seen on the Pribilofs, and they do not tarry by the beaches, but go
directly to the upland nesting sites. It seems to be uncommon for
more than the resident population to land upon an island in spring.
The birds seem to go directly to the chosen breeding grounds,
wherever they may be. This fact is of wide application among the
northern shore birds. Only rare stragglers of such species as
golden plovers, turnstones, and pectoral and sharp-tailed
sandpipers stop at the Pribilofs on their way north, but large
numbers of some of them come in fall.

_Courtship._--Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) writes:

The male of the pair seen by me on St. Lawrence Island in June kept
flying up some 10 or 15 yards, its wings beating with a rapid
vibrating or tremulous motion, while the bird thus poised trilled
forth a clear, rather musical and liquid but hard, whistling note,
which is probably the same note which Elliott likens to the trill
of the tree frog. The short song ended, the musician glides to the
ground upon stiffened wings and resumes his feeding or stands
silently for a time on a projecting rock or knoll.

_Nesting._--We found Pribilof sandpipers very common in July on the low tundra at the south end of St. Matthew Island, where they were evidently breeding just back of the beaches. They were also common in the interior at the north end of this island and on the highlands of Hall Island. We collected a few specimens of the birds, but had no time to hunt for nests. We are indebted to Mr. Hanna (1921) for his excellent account of the nesting habits of this bird, from which I quote as follows:

On St. George Island the high upland tundra has been chosen for
breeding ground. Here, among the reindeer "mosses" and light gray,
lichen-covered rocks the sandpipers reign supreme in the fog. Some
speculating may be indulged in to find a reason for so unusual a
choice of locality. Elevations up to 500 feet are sought. Perhaps
they shun the seacoasts on account of the presence there of large
numbers of foxes. During all history this has been a greater fox
island than either St. Paul or St. Matthew. On the latter island in
June and July the birds may be found in large numbers around and
back of the driftwood piles. If it were not for this fact being
known, we might suspect that on St. George the light gray tundra
was selected for protective purposes, the birds themselves being
distinguished chiefly by their light colors. St. Paul Island, for
some unaccountable reason, is not chosen as a breeding ground
except by a very few pairs. In 1919 not over a dozen were found
during the entire nesting season, when almost all of the available
areas were seen.

On the breeding grounds of St. George and St. Matthew the birds
are very common, and from one to a dozen are in almost constant
attendance upon the visitor. They sight him from afar and fly to
meet him. Some bird will almost always try to lead him astray. If
followed, it flies from knoll to knoll, often not more than 20
yards away. It remains in front of the visitor regardless of the
direction he may take; whether toward or from the nest, makes no
difference. After several minutes of this a sudden flight, with
the familiar "song," is taken to some distant hill and the
searcher for a nest is left confused and confounded.