Chapter III: Preface (2)

In our previous experiments we have seen that in order to produce large drops of a given liquid, the surroundings should be of nearly the same density, so as largely to diminish the effective weight of the suspended mass. We might therefore expect that large columns of liquid could be produced under similar conditions; and our conjecture is correct. We may, for example, use the apparatus by means of which large drops of orthotoluidine were formed (Fig. 13), using a shallow layer of water, so that the lower end of the drop would come into contact with the bottom of the vessel before the breaking stage was reached, and thus produce, on a large scale, the same result as that we have just achieved by allowing a hanging drop of water to touch a glass plate. This method, however, restricts the diameter of the top of the column to that of the delivery tube, and in this respect the shape is strained. The remedy for this is to hang the drop from the surface of the water, when a degree of freedom is conferred upon the upper part, which enables the column to assume a greater variety of shapes. In order to show how this may be accomplished, I pour a small quantity of water into the rounded end of a wide test-tube, which is now seen projected on the screen, and then pour gently down the side a quantity of _ethyl benzoate_, a liquid slightly denser than water. You observe that the liquid spreads out on the surface of the water, forming a hanging drop which at first is nearly hemispherical in shape; but as I continue to add the liquid the drop grows in size downwards, and finally reaches the bottom of the tube. There is our liquid column (Fig. 27), which has formed itself in its own way, free from the restriction imposed by a delivery tube. Notice the graceful curved outline, produced by a beautiful balance between the forces of surface tension and gravitation; and notice also how the outline may be varied by the gradual addition of water, which causes the upper surface to rise, and thus stretches the column (Fig. 28). The middle becomes more and more narrow (Fig. 29), and finally breaks across, leaving a portion of the former column hanging from the surface, and the remainder, in rounded form (Fig. 30), at the bottom of the tube. And, as usual, the partition was accompanied by the formation of a small droplet.

It is possible, by using other liquids, and different diameters of vessels, to produce columns of a large variety of outlines. Some liquids spread over a greater area on the surface of water than others, and therefore produce columns with wider tops. Here we see a column of orthotoluidine, which has a top diameter of 2 inches; and here again, in contrast, is a column of aceto-acetic ether, the surface diameter of which is only 1/2 inch (Fig. 31). Other liquids, such as aniline, give an intermediate result. The lower diameter is determined by the width of the vessel; and hence we are able to produce an almost endless number of shapes. It is interesting to note how workers in glass and pottery have unconsciously imitated these shapes; and I have here a variety of articles which simulate the outlines of one or other of the liquid columns you have just seen. It is possible that designers in these branches of industry might obtain useful ideas from a study of liquid columns, which present an almost limitless field for the practical observation of curved forms.

*Communicating Drops.*--There is a well-known experiment, which some of you may have seen, in which two soap-bubbles are blown on separate tubes, and are then placed in communication internally. If the bubbles are exactly equal in size, no alteration takes place in either; but if unequal, the smaller bubble shrinks, and forces the air in its interior into the larger one, which therefore increases in size. Finally, the small bubble is resolved into a slightly-curved skin which covers the end of the tube on which it was originally blown. It is evident from this experiment that the pressure per unit area exerted by the surface of a bubble on the air inside is greater in a small than in a large bubble. The internal pressure may be proved to vary inversely as the radius of the bubble; thus by halving the radius we double the pressure due to the elastic surface, and so on. The reciprocal of the radius of a sphere is called its _curvature_, and we may therefore state that the pressure exerted by the walls of the bubble on the interior vary directly as the curvature.

We have already seen that a drop of liquid possesses an elastic surface, and is practically the same thing as a soap-bubble filled with liquid instead of air. We might therefore expect the same results if two suspended drops of liquid were placed in communication as those observed in the case of soap-bubbles. And our reasoning is correct, as we may now demonstrate. The apparatus consists (Fig. 32) of two parallel tubes, each provided with a tap, and communicating with a cross-branch at the top, which contains a reservoir to hold the liquid used. About half-way down the parallel tubes a cross-piece, provided with a tap, is placed. We commence by filling the whole of the system with the liquid under trial, and the parallel tubes equal in length. Drops are then formed at the ends of each vertical tube by opening the taps on these in turn, and closing after suitable drops have been formed. Then, by opening the tap on the horizontal cross-piece, we place the drops in communication and watch the result.

I have chosen orthotoluidine as the liquid, and by placing the ends of the vertical tubes under water--which at the temperature of the room is slightly less dense than orthotoluidine--I am able to form much larger drops than would be possible in air. You now see a small and a large drop projected on the screen; and I now open the cross-tap, so that they may communicate. Notice how the little drop shrinks until it forms merely a slightly-curved prominence at the end of its tube. It attains a position of rest when the curvature of this prominence is equal to that of the now enlarged drop which has swallowed up the contents of the smaller one. So far the result is identical with that obtained with soap-bubbles; but we can extend the experiment in such a way as to reverse the process, and make the little drop absorb the big one. In order to do this I fasten an extension to one of the tubes, and form a small drop deep down in the water, and a larger one on the unextended branch near the top. When I open the communicating top, the system becomes a kind of siphon, the orthotoluidine tending to flow out of the end of the longer tube. The tendency of the large drop to siphon over is opposed by the superior pressure exerted by the skin of the smaller drop; but the former now prevails, and the big drop gradually shrinks and the little one is observed to grow larger. It is possible by regulating the depth at which the smaller drop is placed, to balance the two tendencies, so that the superior pressure due to the lesser drop is equalled by the extra downward pressure due to the greater length of the column of which it forms the terminus. Both pressures are numerically very small, but are still of sufficient magnitude to cause a flow of liquid in one or other direction when not exactly in equilibrium. In the case of communicating soap-bubbles, containing air and surrounded by air, locating the small bubble at a lower level would not reverse the direction of flow, which we succeeded in accomplishing with liquid drops formed in a medium of slightly inferior density.

*Combined Vapour and Liquid Drops.*--All liquids when heated give off vapour, the amount increasing as the temperature rises. The vapour formed in the lower part of the vessel in which the liquid is heated rises in the form of bubbles, which may condense again if the upper part of the liquid be cold. When the liquid becomes hot throughout, however, the vapour bubbles reach the surface and break, allowing the contents to escape into the air above. Everyone who has watched a liquid boiling will be familiar with this process, but it should be remembered that a liquid may give off large quantities of vapour without actually boiling. A dish of cold water, if exposed to the air, will gradually evaporate away; whilst other liquids, such as petrol and alcohol, will disappear rapidly under the same circumstances--and hence are called "volatile" liquids.

The formation of vapour and its subsequent escape at the surface of the liquid, enable us to produce a very novel kind of drop; if, instead of allowing the bubbles to escape into air, we cause them to enter a second liquid. Here, for example, is a coloured layer of chloroform[1] at the bottom of a beaker, with a column of water above. I project the image of the beaker on the screen, and then heat it below. The chloroform vapour escapes in bubbles; but notice that each bubble carries with it a quantity of liquid, torn off, as it were, at the moment of separation. The vapour bubbles and their liquid appendages vary in size, but some of them, you observe, have an average density about equal to that of the water, and float about like weighted balloons. Some rise nearly to the surface, where the water is coldest; and then the vapour partially condenses, with the result that its lifting power is diminished, and hence the drops sink into the lower part of the beaker. But the water is warmer in this region, and consequently the vapour bubble increases in size and lifting power until again able to lift its load to the surface. So the composite drops go up and down, until finally they reach the surface, when the vapour passes into the air, and the suspended liquid falls back to the mass at the bottom of the beaker. Notice that the drop of liquid attached to each bubble is elongated vertically. This is because chloroform is a much denser liquid than water (Fig. 33). There is a practical lesson to be drawn from this experiment. Whenever a bubble of vapour breaks through the surface of a liquid, it tends to carry with it some of the liquid, which is dragged mechanically into the space above. In our experiment the space was occupied by water, which enabled the bubble to detach a much greater weight than would be possible if the surface of escape had been covered by air, which is far less buoyant than water. But even when the bubbles escape into air, tiny quantities of liquid are detached; so that steam from boiling water, for example, is never entirely free from liquid. All users of steam are well acquainted with this fact.

[1] Mono-brom-benzene is better than chloroform for this experiment,
but is more costly. It may be coloured with indigo. Chloroform may
be coloured with iodine.

*Condensation of Drops from Vapour,--Mists, Fogs and Raindrops.*--The atmosphere is the great laboratory for the manufacture of drops. It is continually receiving water in the form of vapour from the surface of the sea, from lakes, from running water, and even from snow and ice. All this vapour is ultimately turned into drops, and returned again to the surface, and to this never-ceasing exchange all the phenomena connected with the precipitation of moisture are due. The atmosphere is only capable of holding a certain quantity of water in the form of vapour, and the lower the temperature the less the capacity for invisible moisture. When fully charged, the atmosphere is said to be "saturated"--a condition realized on the small scale by air in a corked bottle containing some water, which evaporates until the air can hold no more. The maximum weight of vapour that can be held by 1 cubic metre of air at different temperatures is shown in the table:--

------------------------------------------------------------------
Temperature. Weight of water vapour
(grammes) required to
Deg. C. Deg. F. saturate 1 cubic metre.
------------------------------------------------------------------
0 32 4.8

5 41 6.8

10 50 9.3

15 59 12.7

20 68 17.1

25 77 22.8

30 86 30.0

35 95 39.2

40 104 50.6
------------------------------------------------------------------

It will be seen from the table that air on a warm day in summer, with a temperature of 77 deg. F., can hold nearly five times as much moisture as air at the freezing point, or 32 deg. F. The amount actually present, however, is usually below the maximum, and is recorded for meteorological purposes as a percentage of the maximum. Thus if the "relative humidity" at 77 deg. F. were 70 per cent., it would imply that the weight of moisture in 1 cubic metre was 70 per cent. of 22.8 grammes; that is, nearly 16 grammes. If 1 cubic metre of air at 77 deg. F., containing 16 grammes of moisture, were cooled to 50 deg. F., a quantity of water equal to (16-9.3) = 6.7 grammes would separate out, as the maximum content at the lower temperature is 9.3 grammes. Precipitation would commence at 66 deg. F., at which temperature 1 cubic metre is saturated by 16 grammes. And similarly for all states of the atmosphere with respect to moisture, cooling to a sufficient extent causes deposition of water to commence immediately below the saturation temperature, and the colder the air becomes afterwards the greater the amount which settles out. The temperature at which deposition commences is called the "dew point."

Whenever atmospheric moisture assumes the liquid form, drops are invariably formed. These may vary in size, from the tiny spheres which form a mist to the large raindrops which accompany a thunderstorm. But in every instance it is necessary that the air shall be cooled below its saturation point before the separation can commence; and keeping this fact in mind we can now proceed to demonstrate the production of mists and fogs. Here is a large flask containing some water, fitted with a cork through which is passed a glass tube provided with a tap. I pump some air into it with a bicycle pump, and then close the tap. As excess of water is present, the enclosed air will be saturated. Now a compressed gas, on expanding into the atmosphere, does work, and is therefore cooled; and consequently if I open the tap the air in the flask will be cooled, and as it was already saturated the result of cooling will be to cause some of the moisture to liquefy. Accordingly, when I open the tap, the interior of the flask immediately becomes filled with mist. If we examine the mist in a strong light by the aid of a magnifying glass, we observe that it consists of myriads of tiny spheres of water, which float in the air, and only subside very gradually, owing to the friction between their surfaces and the surrounding air preventing a rapid fall. The smaller the sphere, the greater the area of surface in proportion to mass, and therefore the slower its fall. And so in nature, the mists are formed by the cooling of the atmosphere by contact with the surface, until, after the saturation point is reached, the surplus moisture settles out in the form of tiny spheres, which float near the surface, and are dissipated when the sun warms up the ground and the misty air, and thus enables the water again to be held as vapour.

Fogs, like mists, are composed of small spheres of water condensed from the atmosphere by cooling; but in these unwelcome visitors the region of cooling extends to a higher level, and the lowering of temperature is due to other causes than contact with the cold surface of the earth. In our populous cities, the density of the fogs is accentuated by the presence of large quantities of solid particles in the atmosphere, which arise from the smoke from coal fires, and the abrasion of the roads by traffic. We can make a city fog in our flask. I blow in some tobacco smoke, and then pump in air as before. You will notice that the smoke, which is now disseminated through the air in the flask, is scarcely visible; but now, on opening the tap, the interior becomes much darker than was the case in our previous experiment. We have produced a genuine yellow fog, that is, a dense mist coloured by smoke. When we have learned how to abolish smoke, and how to prevent dust arising from the streets, our worst fogs will be reduced to dense mists, such as are now met with on the sea or on land remote from large centres of habitation.

There is one feature common to the spheres which compose a mist or fog, or indeed to any kind of drop resulting from the condensation of moisture in the atmosphere. As shown by the deeply interesting researches of Aitken and others, each separate sphere forms round a core or nucleus, which is usually a small speck of dust, and hence an atmosphere charged with solid particles lends itself to the formation of dense fogs immediately the temperature falls below the dew-point. But dust particles are not indispensable to the production of condensed spheres, for it has been shown that the extremely small bodies we call "ions," which are electrically charged atoms, can act as centres round which the water will collect; and much atmospheric condensation at high elevations is probably due to the aid of ions.[2] Near the surface, however, where dust is ever present, condensation round the innumerable specks or motes is the rule. Here, for example, is a jet of steam escaping into air, forming a white cloud composed of a multitude of small spheres of condensed water. If now I allow the steam to enter a large flask containing air from which the dust has been removed by filtration through cotton wool, no cloud is formed in the interior, but instead condensation takes place at the end of the jet, from which large drops fall, and on the cold sides of the flask. The cloud we see in dusty air is entirely absent, and the effect of solid particles in the process of condensation is thus shown in a striking manner. Clouds are masses of thick mist floating at varying heights in the atmosphere. On sinking into a warmer layer of dry air the particles of which clouds are composed will evaporate and vanish from sight. If the condensation continue, however, the spheres will grow in size until the friction of the atmosphere is unable to arrest their fall; and then we have rain. And whether the precipitation be very gentle, and composed of small drops falling slowly, as in a "Scotch mist," or in the form of rapid-falling large drops such as accompany a thunderstorm, the processes at work are identical. Every particle of a mist or cloud, and every raindrop, is formed round a nucleus, and owes its spherical shape to the tension at the surface.

[2] Mr. C. T. R. Wilson has recently devised an apparatus for making
visible the tracks of ionizing rays, by the condensation of water
vapour round the freshly liberated ions.

*Liquid Clouds in Liquid Media.*--Just as the excess of moisture is precipitated from saturated air when the temperature falls, so is the excess of one liquid dissolved in another thrown down by cooling below the saturation temperature. Moreover, a liquid when precipitated in a second liquid appears in the form of myriads of small spheres, which have the appearance of a dense cloud. Here is some boiling water to which an excess of aniline has been added, so that the water has dissolved as much aniline as it can hold. Aniline dissolves more freely in hot water than in cold, so that if I remove the flame, and allow the beaker to cool, the surplus of dissolved aniline will settle out. Cooling takes place most rapidly at the surface, and you observe white streaks falling from the top into the interior, where they are warmed up and disappear. Soon, however, the cooling spreads throughout; and now the streaks become permanent, and the water becomes opaque, owing to the thick white cloud of precipitated aniline. The absence of the red colour characteristic of aniline is due to the extremely fine state of division assumed in the process. If left for some hours, the white cloud sinks through the water to the bottom of the beaker, where the small particles coalesce and form large drops, leaving the overlying water quite transparent. The process is quite analogous to the precipitation of moisture from the atmosphere in the form of small spheres, which, if undisturbed, would gradually sink to the ground and leave the air clear.

*Overheated Drops.*--The temperature at which a liquid boils, under normal conditions, depends only upon the pressure on its surface. Thus water boiling in air, when the pressure is 76 centimetres or 29.92 inches of mercury, corresponding to 14.7 pounds per square inch, possesses a temperature of 100 deg. C. or 212 deg. F. At higher elevations, where the pressure is less, the boiling point is lower; thus Tyndall observed that on the summit of the Finsteraarhorn (14,000 feet) water boiled at 86 deg. C. or 187 deg. F. Conversely, under increased pressure, the boiling point rises; so that at a pressure of 35 pounds per square inch water does not boil until the temperature reaches 125 deg. C. or 257 deg. F. There are certain abnormal conditions, however, under which the boiling point of a liquid may be raised considerably without any increase in the pressure at the surface; and it is then said to be "over-heated." Dufour showed that when drops of water are floating in another liquid of the same density, they may become greatly overheated, and if very small in size may attain a temperature of 150 deg. C. or 302 deg. F., or even higher, before bursting into steam. In order to provide a medium in which water drops would float at these temperatures, Dufour made a mixture of linseed oil and oil of cloves, which possessed the necessary equi-density temperature with water. To demonstrate this curious phenomenon, I take a mixture of 4 volumes of ethyl benzoate and 1 volume of aniline, which at 125 deg. C. or 257 deg. F. is exactly equal in density to water at the same temperature. I add to the mixture two or three cubic centimetres of freshly-boiled water, the temperature being maintained at 125 deg. C. by surrounding the vessel with glycerine heated by a flame. At first the water sinks, but on attaining the temperature of the mixture it breaks up with some violence, forming spheres of various sizes which remain suspended in the mixture. Any portion of the water which has reached the surface boils vigorously, and escapes in the form of steam; and some of the larger spheres may be observed to be giving off steam, which rises to the surface. Most of the spheres, however, remain perfectly tranquil, in spite of the fact that the water of which they are composed is many degrees above its normal boiling point. If I penetrate one of these spheres with a wire, you notice that it breaks up immediately, with a rapid generation of steam. A complete explanation of this abnormal condition of water is difficult to follow, as a number of factors are involved. One of the contributory causes--though possibly a minor one--is the opposition offered to the liberation of steam by the tension at the surface of the spheres.

*Floating Drops on Hot Surfaces.*--If a liquid be allowed to fall in small quantity on to a very hot solid, it does not spread out over the surface, but forms into drops which run about and gradually evaporate. By careful procedure, we may form a very large, flattened drop on a hot surface, and on investigation we shall notice some remarkable facts. I take a plate of aluminium, with a dimple in the centre, and make it very hot by means of a burner. You see the upper surface of this plate projected on the screen. I now allow water to fall on the plate drop by drop, and you hear a hissing noise produced when each drop strikes the plate. The separate drops gather together in the depression at the centre of the plate, forming a very large flattened globule. You might have expected the water to boil vigorously, but no signs of ebullition are visible; and what is more remarkable, the temperature of the drop, in spite of its surroundings, is actually less than the ordinary boiling point. Notice now how the drop has commenced to rotate, and has been set into vibration, causing the edges to become scalloped (Fig. 34). The drop, although not actually boiling, is giving off vapour rapidly, and therefore gradually diminishes in size. And now I want to prove that the drop is not really touching the plate, but floating above it. To do this I make an electric circuit containing a cell and galvanometer, and connect one terminal to the plate and place the other in the drop. No movement is shown on the galvanometer, as would be the case if the drop touched the plate and thus completed the electric circuit. And at close range we can actually see a gap between the drop and the plate, so that the evidence is conclusive. If now I remove the flame--leaving the electric circuit intact--and allow the plate to cool, we notice after a time that the globule flattens out suddenly and touches the plate, as shown by the deflection of the galvanometer; and simultaneously a large cloud of steam arises, due to the rapid boiling which occurs immediately contact is made.

What we have seen in the case of water is shown by most liquids when presented to a surface possessing a temperature much higher than the boiling point of the liquid. A liquid held up in this manner above a hot surface is said to be in the _spheroidal state_, to distinguish it from the flat state usually assumed by spreading when contact occurs between the liquid and the surface. It is doubtful whether any satisfactory explanation of the spheroidal state has ever been given. Evidently, the layer of vapour between the plate and the drop must exert a considerable upward pressure in order to sustain the drop, but the exact origin of this pressure is difficult to trace.

LECTURE III

*Spreading of Oil on the Surface of Water.*--If a small drop of oil be placed on the surface of water it will be observed to spread immediately until it forms a thin layer covering the surface. If a further addition of the oil be made, globules will be formed, which, as you now see upon the screen, remain floating on the surface. The spreading of the oil in all directions from the place on which the small quantity of oil was dropped is due to the superior surface tension of water, which pulls the oil outwards. The surface tension of the oil opposes that of the water, and would prevent the drop from spreading were it not overcome by a greater force. The result is the same as would be observed if the centre or any other part of a stretched rubber disc were weakened; the weak part would be stretched in all directions, and the rest of the disc would shrink towards the sides. When the oil has spread out, however, and contaminated, as it were, the surface of the water, the surface tension is reduced, and is not sufficiently strong to stretch out a further quantity of oil, which, if added, remains in the form of a floating globule.

Let us study the forces at work on the floating globule a little more closely. Its upper surface is in contact with air, and the surface tension tends, as usual, to reduce the area to a minimum. The top of the globule is not flat, but curved (Fig. 35), and its surface meets that of the water at an angle; and the counter-pull exerted against the stretching-pull of the water surface is not horizontal, but inclined in the direction of the angle of contact, as shown by the line B. The under part of the globule is also curved, and meets the water surface from below at an angle; and here also is exerted a pull in opposition to that of the water surface, different in magnitude to the force at the upper surface, but also directed at the angle of contact as shown by the line C. This tension at the joining surface of two liquids is called the "interfacial" tension, to distinguish it from that of a surface in contact with air. Acting against these two tensions is that of the water, which is directed horizontally along the surface, as shown by the line A. The lines A, B, and C indicate the forces acting at a single point; but the same forces are at work at every point round the circle of contact of the globule and the surface of the water. And therefore the tendency on the part of the water tension is to cause the globule to spread out in all directions, whereas the other two tensions tend to prevent any enlargement of its surface. The result depends upon the magnitudes and directions of the conflicting forces. We can imagine a kind of tug-of-war taking place, in which one contestant, A, is opposed to two others, B and C, all pulling in the directions indicated in Fig. 35. Although A is single-handed, he has the advantage of a straight pull, whereas B and C can only exert their strength at an angle, and the larger the angle the more they are handicapped. If A be more powerful than B and C, the globule will spread; but the result of the spreading is to diminish the angles at which the pulls of B and C are inclined to the surface, and hence their effective opposition to A will be increased. Moreover, the spreading of the liquid diminishes the surface tension of the water--that is, weakens A--and hence it becomes possible for B and C to prevail and draw back the surface of the globule which A had previously stretched. If, in spite of these disabilities, A should still be the stronger, the globule will be stretched until it covers the whole surface; whereas if B and C overcome A, the globule will shrink, increasing the angles at which B and C operate, and therefore reducing their effective pulls, until their combined strength is equal to that of A, when the globule will remain at rest. Bearing these facts in mind, we can understand why a small drop of oil placed on a clean water surface spreads across; for in this case A is stronger than B and C combined. But when the surface of the water is covered with a layer of oil, A is weakened, and can no longer overcome the opposing pulls of B and C. Hence a further drop of oil poured on to the surface remains in the form of a globule.

*Movements due to Solubility.*--When small fragments of camphor are placed on the surface of water some remarkable movements are seen.[3] The bits of camphor move about with great rapidity over the surface, and generally, in addition, show a rapid rotary motion. The explanation usually given is that the camphor dissolves in the water at the points of contact forming a solution which possesses a less surface tension than pure water. This solution is in consequence stretched by the tension of the rest of the surface, and the camphor floating on its solution is therefore made to move in the direction of the line along which the stretching force happens to be the greatest. But the camphor continues to dissolve wherever it goes, and is therefore continuously pulled about as a result of this interplay of tensions. Touching the surface with a wire which has been dipped in oil immediately arrests the movements, owing to the tension of the water being diminished to such an extent by the skin of oil that it is no longer competent to stretch the part on which the camphor floats. No doubt this explanation is correct so far as it goes, but it is highly probable that when the floating substance dissolves, other forces are called into action in addition to the tensions.

[3] These movements were first recorded by Romieu in 1748 and were
ascribed by him to electricity.

*Movements of Aniline Globules on a Water Surface.*--If we allow a small quantity of aniline to run on to the surface of water, it forms itself into a number of floating globules. I now project on the screen a water surface on which a little aniline has been poured, and we are thus enabled to watch the movements which occur. All the globules appear to be twitching or shuddering; and if you observe closely you will notice the surface of each globule stretching and recoiling alternately. The recoil is accompanied by the projection of tiny globules from the rim, which becomes scalloped when the globule is stretched. The small globules thrown off appear to be formed from the protuberances at the edge (Fig. 36), and after leaving the main globule they spread out over the surface, or dissolve. This process continues for a long time, gradually diminishing in vigour, until small stationary globules are left floating on the surface, which is now covered with a skin of aniline. This action is in striking contrast to the tranquil formation of floating globules of oil, and calls for some special comment.

Let us recall again the three forces at work at the edge of a floating globule (Fig. 35). The surface tension of the water, acting horizontally, tends to stretch the globule, and is successful momentarily in overcoming the opposing tensions, each of which pulls at an angle to the surface. Enlargement of the upper surface of the globule, however, reduces the angles at which the tensions B and C act, and in consequence their effective strength is increased. The spreading of the aniline over the water surface diminishes the pull A, which B and C combined now overcome, and hence the surface of the globule shrinks again. For some unexplained reason both the stretching and recoil of the globule occur suddenly, there being an interval of repose between each, and these jerky movements result in small portions of the rim being detached, each of which forms a separate small globule. The aniline which spreads over the surface of the water dissolves, and the water tension A, which had been enfeebled by the presence of the aniline skin, recovers its former strength, and again stretches the globule; and so the whole process is repeated. When the surface of the water becomes permanently covered with a skin, which occurs when the top layer is saturated with aniline, the globule remains at rest, and has such a shape that the tensions B and C act at angles which enable them just to balance the weakened pull of A. Why the edge of the globule becomes indented during the movements, and why these movements are spasmodic instead of gradual, has not been clearly made out. It is interesting to recall that a spheroid of liquid on a hot plate also possesses a scalloped edge, and it may be that the two phenomena have something in common.

*Movements of Orthotoluidine and Xylidine 1-3-4 on a Water Surface.*--We will now observe, by the aid of the lantern, movements of globules more striking, and certainly more puzzling, than those of aniline. I place on the surface of the water a quantity of a special sample of orthotoluidine, and you see that immediately a number of globules are formed which are endowed with remarkable activity. They become indented at one side, and then dart across the surface at a great speed, usually breaking into two as a result of the violent action (Fig. 37). Then follows a short period of rest, when suddenly, as if in response to a signal, all the larger globules again become indented, forming shapes like kidneys, and again shoot across the surface, breaking up into smaller globules. Notice that the very small globules remain at rest; it is only those above a certain size that display this remarkable activity. A film of the liquid forms on the water, and the action gradually becomes more intermittent, ceasing altogether when a skin is well established, and the large globules have sub-divided into very small ones. My sample of orthotoluidine is somewhat unique, as other specimens of the liquid, obtained from the same and other sources, do not show the same lively characteristics. As in the case of camphor, touching the surface with a drop of oil arrests the movements immediately. The organic liquid _xylidine_ 1-3-4, however, exhibits the same movements, as you now see on the screen; and, if anything, is even more active than the orthotoluidine previously shown. It may be added that occasional samples of aniline show similar movements, but of less intensity.

Now if I am asked to explain these extraordinary movements, I am bound to confess my inability to do so at present. Why should the globules become indented on one side only? The two tensions acting at the edge in opposition to the water tension are at work all round the globule, and it is not easy to see why they should prevail to such a marked degree at one spot only. The movement across the surface, if we followed our previous explanations, would be due to the superior pull of the water tension behind the globule, opposite the indented part; although to look at it would seem as if some single force produced the indentation and pushed the globule along bodily. Are there local weaknesses in the tension of the water, and, if so, why should such weak spots form simultaneously near each globule, causing each to move at the same moment? Any explanation we may give as to the origin of the cavity in the side of the globule does not suffice to account for the intermittent character of the movement, and its simultaneous occurrence over the whole surface. We must therefore leave the problem at present, and trust to future investigation to provide a solution.

*Production of Globules from Films.*--When a film of oil spreads over a water surface it sometimes remains as such indefinitely. Certain other liquids, however, form films which after a short interval break up into globules, and the process of transition is at once striking and beautiful. In order to show it, I project a water surface on the screen, and pour on to it a very small quantity of _dimethyl-aniline_--an oily liquid related to but distinct from ordinary aniline. It spreads out into a film of irregular outline, which floats quietly for a short time. Soon, however, indentations are formed at the edges, which penetrate the film, and from the sides of the indentations branches spread which in turn become branched; and shortly the whole film becomes ramified, resembling a mass of coral, or, to use a more homely illustration, a jig-saw puzzle (Fig. 38). The various branches join in numerous places, cutting off small islands from the film; and immediately each island becomes circular in outline--and the resolution into globules is complete. We have witnessed one of the beauty-sights of Nature.

The same method of globule formation is shown by nitro-benzol and _quinoline_, and as the action is more gradual in the case of the latter substance, I show it in order that we may study the process in greater detail. Notice the formation of the indentations and their subsequent branching; and also that holes form in the skin from which branchings also proceed. In this instance the film is broken up in sections, but the action continues until nothing but globules remain on the surface.[4]

It is not easy to see why the canals of water penetrate the film and split it up into small sections, nor why entry takes place at certain points on the edge in preference to others. Some orderly interplay of forces, not yet properly understood, gives rise to the action; and a satisfactory explanation has yet to be given.

[4] The breaking-up of films on the surface of water was first noticed
by Tomlinson about 50 years ago. He used essential oils, and called
the patterns "cohesion figures."

*Network formed from a Film.*--A further example of the breaking up of a film is furnished by certain oils derived from coal-tar, the result in this case being the formation of a network or cellular structure. I place on the surface of water in a glass dish a small quantity of tar-oil, and project it on the screen. It spreads out at first into a thin film, which, by reflected light, shows a gorgeous display of colours. After a short time, little holes make an appearance in the film, and these holes gradually increase in size until the whole of the film is honeycombed (Fig. 39), the oil having been heaped up into the walls which divide the separate compartments. Here again the accepted views on surface tension do not appear competent to explain the action. It appears to be the case that most films on the surface of water show this tendency to perforation, which may be due to inequalities in the thickness of the film, or in the distribution of the strain to which it is subjected.[5]

[5] An interesting discussion on cellular structures of this type may
be found in _Nature_, April 16 to June 11, 1914.

*Quinoline Rings.*--Reference has already been made to the breaking-up of a quinoline film into globules. But if we examine the surface about half an hour after the formation of these globules, we find that each has been perforated in the centre, forming a ring or annulus (Fig. 40). Some of the larger globules have undergone perforation in several places, forming honeycombed plates. These rings and plates, which you now see projected on the screen, remain unchanged, and apparently represent the final stage of equilibrium under the action of the various forces. Quinoline, so far as observations have been made, appears to be unique in respect to the formation of stable rings from globules.

*Expanding Globules.*--I now wish to show, by an experiment, how sensitive a floating globule is to disturbances in the existing tensions, which maintain it at rest. On the screen is projected a globule of dimethyl-aniline, floating tranquilly on the surface of water. I now allow a small drop of quinoline to fall upon it, and immediately it spreads out over the surface, forming a hole in its centre (Fig. 41), after which it gradually resumes its former shape. Sometimes the action is so violent that the globule is split up into several portions, which, however, join together again after a short time. In order to explain this action, we must again refer to the three tensions operating on the globule (Fig. 35). When in equilibrium, A is balanced by the joint pull of B and C; and hence if either of the latter be weakened, A will predominate and stretch the globule. In our experiment it is the interfacial tension, C, which has been diminished in strength, as we may now prove by a second experiment. In this instance I float on the water surface a globule of lubricating oil, with which quinoline does not readily mix, and which does not act so immediately as dimethyl-aniline. On allowing the drop of quinoline to fall into it, no action is observed until the drop has rested on the junction of the oil and water for a short time; but when it has penetrated the interface the oil globule suddenly spreads over the water surface, and with such violence as to detach several portions from the main globule. Merely touching the upper surface of the oil with a rod moistened with quinoline has no effect, and hence the result is due to the weakening of the interfacial tension. A similar effect is obtained when quinoline is dropped into a globule of aniline, and may be obtained with various other liquids.

*Attraction between Floating Globules.--The "Devouring" Globule.* When globules of different liquids are floating on the same water surface, a tendency to coalesce is sometimes noticed, but is by no means general. I will show one example which possesses striking features, showing as it does the remarkable results which may be brought about by surface forces. First of all, we form a number of active orthotoluidine globules on the surface of a dish of water, which you see wriggling about in their characteristic fashion. After their activity has subsided somewhat, I float on to the surface a large globule of dimethyl-aniline. Attraction of some kind is at once apparent, for the nearest globule of orthotoluidine immediately approaches the intruder. And now comes the process of absorption. The large globule of dimethyl-aniline develops a protuberance in the direction of its victim (Figs. 42 and 43), and the small globule of orthotoluidine coalesces with this "feeler," which then shrinks back into the large globule, conveying with it the entangled orthotoluidine. This, however, by no means satisfies the devouring globule, as a second victim is at once appropriated in the same manner; and you will notice a nibbling process at work round the edges continuously, which is due to the absorption of the smaller globules of orthotoluidine. The action continues until the whole of the surface has been cleared of orthotoluidine, after which the large globule floats tranquilly in the centre of the vessel, apparently resting after its heavy meal. The interaction of the forces which gives rise to this phenomenon is difficult to fathom; there are no doubt several tensions, constantly changing in magnitude, which in the result cause the liquids of the large and small globules to intermingle. Separate globules of a single liquid sometimes unite in this manner, but this is not common, it being more usual for the scattered units to remain apart.

*Analogies of Surface Tension Phenomena with Life.*--When we watch the movements of globules on the surface of water, the resemblance to the antics of the lower forms of life immediately occurs to our minds. Now I do not intend here to intrude any opinion on the much-discussed subject of the Origin of Life, but merely to point out that certain phenomena, usually supposed to be associated only with living things, may result from the interplay of surface tensions. In our experiments we have witnessed expansive and contractile motion (aniline globules on water); movement of translation, of a very vigorous kind (xylidine and orthotoluidine globules); incorporation of external matter, or feeding (dimethyl-aniline absorbing orthotoluidine)--we are getting quite familiar with these long names now--, splitting up of masses, or division (skins of quinoline, etc., breaking up into branched portions, and sub-division of large globules); and formation of cellular structure (tar-oil on water). And the conclusion we may legitimately draw is this: that mechanical forces may account for many observed phenomena in connexion with life which formerly were attributed to the action of "vital" forces. Modern biological research all points in the same direction, and it seems probable that the operations of the animate and inanimate are controlled by the same forces. But the mystery of Life still remains.

*Conclusion.*--I have endeavoured in these lectures to bring to your notice some of the remarkable results which may be produced by the use of water and a few other liquids, and the scientific conclusions which may be drawn from them. It may be that the phenomena we have considered have little or no commercial application; but science has other uses in addition to its fruitful alliance with commerce. The study of the methods by which Nature achieves her ends stimulates the imagination and quickens the perceptions, and is therefore of the highest educational value. It is a great scientific achievement to run a railway to the summit of the Jungfrau, but we should not envy the mental condition of the individual to whom that glorious mountain appealed only through the railway dividends. And I trust that we shall never become so imbued with the industrial aspects of science, as to lessen our appreciation of the works of Nature, whether manifested in the snow-clad peak or the equally wonderful drop of water.