Chapter XVIII: Part II: sect. ii. pp. 204–6

Footnote 75:

MacCulloch (J. R.), editor of the _Commercial Dictionary_, and
probably the original of Carlyle’s Macrowdy. No one could have a
proper reverence for the Fathers of Political Economy who perpetually
referred to the greatest of them without his distinctive prænomen.

Footnote 76:

Introduction to _W. of N._, p. lii. So the writer of _Progress and
Poverty_ tells us “the doctrine of Malthus did not originally and does
not necessarily involve the idea of progression” (Bk. II. ch. i. p.
89, ed. 1881).

Footnote 77:

Bagehot (_Econ. Studies_, p. 136 _seq._), W. R. Greg (_Enigmas of
Life_), and Held (_Sociale Geschichte Englands_) may be acquitted, but
they are not writers of text-books.

Footnote 78:

_Wealth of Nations_, Introduction, p. lii.

Footnote 79:

See _e. g._ the tract on the _Measure of Value_, p. 23, and cf. _Pol.
Ec._ (2nd ed.), p. 234.

Footnote 80:

Godwin’s _Thoughts on Parr’s Sermon_, 1801, p. 54; cf. Godwin’s
_Population_ (1820), Bk. i. 27.

Footnote 81:

Godwin’s _Life_, by Kegan Paul, vol. i. 321.

Footnote 82:

Hansard, _sub dato_, p. 1429.

Footnote 83:

Empson in _Edinburgh Review_, Jan. 1837, p. 483; cf. _Essay on
Population_, 7th ed. p. 473 n. Empson’s authorship of that article
appears from Macvey Napier’s _Correspondence_, p. 187. See below, Book
V.

Footnote 84:

_Works_, vol. viii. p. 440.

Footnote 85:

_Thoughts on Parr’s Sermon_, p. 56.

Footnote 86:

_Essay_, 1st ed., pp. 17, 47, 48; _Origin of Species_, ch. iii. p. 50.
Hence Sir Chas. Lyell even denies the originality of Darwin and
Wallace (_Antiquity of Man_, ch. xxi p. 456).

Footnote 87:

Cf. A. R. Wallace, _Contributions to Theory of Natural Selection_, and
the discussions raised thereupon, 1868. See also _Essays in
Philosophical Criticism_ (1883), Essay VIII., _The Struggle for
Existence_, in which some of the mixed motives are further described.

Footnote 88:

Appendix to 5th ed., 1817; 7th ed., p. 526. Cf. Bacon (Essay
XXXVIII.), “to bend nature like a wand to a contrary extreme whereby
to set it aright.” Adam Smith had used the simile of a bent stick to
describe the reaction of the French Economists against the Mercantile
theorists (_Wealth of Nations_, IV. ix. 300).

Footnote 89:

_Essay_, 1st ed., p. 367. Cf. Senior’s _Lectures on Population_, p.
79, and p. 75, where he compares such progress to the exploits of the
snail which every day climbed up a wall four feet and fell back three.

Footnote 90:

_Essay_, 1st ed., p. 10.

Footnote 91:

Cf. St. Matth. xix. 12.

Footnote 92:

MS. notes on p. vii of S. T. Coleridge’s copy of the 2nd ed. of the
_Essay_, in Brit. Museum (from the library of his executor, Dr. Joseph
H. Green).

Footnote 93:

See Otter’s biographical preface to Malthus’ _Pol. Ec._ (1836), p.
xxxvi, and Otter’s _Life of Clarke_ (1825), i. 437, &c.

Footnote 94:

See below, Book II. chap. iv.

Footnote 95:

2nd ed., Book IV. chap, xii.; 7th ed., p. 477.

Footnote 96:

2nd ed., I. ii. 10, 11; cf. xiv. 180; 7th ed., pp. 8 note, 262, &c.

Footnote 97:

2nd ed., p. 11.

Footnote 98:

7th ed., p. 351; so I. ix. 82, “moral impossibility” of increase, in a
case where there is plenty of food, but bad distribution makes it
unattainable. The impossibility is due not to physical law but to
human institutions (_mores_).

Footnote 99:

Malthus, _Essay_, 1st ed., p. 387.

Footnote 100:

In an unpublished MS. quoted in his _Life_, i. 76. His published
writings contain nothing quite so strong.

Footnote 101:

See below, Book III.

Footnote 102:

_Essay_, 7th ed., B. IV. chap. vi. and ix.

Footnote 103:

_Wealth of Nations_, B. V. ch. i. Pt. iii. Art. 2.

Footnote 104:

_Essay_, Book IV. ch. ix. of 7th ed., esp. p. 439.

Footnote 105:

Cf. even _Essay_, 1st ed., pp. 33, 34, and 324. But see later, B. II.
chaps. ii. and iii.

Footnote 106:

7th ed., Append., p. 495. Cf. Miss Martineau’s _Autob._, vol. i. p.
211; cf. pp. 209, 210.

Footnote 107:

_Life_, vol. i. ch. ix. p. 233.

Footnote 108:

Ingloriously, because of the severe chapter he wrote in the _Political
Justice_, ‘Of Pensions and Salaries’ (ch. ix. of Bk. VI.).

Footnote 109:

Cf. _Essay_, 7th ed., II. xiii. p. 259.

Footnote 110:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 2.

Footnote 111:

2nd ed., p. 3.

Footnote 112:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 3.

Footnote 113:

1st ed.; see p. 16, above. “Food” in such propositions includes all
the outward conditions necessary to life.

Footnote 114:

2nd ed., p. 4; 7th ed., p. 3.

Footnote 115:

_l. c._ Franklin’s _Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind_,
1751.

Footnote 116:

_Dissertation on the Poor Laws by a well-wisher to Mankind_ (1786),
pp. 42–45, 53. He is quoting Dampier’s _Voyages_, vol. i. pt. ii p.
88.

Footnote 117:

It is fair to say that Ulloa, B. II. ch. iv., says “two or three
goats.”

Footnote 118:

2nd ed., p. 4; cf. 7th ed., p. 3.

Footnote 119:

Carey (H. C.) has certainly made a good case for the reverse. See
_Princ. of Social Science_, vol. i. ch. iv. (1858).

Footnote 120:

Letter to Senior, Appendix to Senior’s _Lectures on Population_, pp.
60–72.

Footnote 121:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 5.

Footnote 122:

He might have been warned from such by “οὐ γεωμετρικαῖς ἀλλ’ ἐρωτικαῖς
ἀνάγκαις” (Plato, _Republic_, v. 458). But Bacon had applied the same
figure still more widely: “Custom goes in arithmetical, Nature in
geometrical progression” (_Advancement of L_., VI. iii. 259).

Footnote 123:

Cf. what is said of the cosmology of Malthus above, pp. 34 _seq._

Footnote 124:

Or, keeping in view Mr. Carey’s exception, we should say not perhaps
the first crop, but the earliest in which the farmer did justice to
the known resources of the best land.

Footnote 125:

_Political Arithmetic—Essay on the Multiplication of Mankind_, 1682,
pp. 7, 13 _seq._, especially p. 21 (ed. 1755).

Footnote 126:

Sir James Caird, _Landed Interest_, 4th ed., 1880, p. 177.

Footnote 127:

But see below, Bk. II. ch. i.

Footnote 128:

2nd ed., I. i. p. 8; 7th ed., p. 6.

Footnote 129:

_Essay_, IV. iii., 7th ed., p. 407.

Footnote 130:

_Encycl. Brit., art. Population._ Cf. _Essay_, 7th ed., p. 236 n.

Footnote 131:

Sweden was a favourite with statisticians because Sweden alone at that
time furnished sound statistics. For an account of the American
population down to 1880, and its probable future, see Mr. Giffen’s
Address on the Utility of Common Statistics (Stat. Soc., Dec. 1882).

Footnote 132:

1804–24, or simply from the first census, 1801, to the third, 1821.
The increase was such as would double the population of England in
fifty-one years at the least (_Essay_, II. ix., 7th ed., p. 217).

Footnote 133:

_Encycl. Brit._, _l. c._

Footnote 134:

_Essay_, III. xiv., 7th ed., p. 387.

Footnote 135:

Caird, _Landed Interest_, pp. 18, 46.

Footnote 136:

_Encycl. Brit._, _l. c._

Footnote 137:

Apart, he ought to have said, from prudence in marriage, which would
allow each man’s share to be much more than a bare living. But see
below, Bk. II. ch. ii.

Footnote 138:

See below, Bk. II. ch. iii.

Footnote 139:

By the “law” of decreasing returns. See below, Bk. II. ch. i.

Footnote 140:

Mr. Giffen, in the Address above quoted, speaks as if Malthus
considered the positive checks as the “natural checks” (p. 531). This,
however, is against his distinct statement in _Essay_, 7th ed., App.
p. 480.

Footnote 141:

This is probably the meaning of the author’s phrase, “alter the
_proportionate amount_ of the checks to population, or the degree in
which they press upon the actual numbers” (_Encyclop._, _l. c._, p.
415).

Footnote 142:

See his letter of that date in Macvey Napier’s _Correspondence_, p.
29.

Footnote 143:

It was not published till 1824. It was certainly written after the
results of the Census of 1821 had been published.

Footnote 144:

Pref. to 2nd ed., pp. iv, v; 7th ed., p. vi.

Footnote 145:

p. 52.

Footnote 146:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 11 n.; 7th ed., p. 9 n.

Footnote 147:

2nd ed., Pref. p. vii.

Footnote 148:

2nd ed., Bk. I. ch. ii. p. 10.

Footnote 149:

Adds the 3rd ed.

Footnote 150:

3rd ed., p. 21; 7th ed., p. 9.

Footnote 151:

3rd ed. _l. c._

Footnote 152:

2nd ed., p. 13; 7th ed., p. 10. His own book has helped to make this
less true.

Footnote 153:

2nd ed., pp. 14, 15. With this description of the “cycle” compare the
view of Marx as given below in Book IV.

Footnote 154:

Miss Martineau, _Autob._, vol. i. p. 210.

Footnote 155:

Reply to Malthus, p. 20. Cf. below, Book IV.

Footnote 156:

Pref. to 2nd ed., p. vi.

Footnote 157:

2nd ed., Pref. p. vi. True even then, and much more afterwards.

Footnote 158:

Godwin, _On Population_, I. iv. 31, 32.

Footnote 159:

2nd ed., p. 31; 7th ed., p. 23.

Footnote 160:

_Démocratie en Amérique_, Pt. II. ch. x. p. 278. The author is in
thorough agreement with Malthus.

Footnote 161:

2nd ed., p. 39; 7th ed., p. 28.

Footnote 162:

2nd ed., p. 25; 7th ed., p. 18.

Footnote 163:

_Ibid._ p. 43; 7th ed., p. 31.

Footnote 164:

_Ibid._ p. 39; 7th ed., p. 28.

Footnote 165:

2nd ed., p. 44; 7th ed., p. 32.

Footnote 166:

Malthus in _Edin. Rev._, July 1803, p. 345.

Footnote 167:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 25; 7th ed., p. 18.

Footnote 168:

_Ibid._ p. 29; 7th ed., p. 21.

Footnote 169:

2nd ed., pp. 37, 45; 7th ed., pp. 27, 32.

Footnote 170:

Though, like Coleridge (MS. note in another place), he mentions
brandy.

Footnote 171:

2nd ed., pp. 43, 92; 7th ed., pp. 31, 64. Cf. I. vi., 2nd ed., p. 82
n.; 7th ed., p. 57 n.

Footnote 172:

See above, pp. 35, 36.

Footnote 173:

_E. g._ 2nd ed., II. ii. 199; 7th ed., p. 135.

Footnote 174:

Compare the suggestive remarks of Rogers, _Six Centuries_, pp. 270,
271. He thinks that a movement like Lollardism could not have
succeeded in times of utter depression.

Footnote 175:

_Essay_, Book I. ch. v.

Footnote 176:

_E. g._ cannibalism and late marriages.

Footnote 177:

2nd ed., p. 46; 7th ed., p. 33. Cf. pp. 290 and 339.

Footnote 178:

In _Essays_, vol. i., Essay XI., _Populousness of Ancient Nations_, p.
444 (ed. 1768).

Footnote 179:

Cf. Plato, _Repub._, ii.

Footnote 180:

2nd ed., p. 57; 7th ed., p. 41.

Footnote 181:

Behm and Wagner (Bevölk. d. Erde, 1882) give it at 16,300.

Footnote 182:

2nd ed., p. 57 n.; 7th ed., p. 40 n.

Footnote 183:

Report of Admiral D’Horsey to the Admiralty, 1878.

Footnote 184:

See above, pp. 17, 18.

Footnote 185:

Behm and Wagner say ninety-three.

Footnote 186:

_Essay_, Book I. ch. vi.

Footnote 187:

See above, p. 83.

Footnote 188:

2nd ed., p. 68 n.; 3rd ed., p. 115 n. He afterwards altered “totally”
to “often entirely,” 7th ed., p. 47 n.

Footnote 189:

_Wealth of Nations_, Book IV. ch. vii. Part iii. p. 286 (ed. MacC.).

Footnote 190:

2nd ed., p. 66; 7th ed., p. 46.

Footnote 191:

His own word: 2nd ed., p. 67; 7th ed., p. 47.

Footnote 192:

Gen. xiii. 1–9. _Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 65; 7th ed., p. 45.

Footnote 193:

See _e. g._ Mackenzie Wallace: _Russia_, vol. ii. pp. 48, 90, &c.

Footnote 194:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 72; 7th ed., pp. 50, 51.

Footnote 195:

_Gibbon_, ch. ix. p. 175.

Footnote 196:

Tacitus, _Germ._ 14.

Footnote 197:

2nd ed., pp. 74, 77; 7th ed., pp. 52, 53.

Footnote 198:

Ch. ix. 176: “indeed the _impossibility_ of the supposition.”

Footnote 199:

_Grandeur et Décadence des Romains_, ch. xvi. p. 138, ed. 1876.

Footnote 200:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 76; 7th ed., p. 53.

Footnote 201:

_Ibid._ Bk. I. ch. vii.

Footnote 202:

2nd ed., p. 99; 7th ed., p. 68.

Footnote 203:

7th ed., p. 82.

Footnote 204:

2nd ed., p. 92; 7th ed., p. 63.

Footnote 205:

2nd ed., p. 94; 7th ed., p. 65.

Footnote 206:

_Ibid._ p. 104; 7th ed., p. 72.

Footnote 207:

Coleridge (MS. notes) reminds our author that Mahomet allowed
oblations of _sand_ for water.

Footnote 208:

Cf. above, p. 96, &c.

Footnote 209:

2nd ed., III. xi. 474–5; 7th ed., III. xiv. 381.

Footnote 210:

Especially Book I. ch. x., the chapter on Turkey.

Footnote 211:

_Essay_, Bk. I. ch. xii., ‘China and Japan.’

Footnote 212:

2nd ed., p. 162; 7th ed., p. 112.

Footnote 213:

_Ibid._ p. 175; 7th ed., p. 120.

Footnote 214:

See _Essay_, Bk. I. chs. xiii., xiv.

Footnote 215:

Sparta is the chief Greek instance.

Footnote 216:

2nd ed., p. 172; 7th ed., p. 118.

Footnote 217:

2nd ed., p. 150; cf. pp. 164, 172–3. 7th ed., p. 104; cf. pp. 113,
118.

Footnote 218:

See above, p. 99.

Footnote 219:

1st ed., p. 119; 7th ed., Appendix, p. 515.

Footnote 220:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 122.

Footnote 221:

2nd ed., p. 254; 7th ed., p. 246. Cf. 2nd ed., pp. 172, 175, and 67;
7th ed., pp. 118, 120, and 47. Cf. Hume, _Pop. of Anc. N._, pp. 487,
and especially 504.

Footnote 222:

7th ed., pp. 163, 387, 394; 2nd ed., pp. 113, 287, 292. Cf. 1st ed.,
pp. 118–19, 123 n.

Footnote 223:

2nd ed., p. 178; 7th ed., p. 122.

Footnote 224:

7th ed., p. 380, top.

Footnote 225:

2nd ed., p. 175; 7th ed., p. 120.

Footnote 226:

2nd ed., p. 175; 7th ed., p. 120.

Footnote 227:

2nd ed., p. 180; 7th ed., p. 124. “It is therefore upon these causes
alone,—independently of [2nd ed. says ‘besides’] actual
enumerations,—on which we can with certainty rely.”

Footnote 228:

Dr. Wallace, _Dissertation_, p. 55, had given Attica in its palmy days
a population of 608 to the square mile; England in the nineteenth
century has only 445, and crowded Belgium 487.

Footnote 229:

_Essay_, 1st ed., p. 54; 7th ed., pp. 120, 122; cf. pp. 262, 434. Cf.
_Wealth of Nations_, IV. vii. 254, 255.

Footnote 230:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 598; 7th ed., p. 476.

Footnote 231:

_l. c._ cf. 2nd ed., pp. 175, 178; 7th ed., pp. 120, 122.

Footnote 232:

_Essay on Population_, 2nd ed., p. 180; 7th ed., p. 124.

Footnote 233:

_E. g._ II. iii. 152, 1; IV. ix. 304, 2 (ed. MacC.).

Footnote 234:

_E. g._ 7th ed., pp. 307, 434, 473–4.

Footnote 235:

Taine, _Angleterre_, pp. 176, 232–3.

Footnote 236:

_Ibid._ p. 233.

Footnote 237:

_Wealth of Nations_, III. iv. 183, 2, &c.

Footnote 238:

Bacon, _Nov. Org._, I. xlv.

Footnote 239:

See below, Bk. IV.

Footnote 240:

Except the hog, adds Gibbon, _Decl. and F._, ch. ix. p. 171 n.

Footnote 241:

See above, p. 48.

Footnote 242:

The phrase on p. 216 of 2nd ed. (p. 148 of 7th), “in the preceding
summer of 1788,” is probably a slip. We do not hear elsewhere of any
visit so early. See below, Bk. V.

Footnote 243:

See above, p. 49. Cf. 2nd ed., p. 281; 7th ed., p. 173, &c.

Footnote 244:

For his other movements and other details of his life, see Bk. V.
(Biography).

Footnote 245:

2nd and 7th edd., Bk. II. ch. i.

Footnote 246:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 189; 7th ed., p. 129.

Footnote 247:

The Russian figures being incredible. See later, p. 133.

Footnote 248:

2nd ed., p. 184; 7th ed., p. 126.

Footnote 249:

2nd ed., pp. 188, 189; 7th ed., pp. 128, 129. Cf. Thornton’s chapter
(II.) on the “Social Effects of Peasant Proprietorships,” _Peas.
Prop._ (ed. 1874), p. 55.

Footnote 250:

In 6th ed., 1826. See 7th ed., p. 144.

Footnote 251:

_English Blue Book on Foreign Poor Laws_, 1875, p. 109.

Footnote 252:

_Statesman’s Year Book_, 1880, p. 439.

Footnote 253:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p 112.

Footnote 254:

_E. g._ that of _Essay_, 7th ed., p. 130.

Footnote 255:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 139; cf. pp. 151, 152.

Footnote 256:

_Ibid._ p. 152.

Footnote 257:

_Essay_, Bk. II. ch. ii.

Footnote 258:

_Ibid._ Bk. II. ch. iii.

Footnote 259:

2nd ed., pp. 213–14; 7th ed., pp. 146, 147.

Footnote 260:

2nd ed., pp. 214–15; 7th ed., p. 147, foot.

Footnote 261:

_Ibid._ p. 218; 7th ed., p. 150. Cf. above, p. 30.

Footnote 262:

2nd ed., p. 219; 7th ed., p. 151. Compare Price, _Observations_, p.
280 note; and especially Hume, _Pop. of Anc. N._, p. 445 (ed. 1768).

Footnote 263:

_Essay_, ibid.

Footnote 264:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 220; 7th ed., p. 151.

Footnote 265:

_Ibid._ p. 221; 7th ed., p. 152.

Footnote 266:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., pp. 216–17; 7th ed., p. 149.

Footnote 267:

_Ibid._ 7th ed., Bk. II. chs. iv. to x., as rearranged in the 3rd ed.

Footnote 268:

_Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, pp. 118, 119.

Footnote 269:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., II. v. p. 245; 7th ed., II. iv. p. 159. Cf. 2nd ed.,
p. 320; 7th ed., p. 206.

Footnote 270:

_Ibid._ 2nd ed., p. 347; 7th ed., p. 260.

Footnote 271:

_Ibid._ 2nd ed., p. 348; 7th ed., p. 260.

Footnote 272:

See above, p. 18.

Footnote 273:

So in substance Cairnes in his rehabilitation of the Wages Fund.
_Leading Principles_, pp. 196 seq. Cliffe Leslie _passim_.

Footnote 274:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 240; 7th ed., p. 155.

Footnote 275:

_Ibid._ p. 247; 7th ed., p. 160.

Footnote 276:

“Partout où il se trouve une place où deux personnes peuvent vivre
commodément, il se fait un mariage.”—_Esprit des Lois_, Bk. XXIII. ch.
x. (not XXII., as in 7th ed.).

Footnote 277:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 247; 7th ed., p. 160.

Footnote 278:

_Ibid._ 2nd ed., p. 221; 7th ed., p. 152.

Footnote 279:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., pp. 248–9; 7th ed., pp. 161–2.

Footnote 280:

_Ibid._

Footnote 281:

2nd ed., p. 246; 7th ed., p. 159. The Italics are the author’s.

Footnote 282:

_Ibid._ p. 247; 7th ed., p. 160.

Footnote 283:

_Ibid._

Footnote 284:

2nd ed., p. 205; 7th ed., p. 139.

Footnote 285:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., pp. 387 _seq._; 7th ed., pp. 287 _seq._

Footnote 286:

_Ibid._

Footnote 287:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 391; 7th ed., pp. 289–90.

Footnote 288:

_Ibid._

Footnote 289:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 393; 7th ed., p. 291.

Footnote 290:

2nd ed., p. 395; 7th ed., p. 292.

Footnote 291:

_Ibid._

Footnote 292:

Appointed in March 1826, in the last thirteen months of Lord
Liverpool’s Government. Malthus came before them on 5th May, 1827. See
_Third Report of Emigration Committee_, pp. 9, 10, and for his
evidence pp. 311 _seq._

Footnote 293:

1st Report, 1826 (May); 2nd, 1827 (April). The free use of technical
terms is not surprising, for political economy was then a popular
study. For examples see 1st Report, pp. 46, 57; 2nd Report, pp. 63,
102; 3rd Report, pp. 261, 308.

Footnote 294:

2nd Report.

Footnote 295:

3rd Report, 1827 (June).

Footnote 296:

p. 9.

Footnote 297:

Cf. below, ch. vii. (on Ireland), especially pp. 197 and 199.

Footnote 298:

3rd Report, p. 315, qu. 3257.

Footnote 299:

The Emigration Committee recommended that the help of the state should
only be given on condition of a local initiative and local
contribution.

Footnote 300:

See _e. g._ qu. 3370.

Footnote 301:

7th ed., p. 292.

Footnote 302:

_W. of N._, I. viii. 36 (MacC.’s ed.). “Other” is not a slip; the
writer is conscious of his cynicism.

Footnote 303:

_Essay_, III. iv. 293, of which the concluding paragraph was added in
1817.

Footnote 304:

_Essay_, 7th ed., Bk. II. ch. v.

Footnote 305:

2nd ed., pp. 275–6; 7th ed., p. 169.

Footnote 306:

Or “Leyzin,” as Malthus spells it.

Footnote 307:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 271; 7th ed., p. 166.

Footnote 308:

Average sixty-one years.

Footnote 309:

2nd ed., p. 274; 7th ed., p. 168.

Footnote 310:

2nd ed., p. 280; 7th ed., p. 173, top. The remark savours of paradox.

Footnote 311:

_Ibid._ p. 280, foot; 7th ed., p. 173.

Footnote 312:

_Ibid._ p. 281; 7th ed., p. 173.

Footnote 313:

See above, p. 127.

Footnote 314:

Compare above on “oscillations,” p. 147, and below, Bk. II. chs. ii.
and iii.

Footnote 315:

_Essay_, 7th ed., Bk. II. chs. vi., vii.

Footnote 316:

2nd ed., p. 285; 7th ed., p. 175.

Footnote 317:

2nd ed., p. 296; cf. 7th ed., p. 182 n. “Indeed in adopting Sir F.
d’Ivernois’s calculations respecting the actual loss of men during the
Revolution, I never thought myself borne out by facts, but the reader
will be aware that I adopted them rather for the sake of illustration
than from supposing them strictly true.”

Footnote 318:

7th ed., p. 188.

Footnote 319:

7th ed., p. 176; cf. p. 175.

Footnote 320:

7th ed., pp. 177, 181 n.

Footnote 321:

_Ibid._, p. 178 and n.

Footnote 322:

Not above suspicion. See 7th ed., p. 176 n.

Footnote 323:

The military advantage of an increasing population is pointed out also
in the article on Newenham’s ‘Ireland,’ _Edin. Rev._, July 1808, p.
350.

Footnote 324:

Cf. Josiah Tucker, _On Trade_, p. 17 (3rd ed., 1753).

Footnote 325:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 297 n; 7th ed., p. 185, which omits one clause.
Cf. 2nd ed., pp. 290–1; 7th ed., pp. 179, 180.

Footnote 326:

2nd ed., p. 291; 7th ed., pp. 179, 180. Cf. the often-quoted passages
about the bleak rock and the garden, written (be it remarked) before
and not after the Revolution, in Arthur Young’s _Travels in France_
(Bury St. Edmunds, 1792), pp. 36, 37, 42; cf. p. 341.

Footnote 327:

_E. g._ 5th, 1817; 7th ed., ch. vii.

Footnote 328:

7th ed., p. 188.

Footnote 329:

Arthur Young, _Travels in France_, pp. 410, 437.

Footnote 330:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 189.

Footnote 331:

Cf. Fyffe, _Mod. Europe_, i. 124.

Footnote 332:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 189.

Footnote 333:

A characteristic utilitarian touch. 2nd ed., p. 295, top; 7th ed., p.
183.

Footnote 334:

_Ibid._

Footnote 335:

2nd ed., p. 294; 7th ed., p. 183.

Footnote 336:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 320 (III. vii.).

Footnote 337:

Levasseur, _France avec ses Colonies_ (1875), p. 842. According to
Anderson, _Chron. Ded._, Vol. III. p. xliii, some said twenty, others
seventeen. But Mr. Kitchin cites Vauban to show that there had been a
decline in population from fifteen to thirteen millions between the
beginning of the war of Succession and the end of it (1702,
1713).—_History of France_, vol. iii. p. 342. Cf. Fox Bourne’s _Life
of Locke_, i. p. 350; Vauban’s _Dîme Royale_, pp. 162–3.

Footnote 338:

Josiah Tucker, _Essay on Trade_ (3rd ed., 1753), p. 14. There may be
rhetorical exaggeration in his statements. “The subordination of the
common people is an unspeakable advantage to the French in respect to
trade. By this means the manufacturers [workmen] are always kept
industrious. They dare not run into debauchery; to drunkenness they
are not inclined. They are [practically by the law of military
service] obliged to enter into the married state, whereby they raise
up large families to labour, and keep down the price of it; and
consequently, by working cheaper, enable the merchant to sell the
cheaper.”

Footnote 339:

_Wealth of Nations_, IV. iii. pp. 220–1.

Footnote 340:

See above, p. 155. Levasseur makes it twenty-five; Arthur Young, who
considers France over-populated by five or six millions, makes it
twenty-six (_Travels in France_, pp. 468–9; cf. p. 474). Price had
made it thirty.

Footnote 341:

_Grounds of an Opinion_, &c., p. 12. See below, Bk. II. ch. i.

Footnote 342:

Census as given in _Annuaire de l’Économie Politique_ (1882), p. 899.

Footnote 343:

_Political Economy_ (1820), pp. 433 _seq._ Cliffe Leslie (_Mor. and
Pol. Essays_, 1879, p. 424) attributes the few births to the very Law
of Succession of which Malthus was afraid.

Footnote 344:

In the country districts at least. On the relation of luxury to trade,
&c., see below, Bk. II. ch. iii. p. 268.

Footnote 345:

_E. g._ by M. Levasseur in _La France avec ses Colonies_ (1875), p.
853.

Footnote 346:

Appendix to _Wealth of Nations_, note iv. p. 465.

Footnote 347:

Levasseur, _l. c._ pp. 845, 846 ft.

Footnote 348:

_Times_, Jan. 1883.

Footnote 349:

_English Registrar-General’s 45th Report_, for 1882, pp. cii, cvii.

Footnote 350:

Levasseur, _La France_, _l. c._

Footnote 351:

E. g. _Times_, _l. c._

Footnote 352:

_Essay_, 7th ed., IV. xiii. p. 474; 2nd ed., IV. xi. p. 594.

Footnote 353:

2nd ed., II. ix.; 7th ed., II. viii, ix.

Footnote 354:

1st ed., pp. 63, 64.

Footnote 355:

1st ed., pp. 65–6; cf. 2nd ed., p. 300, and 7th ed., p. 193.

Footnote 356:

See below, Bk. II. ch. iv., &c.

Footnote 357:

The numbers given then were five millions.—Froude, _Hist. of England_,
i. 3.

Footnote 358:

See Hansard, _Parl. Hist._, xiv. 1317.

Footnote 359:

Not unfelt in 1801. So Arthur Young speaks as if the agricultural
interest had not unfrequently regarded the Board of Agriculture as a
new instrument of taxation. (_Report on Suffolk_, p. 16.)

Footnote 360:

In charge of Rev. Alexander Webster.

Footnote 361:

_Parl. Hist._, vol. xv. p. 69, quoted by Mahon, _Hist. of England_,
sub dato, ch. xxxi. p. 39. Cf. Trevelyan, _Early Life of Fox_, ch. i.
p. 14.

Footnote 362:

Dr. Adam Anderson, _Chronological Deduc. of Commerce_, Introd., p.
xliii.; first printed in 1762.

Footnote 363:

See especially _Estimate_ (7th ed., 1758), Vol. I. Pt. II. sect. viii.
pp. 186 _seq._

Footnote 364:

_Chron. Ded._, ibid.

Footnote 365:

_I. e._ to the discussion described by Dr. Anderson. Cf. Malthus,
_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 164. Muret’s pessimistic paper was printed in
1766.

Footnote 366:

In his _Political Arithmetic_, 1774.

Footnote 367:

_Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during the present
and four preceding Reigns_, by George Chalmers, F.R.S., S.A., 1st ed.,
1782.

Footnote 368:

_Natural and Political Observations_, 1696. _Apud_ Davenant and
Chalmers.

Footnote 369:

_Primitive Origination of Mankind._

Footnote 370:

_Political Survey of Great Britain_, 1774.

Footnote 371:

Cf. Chalmers, _Estimate_, p. 4, Pref. p. cxxxviii., and John Howlett’s
_Examination of Dr. Price’s Essay_ (Maidstone), 1781.

Footnote 372:

Cf. Macaulay, _History_, ch. iii. 137.

Footnote 373:

_Observations_, supplement, p. 366. Cf. Malthus, _Essay_, App. p. 519.
Arthur Young, _France_, p. 409. The whole subject will be considered
later in connection with Scotland.

Footnote 374:

See _Observations on Smuggling_, 1779.

Footnote 375:

But see the _caveat_ in the _Registrar-General’s 44th Report_ (for
1881), p. vi.: The price of wheat and the marriage rate do not always
vary inversely.

Footnote 376:

In the same way the returns to the Board of Agriculture at the end of
the century are full of (not quite disinterested) praises of
enclosures as an encouragement of population.

Footnote 377:

Lecky, _Eighteenth Cent._, i. 261, 479 _seq._ Restrictions on the sale
were successfully adopted by Pelham in 1751, at the time when the
question of depopulation was coming to the front.

Footnote 378:

An unsafe presumption. See below, Bk. II. ch. ii., &c.

Footnote 379:

_E. g._ inoculation.

Footnote 380:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 317; 7th ed., p. 198, compared with 7th ed., p.
189, &c., above, pp. 115–16.

Footnote 381:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 198 note; first printed in 3rd ed. (1806), p. 461
n.

Footnote 382:

2nd ed., p. 302 n.; 7th ed., p. 194 n.

Footnote 383:

This is asserted in the _Preliminary Report_ to the last English
census (1881). Against the idea, see the _Annual Register’s_ reviews
of Eden’s work on the _Poor_ (1797), and of his _Estimate_ of English
numbers (1800). The _Register_ had numbered Burke and Godwin among its
writers, and was not likely to be behind public opinion.

Footnote 384:

See the review of Arthur Young’s _Question of Scarcity plainly
stated_, 1800, in _Ann. Register_, sub dato.

Footnote 385:

Chairman of the Committee on the Public Finances 1797, Speaker of the
Commons 1802, Lord Colchester 1817.

Footnote 386:

2nd ed., p. 318; 7th ed., p. 204. Cf. 2nd ed., p. 317; 7th ed., pp.
192, 203, 206, 219, &c.

Footnote 387:

2nd ed., p. 311; 7th ed., pp. 201, 202, foot. Compare _44th Rept. of
Reg.-Gen._ (England), p. v.

Footnote 388:

As _e. g._ in 1800–1 compared with 1802–3; 7th ed., p. 214.

Footnote 389:

2nd ed., p. 319; 7th ed., p. 205. Cf. passages cited on last page.

Footnote 390:

Cf. _Essay_, 2nd ed., pp. 308–9; 7th ed., pp. 198–9.

Footnote 391:

2nd ed., pp. 312–13; 7th ed., p. 201. The 2nd ed. has a reference to
“the late scarcities” wanting in the later edds. Registration, be it
remembered, was then of baptisms and burials, not births and deaths.

Footnote 392:

See above, p. 176. Cf. on the other hand the concession, 2nd ed., p.
317; 7th ed., p. 203, middle.

Footnote 393:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., p. 319; 7th ed., pp. 205–6.

Footnote 394:

7th ed., p. 188.

Footnote 395:

Rickman himself allowed their defectiveness. See _Essay_, 2nd ed., p.
304; 7th ed., p. 196. Cf. above, p. 179.

Footnote 396:

2nd ed., p. 302; 7th ed., p. 194. By the _Registrar-General’s Report_
for 1882 it was as 1 in 64½ in that year.

Footnote 397:

2nd ed., p. 303; 7th ed., p. 195.

Footnote 398:

7th ed., p. 205.

Footnote 399:

2nd ed., pp. 213–14; 7th ed., p. 202.

Footnote 400:

_45th Report of Registrar-General_ (England), (1882), p. ci.

Footnote 401:

7th ed., p. 210.

Footnote 402:

2nd ed., p. 302; 7th ed., p. 194 n.

Footnote 403:

Numbers calculated by “natural increment,” _i. e._ births
and deaths—26,138,248; numbers actually
enumerated—25,968,286.—_Preliminary Report_, p. iii.

Footnote 404:

’31–’41, incr. 14.52; ’71–’81, incr. 14.34.

Footnote 405:

Or three and a quarter millions of people to England and Wales alone.

Footnote 406:

7th ed., II. ix. p. 215 (written first in 5th ed., 1817).

Footnote 407:

_Essay_, 7th ed., p. 258; cf. _Prel. Rept. Census_, 1881, p. ix.

Footnote 408:

The account of Scotland in the _Essay_, Bk. II. ch. x., is taken from
the _Statistical Account_ of Sir John Sinclair, 1791–99. Sinclair was
acting, on the south side of the Tweed, as President of the Board of
Agriculture. See below, Bk. II. ch. i. p. 218.

Footnote 409:

There was very little in Scotland. It is only once mentioned by Adam
Smith. MacCulloch says “never,” but he had overlooked _Wealth of
Nations_, IV. vii. 251–2.

Footnote 410:

The last of late introduction. See _Reports to Board of Agriculture:
Central Highlands_ (1794), p. 21.

Footnote 411:

2nd ed., p. 384; 7th ed., p. 229.

Footnote 412:

Not feudal but pre-feudal, or allodial. See _Wealth of Nations_, III.
iv. 183, 1.

Footnote 413:

_Wealth of Nations_, ibid.

Footnote 414:

Selkirk, _Highlands_, 1805, p. 25.

Footnote 415:

See the _Legend of Montrose_, &c.

Footnote 416:

Adam Smith, _l. c._; cf. I. viii 36, 1 (the often-quoted description
of “half-starved highland women” with their twenty children in
contrast to the “pampered fine lady” with few or none.)

Footnote 417:

_Reports to Board of Agriculture: Central Highlands_, 1794, p. 52.

Footnote 418:

_Wealth of Nations_, III. iv. 184, 1 (written 1774), a passage which
shows that the clearances and the consequent cry of Depopulation are
to be looked for as early as the middle of the century. We are
sometimes told that from the ’45 to the end of the century was the
golden age of highland farmers. But the willingness of the clansmen to
enter Chatham’s highland regiments would hardly imply great
contentment.

Footnote 419:

Cf. _Essay on Pop._, pp. 332 (2nd ed.), 227 (7th ed.), and Selkirk,
_l. c._, pp. 43 _seq._ _Contra_, see _Report of Crofters Commission_,
1884, p. 51.

Footnote 420:

Made under the Marquis of Stafford between 1807 and 1820, in which
year the popular odium was at its height, and the landlord made his
defence in a well-known pamphlet by his factor, James Loch.

Footnote 421:

Cf. Malthus, _Essay_, 7th ed., p. 229, top; cf. pp. 221 ft., 223 ft.;
2nd ed., pp. 326–7.

Footnote 422:

See Malthus, _Essay_, 7th ed., p. 227. Cf. Farr in _Statist. Journ._,
16th Feb. 1846.

Footnote 423:

Drawn chiefly from the _Statistical Account of Scotland_, 1791–99.

Footnote 424:

Lavergne, _Econ. Rur. de l’Angleterre_, ch. xx. p. 310.

Footnote 425:

The 6th simply adds the numbers of the people from the census of 1821,
with hardly any comment.

Footnote 426:

2nd ed. says “barbarism.”

Footnote 427:

2nd ed., “depressed.”

Footnote 428:

2nd ed. adds, “by the filth of their persons.”

Footnote 429:

2nd ed., pp. 334–5; 7th ed., p. 229. He refers to the rebellion of
1795–98, that was prelude to the Union of 1800, and was fresh in his
memory.

Footnote 430:

_Edin. Review_, July 1808, the only review in that journal assigned to
him by express testimony.

Footnote 431:

_3rd Report of Emigration Committee_ (1827), Evid., qu. 3225.

Footnote 432:

In the article on Newenham he incidentally utters the paradox that in
view of the low standard of food the people’s indolence is almost an
advantage, for it prevents wages falling quite down to that
level.—Art. p. 341. Cf. _Essay_, IV. xi. 456–7. For his view of
potatoes in Ireland, _ibid._, 453.

Footnote 433:

Cf. _Review of Newenham_, p. 352.

Footnote 434:

Cf. Rogers, _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_ (1884), p. 484.

Footnote 435:

In a sense already frequently noticed. So in answer 3401, where he
seems to accept the phrase “moral degradation” as applied to Ireland.

Footnote 436:

Cf. above, pp. 95 and 195 n. Professor Rogers must have forgotten such
passages as these when he wrote the 62nd and 63rd pages of his _Six
Centuries of Work and Wages_ (1884), though he furnishes his own
correction on a following page (484).

Footnote 437:

_Wealth of Nations_, V. iii. 430, 1, 2.

Footnote 438:

Sir Wm. Petty made it 1,100,000 in 1672. See MacCulloch, Append. to
_Wealth of Nations_, (IV.) 462.

Footnote 439:

See Sir H. Parnell’s evidence in _3rd Report to Emigration Committee_,
1827, p. 200. He thinks that between 1792 and 1821 the population of
Ireland had doubled itself.

Footnote 440:

Malthus, Evidence before Emigration Committee, 1827; _3rd Report_, qu.
3430, p. 327.

Footnote 441:

Querist (1735) 134: “Whether if there was a wall of brass a thousand
cubits high round this kingdom, our natives might not nevertheless
live cleanly and comfortably, till the land, and reap the fruits of
it?” The “caged rats” of the Corn Law pamphlets give us the other side
of the question.

Footnote 442:

“Of such consequence in the encouragement of any industry is a steady
unvarying policy.”——Arthur Young, _France_, p. 388.

Footnote 443:

See above, p. 151, &c.

Footnote 444:

See above, pp. 191–2.

Footnote 445:

_l. c._ p. 399. Cf. Lecky, _Eighteenth Cent._, vol. ii. pp. 222
_seq._; _Review of Newenham_, pp. 349, 350.

Footnote 446:

See above, p. 18.

Footnote 447:

7th ed., p. 378 ft. Cf. _Polit. Econ._, 1st ed., pp. 252, 290, and 394
_seq._

Footnote 448:

_Essay_, III. viii. 323 (first in 5th ed.). See later, p. 268, &c.

Footnote 449:

_Essay_, 7th ed., pp. 452–3; 2nd ed., pp. 575–6.

Footnote 450:

_Ibid._, p. 323 ft. (7th); MacCulloch, Appendix to _W. of N._, p. 467,
2.

Footnote 451:

_Essay on Pop._, 2nd ed., p. 576; 7th ed., p. 453 ft.

Footnote 452:

_Lavergne_, pp. 423–4.

Footnote 453:

Even in 1875 the Registrar-General’s Report showed that there were
then fewer marriages in Ireland than in England, in proportion to the
population, and that they came later. Cf. the _18th Report_, for
Ireland (1882), pp. 18, 19.

Footnote 454:

_Review of Newenham_, pp. 351–4.

Footnote 455:

See above, Bk. I. ch. i.

Footnote 456:

2nd ed., Bk. III. chs. i. to iii.; 7th ed., Bk. III. chs. i. and ii.

Footnote 457:

7th ed., ch. iii. (on Owen, &c.), which replaces a reply (2nd and 3rd
edd.) to Godwin’s first reply.

Footnote 458:

All except those on pauperism. When pauperism is reached, the thread
of the essay is again taken up.

Footnote 459:

_Pol. Econ._, 1820, Introd. p. 11. Cf. _Tract on Value_, p. 60 ft.,
and above, p. 37.

Footnote 460:

_High Price of Bullion_, 1809. See below, p. 285.

Footnote 461:

Malthus, _Pol. Econ._, Introd. pp. 2, 5, 22, &c.; _Essay on Pop._,
Pref. &c.; Ricardo, _Principles of Pol. Econ. and Taxn._ (1817), Pref.

Footnote 462:

Life of Ricardo in preface to _Works_, p. xxxi.

Footnote 463:

J. S. Mill, _Political Economy_, 1848 and 1849. It was not a complete
breach. The new faith and the old perplex each other and the reader,
in the pages of Mill.

Footnote 464:

_Pol. Econ._, Introd. Cf. the Discussions on the Measure of Value,
_Pol. Econ._, ch. ii., and pamphlet on the subject. So Roscher,
_Nationalökonomie_, § 1 and n.

Footnote 465:

Arist., _Ethics_, i. (3).

Footnote 466:

“_Definitions in Political Economy_, preceded by an inquiry into the
rules which ought to guide political economists in the definition and
use of their terms, with remarks on the deviations from these rules in
their writings” (1827), p. 5.

Footnote 467:

_Pol. Econ._, Introd. p. 11.

Footnote 468:

_Definitions_, p. 4.

Footnote 469:

_Ibid._, p. 5.

Footnote 470:

_Definitions_, pp. 6, 7.

Footnote 471:

_Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 28. “And have an exchangeable value,” was the
Ricardian addition; and in the _Quarterly Rev._, Jan. 1824, p. 298,
Malthus weakly allows the addition to pass.

Footnote 472:

_Pol. Econ._, Introd. p. 11.

Footnote 473:

MacCulloch, _Life of Ricardo_, prefixed to _Princ. of Econ. and
Taxation_ (ed. 1876), p. xxv.

Footnote 474:

Letter quoted by Empson in _Edin. Review_, Jan. 1837.

Footnote 475:

_Pol. Econ._, Pref. pp. 12, 13 (2nd ed.). Cf. above, p. 57.

Footnote 476:

Arist., _Ethics_, x. 1. Some thought pleasure was the goal, but, for
the sake of others, “one must not say so.”

Footnote 477:

See below, ch. iv.

Footnote 478:

Porter’s _Progress of the Nation_, p. 148 (ed. 1851). Cf. MacCulloch,
_Wealth of Nations_, Notes, p. 525.

Footnote 479:

Dissolved in 1817.

Footnote 480:

Between 1767 and his death in 1820, he wrote no less than a hundred
volumes on agriculture. His bet is given in Sir J. Sinclair’s _Life_
by Archdeacon Sinclair, i. 253.

Footnote 481:

At the end of 1801.

Footnote 482:

_Communications to Board of Agriculture_, iv. 232–5 (1805). Cf. _Ann.
Reg._, 1801, p. 131.

Footnote 483:

_E. g._ that the members should always use mixed instead of pure
wheaten flour.

Footnote 484:

_Ann. Reg._, 1801, p. 129.

Footnote 485:

As was done, _e. g._, by Chief Justice Kenyon, King’s Bench, Rex _v._
John Rusby, Nov. 1799.

Footnote 486:

See J. S. Girdler, _Forestalling_, &c. (1800), S. J. Pratt’s poem on
_Bread for the Poor_ (1800).

Footnote 487:

Girdler, _l. c._ pp. 46,48, &c.

Footnote 488:

Philps, _Progress of Great Britain_, p. 132.

Footnote 489:

Cf. the figures given in Malthus’ _Tract on Value_, pp. 69–79, and in
Professor Rogers’ _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, pp. 487
_seq._,—both of them taken chiefly from Eden on the Poor.

Footnote 490:

_Wealth of Nations_, I. viii. 44, 1.

Footnote 491:

On the whole subject see Craik, _Hist. of Commerce_, ii. 142–5.

Footnote 492:

Macpherson, ditto, iii. 148 (year 1728), 307 (year 1757).

Footnote 493:

_Ibid._, iii. 329, 331; MacC., _Comm. Dict._ (ed. 1871), p. 430.

Footnote 494:

Cf. _Essay on Population_, p. 352 (7th ed.). Cf. above, p. 25.

Footnote 495:

Macpherson, iii. 438, 452.

Footnote 496:

Cf. Malthus, _Essay on Pop._, p. 453 (2nd ed.); _Grounds of on
Opinion_, &c., p. 43.

Footnote 497:

E. g. _National Industry of Scotland_, vol. ii. pp. 208–9 (1779).
MacCulloch has quoted other passages (_Wealth of Nations_, xlviii. n.,
and _Note on Rent_, p. 453, 1, and n.). Sir Edward West agrees with
Malthus in his qualified approval of the Corn Laws. See _Price of
Corn_, &c., p. 139.

Footnote 498:

A reprint of the 3rd (?)

Footnote 499:

If we include the _Crisis_, it would be the fifth time.

Footnote 500:

It was popular enough to reach a 3rd edition in 1815.

Footnote 501:

See _Grounds of an Opinion_, &c., p. 2.

Footnote 502:

_Observations_, pp. 20–1.

Footnote 503:

_Ibid._, p. 17.

Footnote 504:

The English price in Nov. 1884.

Footnote 505:

_Observations_, pp. 19, 22, 23, 27.

Footnote 506:

_Ibid._, p. 28. If the Ricardian hypothesis is not true of
individuals, it is still less true of Governments, as Cobden
experienced.

Footnote 507:

_Ibid._, pp. 30, 31.

Footnote 508:

_Ibid._, p. 32: “Many of the questions both in morals and politics
seem to be of the nature of the problems _de maximis et minimis_ in
fluxions; in which there is always a point where a certain effect is
the greatest, while on either side of this point it gradually
diminishes.”

Footnote 509:

Cf. even _Observations_, pp. 5, 12, 13.

Footnote 510:

See below, chs. ii. and iii.

Footnote 511:

The expression of Grenville in a letter to Pitt, 1800. See Stanhope,
_Life of Pitt_, ii. 371.

Footnote 512:

Unless perhaps Mr. Bagehot’s. Col. Thompson understood the theory of
population only in its cruder form. In answer 337 of the _Catechism_
(1839) he meets the objection that free trade would only increase
population by saying: “No man has a right to prevent us running a
constant race with hunger if we can.”

Footnote 513:

_Grounds_, &c., p. 46 n.

Footnote 514:

_Ibid._, pp. 3, 11, 12,

Footnote 515:

_Ibid._, pp. 30, 33.

Footnote 516:

Ricardo, _Works_, p. 33[8?]5 (MacC.’s ed.). For remarks on this part
of Malthus’ tract see _ibid._, p. 382.

Footnote 517:

_Grounds_, &c., p. 36 n. Cf. Ricardo, p. 390.

Footnote 518:

See above, p. 211.

Footnote 519:

_Pol. Econ._, ch. iii. sect. i. p. 134 (1820).

Footnote 520:

_Wealth of Nations_, I. xi., beginning.

Footnote 521:

He does not always prefix this qualification; but that he intended it
appears clearly from the _Tract on Rent_, p. 3 n.: Not every land that
yields food will yield rent. Cf. _Pol Econ._ (1820), p. 141.

Footnote 522:

Compare _Tract on Rent_, p. 16 n.

Footnote 523:

The title of the tract is, _An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of
Rent, and the Principles by which it is regulated_. It appears from a
letter of Malthus to Sir John Sinclair on 31st Jan., 1815, that it was
passing through the press in that month. Sinclair, _Correspondence_,
i. 391 (1831).

Footnote 524:

As, he might have added, in education.

Footnote 525:

_Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 142, but especially p. 187. Cf. _Tract on
Rent_, pp. 8–12.

Footnote 526:

_Rent_, p. 10.

Footnote 527:

Cf. also below, p. 294.

Footnote 528:

_Wealth of Nations_, IV. ii. 307, 2; cf. IV. v. 240, 2.

Footnote 529:

_Essay on the Application of Capital to Land_, with observations
showing the impolicy of any great restriction of the importation of
corn, and that the bounty of 1688 did not lower the price of it. By a
fellow of University College, Oxford. (London, 1815.) Page 2.

Footnote 530:

_W. of N._, II. iii. 148, 1.

Footnote 531:

_Essay_, 1st ed., p. 363.

Footnote 532:

_Tract on Rent_, p. 16; _Essay on Pop._ (7th ed.), p. 327. Cf. above.

Footnote 533:

_Rent_, p. 20; cf. pp. 18, 57. _Essay on Pop._, 2nd ed., p. 433; 7th
ed., p. 327. “If we look only to the clear monied rent,” &c.

Footnote 534:

Ricardo, Preface to _Principles of Pol. Econ. and Taxation_.

Footnote 535:

Reprinted by MacCulloch in his edition of _Pol. Econ. and Taxation_,
pp. 367–390.

Footnote 536:

MacCulloch ed. of _Pol. Econ. and Taxation_, p. 374 n.

Footnote 537:

_Ibid._, p. 371.

Footnote 538:

So Prof. Rogers ascribes the high rents of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries very largely to the low wages; higher ones would
have “reduced rent first, and profits afterwards.”—_Six Centuries_, p.
482; cf. pp. 480 and 492.

Footnote 539:

_Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 161 (ch. iii. sect. iii.).

Footnote 540:

_Pol. Econ. and Taxation_, pp. 373, 375, 379–80; cf. pp. 71 and 72,
but especially 68 ft. Malthus on the whole follows Adam Smith, I. ix.;
Mill has followed Ricardo.

Footnote 541:

So far as the account is meant to be historical, it must be corrected
by Carey. See above, p. 65.

Footnote 542:

Ricardo, _l. c._ p. 372 and n. Cf. below. He appeals to Adam Smith’s
principle of compensation (_Wealth of Nations_, I. x.).

Footnote 543:

Rogers (_Six Centuries_, p. 352) goes so far the other way as to make
improvements the only cause of an increase of rent, though the passage
should be read with p. 480, and especially pp. 482 and 492.

Footnote 544:

_E. g._ Mrs. Fawcett, _Pol. Econ. for Beginners_, pp. 65, 66; and even
West, on _Rent_, p. 50.

Footnote 545:

_3rd Report_, 1827, p. 321, qu. 3341. Cf. Perr. Thompson, _True Theory
of Rent_, pp. 8, 12, 34, &c. (1832, 9th ed.).

Footnote 546:

_Tract on Value_, p. 6.

Footnote 547:

Ricardo, _Low Price of Corn_, &c., _Works_, pp. 373, 380, 381, &c.

Footnote 548:

_Ibid._, pp. 377, 379.

Footnote 549:

Ricardo, _Works_, _l. c._ p. 378.

Footnote 550:

_Pol. Econ. and Tax._, ibid. pp. 50 _seq._, esp. pp. 54, 55.

Footnote 551:

_l. c._ p. 55 ft.

Footnote 552:

_Low Price_, &c., _ibid._, p. 379.

Footnote 553:

_Pol. Econ. and Tax._, ch. v.; cf. Malthus, _Pol. Econ._ (1820), p.
230.

Footnote 554:

But cf. _Works_, p. 377 n.

Footnote 555:

_Pol. Econ._, IV. iii § 4. Cf. Walker, _Land and its Rent_, pp.
177–81, though it has been pointed out that on p. 178 that writer
omits Mill’s qualifying phrase, (improvements) “suddenly made.”

Footnote 556:

See Sir James Caird’s table appended to _Landed Interest_ (1878). Cf.
Cairne’s _Essays in Pol. Ec._, vi. p. 216.

Footnote 557:

Bk. III. ch. vii p. 429.

Footnote 558:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., Bk. III. ch. viii. p. 437.

Footnote 559:

_Ibid._, _l. c._ ch. ix. pp. 443 _seq._

Footnote 560:

_Essay_, Bk. III. ch. ix. p. 450.

Footnote 561:

_Ibid._, ch. x. p. 465.

Footnote 562:

_Ibid._, Bk. V. ch. x. p. 468 n.

Footnote 563:

_Pol. Econ._ (1820), pp. 227 _seq._, (1836) pp. 240 _seq._

Footnote 564:

_Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, ch. xii., esp. p. 345.

Footnote 565:

The facts of Malthus’ “review” may be roughly given in the following
diagram, where the bar indicates the wheat earned per day by the
agricultural labourer. The amount for 1350 assumes that the Statute of
Labourers was successful.

One peck. Two pecks. 1340 (before Plague) :-------------- : : 1350 (after Plague) :----------------- : : 1400 :-------------------: : 1500 :-------------------:-------------------: 1603 :----------------- : : 1650 :----------- : : 1699 :-------------------: : 1730 :-------------------: : 1766 :------------------ : : 1811 :------------------ : : 1822 (?) :-------------------: :

Add 1884, taking wages ------------------------------------
at 14_s._ a week and
wheat at 36_s._ a
quarter, or 1_s._
1½_d._ a peck.

Footnote 566:

7th ed., pp. 321 _seq._ (Bk. III. ch. viii.), first in 1817.

Footnote 567:

Cf. above, p. 225 n. In _Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 432, he says, “All the
great results in _Pol. Econ._ respecting wealth depend upon
proportions.” 2nd ed. added (p. 376), “not only there, but throughout
the whole range of nature and art.” So he thinks a peck of wheat a
good “middle point” of wages. _Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 284, (1836) p.
254.

Footnote 568:

_Essay_, 7th ed., Bk. III. ch. ix. pp. 328 _seq._ Cf. pp. 334, 338.

Footnote 569:

_Ibid._, p. 332.

Footnote 570:

_Ibid._, Bk. III. ch. x. pp. 334 _seq._

Footnote 571:

See above, p. 201 n. Cf. _Essay on Pop._, 7th ed., p. 337.

Footnote 572:

_Essay_, _l. c._ p. 338.

Footnote 573:

_l. c._ Bk. III. ch. x. pp. 338–9.

Footnote 574:

_Fortnightly Review_, Nov. 1881, his last writing. Cf. _Essay_, _l.
c._ pp. 340–342.

Footnote 575:

In two long chapters on Corn Laws and Bounties, _Essay on Pop._, Bk.
III. ch. xi. pp. 343–367. Cf. above, pp. 226 _seq._

Footnote 576:

See below, Bk. IV.

Footnote 577:

_The Measure of Value stated and illustrated, with an application of
it to the alteration in the value of the English currency since 1790._
(April) 1823.

Footnote 578:

So _Tract on Value_, p. 1. But in _Definitions_ value is “the relation
of one object to some other or others, in exchange, resulting from the
estimation in which a thing is held” (def. 40, 41; cf. with def. 5).

Footnote 579:

Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, I. v.

Footnote 580:

_Measure of Value_, p. 23. Cf. _Pol. Econ._ (1820), pp. 126 _seq._;
(1836), pp. 84, 93 _seq._

Footnote 581:

_Measure of Value_, p. 20 n. On pp. 23–4 he adds, “taking the average
of summer and winter wages.”

Footnote 582:

See below, p. 268. _Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 125; (1836) p. 102, &c.;
_Tract on Value_, passim.

Footnote 583:

_Work and Wages_, ch. iii. p. 75. Malthus, _Pol. Econ._, 2nd ed., pp.
108 _seq._

Footnote 584:

Cf. Marx, _Kapital_, pp. 19, 21, &c.

Footnote 585:

MacC.’s ed., pp. 45 _seq._ Cf. _Tract on Value_, p. 20 n., above
quoted.

Footnote 586:

Cf. Ricardo, _Pol. Econ._, _Works_ (ed. MacC.), p. 15.

Footnote 587:

_Meas. of Value_, pp. 8–12.

Footnote 588:

_Meas. of Value_, pp. 22, 65. Cf. Cairnes, _Australian Episode_, in
_Essays in Pol. Econ._ (pp. 92 _seq._; cf. pp. 37, 61), (1873),—first
published in _Fraser’s Mag._, Sept. 1859.

Footnote 589:

_Meas. of Value_, p. 23.

Footnote 590:

_Ibid._, pp. 27–29.

Footnote 591:

_Meas. of Value_, p. 29 n.

Footnote 592:

He might have said simply that the one is intrinsic, the other
extrinsic, in relation to the agricultural products themselves.

Footnote 593:

_Meas. of Value_, p. 63.

Footnote 594:

_Meas. of Value_, pp. 67 _seq._ Cf. below, pp. 283 _seq._

Footnote 595:

Who allows cost to play a greater part in value. Cf. below, pp. 278–9.
But Ricardo, _Pol. Econ._, sect vi. p. 28, disclaims belief in _any_
universal measure of value.

Footnote 596:

Malthus, quoted by Empson, _Edin. Rev._, Jan. 1837, p. 499.

Footnote 597:

He was F.R.S. 1819, and a member of Pol. Econ. Club at its foundation
in 1821.

Footnote 598:

4th May, 1825; 7th Nov., 1827. _Transactions of it R. S. L._, vol. i.
part i. p. 171.

Footnote 599:

_Report of R. S. L._, 1824, p. 21.

Footnote 600:

We might expressly wish to know a coat’s value in money or its value
in cutlery or coals. The Professor at the Breakfast-table talks of
“Madeira worth from two to six Bibles a bottle.”

Footnote 601:

_Definitions_ (1827), p. 235.

Footnote 602:

I. e. _to_ the object which measures that _cost-value_.

Footnote 603:

_Ibid._, p. 243.

Footnote 604:

See above, p. 254. Ricardo’s long correspondence with Malthus on the
subject is mentioned by Empson, _Edin. Rev._, _l. c._ p. 469. Empson’s
extracts from it are the most valuable part of his article.

Footnote 605:

R. Torrens, _Production of Wealth_, 1821, pp. iv, v.

Footnote 606:

Held, _Sociale Geschichte Englands_, p. 205.

Footnote 607:

_Dialogues of Three Templars on Political Economy_, 1824 (_Works_,
Black, 1863, vol. iv.). All depends on the assumption in the middle of
Dialogue I. p. 196, (“it is Mr. Ricardo’s doctrine that,” &c.), and on
the confinement of the discussion to natural value (p. 198).

Footnote 608:

_Measure of Value_, p. 20 n.

Footnote 609:

London, 1832; Birmingham, 1833. The Constituent Assembly applied the
same measure, but in a different way, in 1791. See Roscher,
_National-ökon._ (1879), p. 298.

Footnote 610:

The words are, “enable the labourers to maintain a stationary or an
increasing population” (_Pol. Econ._, 1836, p. 218). The awkwardness
of the sentence may be due to bad editing; but we read elsewhere of
the “_price of wages_.”

Footnote 611:

_Pol. Econ._, 1836, pp. 218, 223.

Footnote 612:

See Lassalle and Marx.

Footnote 613:

Cf. Malthus, _Pol. Econ._ (1836), pp. 224, 225, &c. _Essay on
Population_, 7th ed., III viii. 323, but especially IV. xiii. 473. See
also Rogers, _Six Centuries_, ch. viii., ‘The Famine and the Plague,’
especially pp. 233–242.

Footnote 614:

Malthus, _Essay on Pop._, IV. xiii. 473; cf. pp. 373 and 434.

Footnote 615:

Cf. especially _Essay on Pop._ (2nd ed.), III. ix. 444. “The price of
labour has been rising—not to fall again.”

Footnote 616:

_Emigr. Comm._ (1827), p. 326, qu. 3411; cf. 3408, 3409. Cf. above, p.
197.

Footnote 617:

The chief of them being the rate of profits which is at the given time
enough to induce the “undertaker” (or “enterpriser”) to continue
business.

Footnote 618:

See Mill on Thornton’s ‘Labour,’ _Fortnightly Review_, May 1869. Cf.
Walker on _The Wages Question_, pp. 140 _seq._

Footnote 619:

So in _Quarterly Review_, Jan. 1824, p. 315, Malthus says profits
depend rather on the demand for produce than on the demand for labour.

Footnote 620:

_Discourse on Pol. Econ._, by J. R. MacCulloch, pp. 61, 62 (1st and
2nd edd.), 1825.

Footnote 621:

_Conversations on Pol. Econ._, 1817 (1st and 2nd edd.), p. 137. Mrs.
Marcet’s memory is preserved for latter-day readers by Macaulay’s
reference to her in the essay on Milton.

Footnote 622:

_Discourse_, _l. c._ Cf. MacC.’s _Pol. Econ._, Pt. III. ch. ii. p. 378
(ed. 1843); Prof. Fawcett’s _Manual of Pol. Econ._, p. 131 (1876).

Footnote 623:

James Mill, _Elem._ (1821), p. 25; John Mill, _Principles_, II. xi. §
1. Cf. _Fort. Rev._, 1869, May; Thornton, _Labour_, II. i. p. 83.

Footnote 624:

_Wealth of Nations_, I. viii. p. 31, 2.

Footnote 625:

_Ibid._, IV. ix. 306, 1.

Footnote 626:

_Ibid._, IV. ix. 310, 2.

Footnote 627:

_Ibid._, V. i. 327, 2.

Footnote 628:

_Pol. Econ._, ed. 1836, ch. iv. sect. ii. p. 224.

Footnote 629:

_Ibid._ ed. 1820, ch. iv. p. 248.

Footnote 630:

_Quarterly Review_, Jan. 1824. Cf. below, p. 288.

Footnote 631:

Supplement to _Encyclopædia Britannica_. Cf. above, p. 71.

Footnote 632:

Empson in _Edin. Rev._, Jan. 1837, p. 496.

Footnote 633:

_Quart. Rev._, Jan. 1824 (no. lx.), pp. 333–4.

Footnote 634:

Ricardo, _Pol. Econ. and Tax._, ch. i. sections iv., v.; _Works_, pp.
20, 25. Cf. Malthus, _Pol. Econ._, 1820, p. 104, and the whole of
section iii. pp. 72 _seq._

Footnote 635:

_Quart. Rev._, _l. c._ p. 324; cf. p. 315. Cf. above.

Footnote 636:

_Pol. Econ. and Tax._, ch. i. sections iv. and v.

Footnote 637:

Any given value, it might be added, is influenced by custom as well as
competition.

Footnote 638:

1821, p. 186, ch. iv. sect. iii. “That consumption is coextensive with
production.”

Footnote 639:

_Pol. Econ._, III. xiv. “Of excess of supply.” Cf. I. v. § 3, p. 42.

Footnote 640:

A cargo of skates was sent to Rio Janeiro in 1808.

Footnote 641:

The intention of the new Corn Law of 1815 was to keep out all foreign
grain till the home price should reach 80_s._ a quarter, or the loaf
1_s._ See above, p. 221.

Footnote 642:

The article on the Bullion question, in August of the same year, might
be his, if it was not Francis Horner’s. Cf. Horner’s _Life_, vol. i.
ch. vi., dates April and Sept. 1805, from which it appears that Horner
was working hard at the question and meant to write on it, as he might
have done better in 1811, fresh from his experience on the Bullion
Committee. As to the February article, the authorship is shown partly
by internal evidence, partly by Horner’s _Life_, vol. ii. p. 68 (Jan.
1811): “I received Malthus’ MS. from you [Jeffrey] and have since
transmitted it to him with such remarks as occurred to me in perusing
it,” &c. MacCulloch did not begin to write the economical articles for
the _Edin. Rev._ till 1818. See _Notes and Queries_, 5th Oct., 1878.

Footnote 643:

For the history of the currency in the interval see Miss Martineau’s
_Introd. to Hist. of Peace_, Bk. II. ch. iii.; _Hist. of the Peace_,
Bk. I. ch. iii. and ch. xv.; Cobbett’s _Paper v. Gold_; Macleod’s
_Banking_, vol. ii., end of ch. ix. pp. 174–221, much the completest
account.

Footnote 644:

Peel changed his views then on Currency, as he did later on Catholic
Emancipation and the Corn Laws.

Footnote 645:

p. 370. He speaks approvingly of the American free trade in banking in
a way that would have pleased Cobden.

Footnote 646:

p. 371.

Footnote 647:

_E. g._ Horner complains of this even in so clear a paper as that on
Newenham. See Horner’s _Life_, vol. i. pp. 436–7 (_sub dato_ 1808).

Footnote 648:

_Works_ (ed. MacC.), pp. 291–296.

Footnote 649:

Ricardo, _Works_ (MacC.), p. xxi.

Footnote 650:

Cf. below, Bk. V.

Footnote 651:

Horner’s _Life_, vol. ii. p. 68 (Jan. 1811).

Footnote 652:

_Thoughts and Details on High and Low Prices during the last Thirty
Years, 1793–1823._ The later ed. of 1838 in three vols. is more
valuable.

Footnote 653:

_Political Register_, 30th Nov., 1816.

Footnote 654:

Internal evidence, _e. g._ p. 237 of the _Quarterly_, compared with p.
65 of _Measure of Value_, would show his authorship, and the article
is ascribed to him by Tooke, _Prices_, ed. 1838, vol. i. p. 21.

Footnote 655:

_l. c._ pp. 215–16.

Footnote 656:

Bosanquet, _Practical Observations on the Report of the Bullion
Committee_ (1810); Ricardo, _The High Price of Bullion a Proof of the
Depreciation of Bank-Notes_ (1809), and his _Reply to Bosanquet_
(1811).

Footnote 657:

_l. c._ _Pol. Econ._, Introd. (1820), pp. 6 and 7 n., (1836) p. 5 n.
Cf. Tooke, _Prices_, Part I. p. 6 (ed. 1823).

Footnote 658:

Tooke, _Prices_, Part III. p. 91.

Footnote 659:

See _Tract on Value_, p. 18.

Footnote 660:

_Quarterly_, April 1823, p. 230.

Footnote 661:

_Econ. Pol._, Part III. ch. ii., 2nd ed., 1842; 1st ed., 1802.

Footnote 662:

“Products” is Say’s word, however.

Footnote 663:

_Elements_ (1821), ch. iv. sect. iii. pp. 186 _seq._ “That consumption
is coextensive with production.” Mill taught this as early as 1808 in
his tract (against Spence) _Commerce defended_.

Footnote 664:

_Lettres à M. Malthus sur différents sujets d’écon. pol., notamment
sur les causes de la stagnation générale du commerce_ (1820), pp. 26
_seq._

Footnote 665:

_Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 355, (1836) p. 316. Against Say’s general
position see _Definitions_, p. 56 n.

Footnote 666:

_Wealth of Nations_, I. iii.

Footnote 667:

See above, p. 232. A curious footnote in _Essay on Pop._, 3rd ed.,
vol. ii. p. 264, suggested that there might be over-production in the
case of high farming when its cost made the farmers charge more than
the public could bear. But this note disappeared afterwards.

Footnote 668:

Ricardo, _Pol. Econ. and Taxation_, ch. xxi. p. 176 (MacCull.’s ed.).
Mill (_Elements_, pp. 193 ft., 194) is more rigid.

Footnote 669:

_Essay_, 7th ed., IV. xiii. 473.

Footnote 670:

_Pol. Econ._ (1836), ch. iv. sect. iii. p. 239, slightly altered from
1st ed., 1820, ch. iv. sect. iii. p. 266.

Footnote 671:

Sismondi, _Nouveaux Principes de l’Écon. Pol._, 1819. See Malthus,
_Pol. Econ._ (1820), p. 420, (1836) pp. 325 n., 366 n. Cf. on the
other hand _Essay_, III. xiii. 372–3 and n.

Footnote 672:

_Wealth of Nations_, V. i. art. ii. pp. 350–353 (ed. MacC.). He is
outrivalled by Ferguson, _Civil Society_, parts iv. and v. (ed. 1773).

Footnote 673:

3rd ed. of _Pol. Ec. and Tax._ (1821), ch. xxxi. pp. 468–9, ed.
MacCull., pp. 235–6. Cf. below (Critics). It is the position of Marx.

Footnote 674:

If we believe Bowring, _Life of Bentham_ (ed. 1843), p. 176.

Footnote 675:

“Supposing that his opinions have not altered within the last twelve
months.”—_De Quincey_, vol. iv. p. 231.

Footnote 676:

James Mill, _Elements_, pp. 193, 194. MacCull., _Pol. Ec._, p. 207.
Cf. the tract _Mordecai Mullion_ (1826).

Footnote 677:

Especially by Sunday Schools, according to the testimony of Samuel
Bamford.—_Radical_, vol. i. p. 7 (1844).

Footnote 678:

We have his counterpart in our own day.

Footnote 679:

See below, Bk. III., for disproof of the charge that he was
reactionary in his politics, like many economical optimists.

Footnote 680:

_Pol. Econ._, 1820, p. 236.

Footnote 681:

_l. c._ p. 472.

Footnote 682:

_Emigr. Comm._ (1827), p. 317, qu. 3281.

Footnote 683:

Some such view is suggested by Malthus himself, _Essay_, IV. xiii. p.
473 (cf. _Pol. Ec._, 1820, p. 475), a passage which it is hard to
reconcile with the passages in the _Quarterly_ and in the _Pol. Ec._
that speak of the necessity of a special class of unproductive
consumers.

Footnote 684:

_Pol. Econ._ (1820), ch. vii. sect. ix. p. 473. Cf. _Tract on Rent_,
p. 48 n.

Footnote 685:

_Essay on Pop._, III. iii. p. 282 (in relation to Robert Owen). Cf.
the whole ch. xiii. of Book III., where he treats of “Increasing
Wealth as it affects the Condition of the Poor.”

Footnote 686:

_Pol. Econ._, _l. c._ p. 474.

Footnote 687:

_Ibid._, _l. c._ pp. 474–5.

Footnote 688:

See above, pp. 245 _seq._ and 252.

Footnote 689:

See below, Bk. IV., and cf. above, p. 208.

Footnote 690:

See above, p. 142.

Footnote 691:

The passage is quoted in full because by recent critics it is much
garbled; _e. g._ in _Progress and Poverty_, VII. i. 304 n.

Footnote 692:

_Essay_, 2nd ed., IV. vi. 531.

Footnote 693:

Lucretius, iii. 951. Cicero’s simile of the theatre open to all
comers, but giving each man his own seat, had special application to
Property (_De Finibus_, iii. 20).

Footnote 694:

Epitaph on Fenton.

Footnote 695:

James Grahame’s _Population_ (1816), p. 34. Cf. _Quarterly Rev._, Dec.
1812, p. 327; Hazlitt, _Spirit of the Age_, ‘Malthus,’ end.

Footnote 696: