Chapter XXII: Appendix: The Tertiary Man (1)

By Professor Henry W. Haynes.

"It must not be imagined that it is in any way proved that the Palæolithic man was the first human being that existed. We must be prepared to wait, however, for further and better authenticated discoveries before carrying his existence back in time further than the Pleistocene or post-Tertiary period."[EW] This was the position assumed more than twelve years ago by the eminent English geologist and archæologist, Dr. John Evans, and it was still maintained in his address before the Anthropological Section of the British Association on September 18, 1890. I believe that the study of all the evidence in favor of the existence of the Tertiary man that has been brought forward down to the present time will leave the question in precisely the same state of uncertainty.

[Footnote EW: _A Few Words on Tertiary Man_, Trans, of Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. i, p. 150.]

"In order to establish the existence of man at such a remote period the proofs must be convincing. It must be shown, first, that the objects found are of human workmanship; secondly, that they are really found as stated; and, thirdly, the age of the beds in which they are found must be clearly ascertained and determined."[EX] These tests I propose to apply to the evidence for the Tertiary man recently brought forward in Europe, and then to consider the significance of certain discoveries on the Pacific coast of our own continent.

[Footnote EX: Ibid., p. 148.]

Tertiary deposits in Europe are alleged to have supplied three sorts of evidence of this fact: _First_, the bones of man himself; _second_, bones of animals showing incisions or fractures supposed to have been produced by human agency; _third_, chipped flints believed to exhibit marks of design in their production.

A very complete survey of the question of the antiquity of man was published in 1883 by M. Gabriel de Mortillet, one of its most eminent investigators, under the title of Le Préhistorique. In that work he subjected to a most rigid examination all the evidence for Tertiary man, coming under either of these three heads, that had been brought forward up to that date.

The instances of the discovery of human bones in Europe were two--at Colle del Vento, in Savona, and Castenedolo, near Brescia, both in Italy. At the former site, in a Pliocene marine deposit abounding in fossil oysters and containing some _scattered_ bones of fossil mammals, a human skeleton was found _with the bones lying in their natural connection_. Mortillet, however, and many others regard this as an instance of a subsequent interment rather than as proof that the man lived in Pliocene times.[EY] At Castenedolo, in a similar marine Pliocene formation, on three different occasions human skeletons have been discovered, but in different strata. One investigator has accounted for these as the result of a shipwreck in the Pliocene period. This bold hypothesis not only requires that man should have been sufficiently advanced at that very remote period to have navigated the sea, but it calls for two shipwrecks, at different times, at the same point. It has, however, since been abandoned by its author in favor of the presumption of subsequent interments, as in the previous instance.[EZ]

[Footnote EY: This is also the opinion of Hamy, _Précis de Paléontologie Humaine_, p. 67. Professor Le Conte, _Elements of Geology_ (third edition, 1891), p. 609, is wrong in attributing the opposite conclusion to Hamy, on the evidence of "flint implements found in this locality."]

[Footnote EZ: Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, tome xv, p. 109 (August 18, 1889).]

Animal bones showing cuts or breaks supposed to be the work of man have been found in seventeen different localities in Europe. They can all, however, be accounted for as the result of natural movements or pressure of the soil acting in connection with sharp substances, like fractured flints, or else as having been made by the teeth of sharks, whose fossil remains are found in great abundance in the same formation.

All the discoveries of flints supposed to show traces of intentional chipping are pronounced to be unsatisfactory, with the exception of those found in three localities--Thenay (near Tours) and Puy-Courny (near Aurillac), in France, and Otta, in the valley of the Tagus, in Portugal. As European archæologists at the present time are substantially in accord with Mortillet in restricting the discussion to these three places, I will follow their example. But although Mortillet believes that flints found at all these localities exhibit marks of intelligent action, he will not admit that they are the work of man. He attributes them to an intelligent ancestor of man, whom he calls by the name of anthropopithecus, or the precursor of man. Of this creature he distinguishes three different species, named respectively after the discoverers of the flints in the three localities just mentioned. The precursor, however, has found up to this time only a very limited acceptance among men of science, although a few believe in him on purely theoretical grounds. The discussion generally turns upon the question whether these flints were chipped intentionally or are the result of natural causes; and also upon the determination of the geological age of the formations in which they are found.

I visited Thenay, the most celebrated of these three localities, in 1877, and had the advantage of studying the question there under the guidance of the late Abbé Bourgeois, the discoverer of the flints, and one of the most prominent advocates of the Tertiary man. This was the year before he died, and he showed me at the time his complete collection, and gave me several of the objects he had discovered. Geologists are agreed in assigning the deposits in which they occur to the lower Miocene or middle Tertiary period, which restricts the discussion to the character of the flints themselves. The accompanying woodcut[FA] gives some indication of their appearance, although it is misleading, because the long figure resembling a flint knife is intended to represent a solid nucleus. None of these objects, however, ought to be called "flints flakes," as very few, if any, flakes showing the "bulb of percussion," always seen upon them, have been discovered in the Tertiary deposits at Thenay,[FB] although I have found them there myself _upon the surface_. The three other figures would be classed by archæologists as "piercers," as Bourgeois has himself designated them, and are also solid objects. Many of the Thenay flints exhibit a "crackled" appearance, due to the action of heat. On this account Mortillet maintains that they were splintered by fire, and not formed by percussion, the usual method by which flint implements were fabricated in the stone age. The Thenay objects are all of very small dimensions, and are so absolutely unlike the large, rudely-chipped axes of the Chellean type, found in so many different parts of the world, and generally accepted as the implement used by Palæolithic man, that the question naturally suggests itself, What could have been the purpose for which these little implements were employed? No better answer has been suggested than the ludicrous one that they were used by the hairy anthropopithecus to rid himself of the vermin with which he was infested.

[Footnote FA: From Le Conte, _op. cit._, p. 608. The figures are copied from Gaudry, who borrowed them from the article by Bourgeois, _Congrès Internat. de Bruxelles_, 1872, p. 89, pl. ii; and from his _La Question de l'Homme Tertiare_. Revue des Questions Scientifiques, 1877, p. 15.]

[Footnote FB: Le Préhistorique, p. 91.]

But, leaving aside the question of their purpose, let us consider the evidence presented by the flints themselves. Do they exhibit the unmistakable traces of intentional chipping produced by a series of slight blows or thrusts, delivered in regular succession and in the same direction, with the result of forming a distinctly marked edge? And does the appearance of the action of fire upon their surface imply the intervention of intelligence? To both questions M. Adrien Arcelin, the well-known geologist of Mâcon, has given very sufficient replies in the negative. He has discovered numerous objects of precisely similar appearance in Eocene deposits in the neighborhood of Mâcon.[FC] But, instead of pushing man back on this account so much further into the past, he accounts for the marks of chipping to be seen on many of these objects as the result of the accidental shocks of one stone against another in the countless overturnings and movements to which the strata have been subjected during the long ages of geological time. He gives photographs of some of these objects, which are to me entirely convincing, and describes how he has surprised Nature in the very act of fabricating them in an abandoned quarry worked in an Eocene deposit. He thinks the "crackled" surfaces can be readily explained as the result of atmospheric action, or of hot springs charged with silex. Numerous examples of similar changes in the surface of flint, that have been noticed by himself and others in different localities, are instanced. Even if some have been caused by fire, this does not necessarily imply the intervention of man to have produced it. Similar discoveries have also been made by M. d'Ault de Mesnil, at Thenay, in Eocene deposits,[FD] and by M. Paul Cabanne, in the Gironde.[FE] My own opinion, based upon the experience of many years spent in the study of flints broken naturally as well as artificially, and upon a careful examination of Bourgeois's collections, is that the so-called Thenay flints are the result of natural causes.

[Footnote FC: Matériaux pour l'Histoire Prim, et Nat. de l'Homme, tome xix, p. 193.]

[Footnote FD: Matériaux, ibid., p. 246.]

[Footnote FE: Id., tome xxii, p. 205.]

The second locality where flints alleged to display marks of human action have been found is the vicinity of Aurillac, in the Auvergne, especially on the flanks of a hill called Puy-Courny. They occur in a conglomerate of the upper Miocene period, and are consequently much later than the Thenay flints. In this conglomerate, in 1869, M. Tardy discovered a worked flint flake which has every appearance of being artificial.[FF] Mortillet, however, says that it was found in the upper surface of the deposit, where there may easily have been a mingling with the Quaternary formation; and it certainly resembles worked flakes, which are not uncommon in the Quaternary. The geological determination of the find may consequently be regarded as uncertain.

[Footnote FF: See Matériaux, tome vi, p. 94. S. Reinach, however, _Description Raison. du Musée de Saint-Germain-en-Laye_, i, p. 107, n. 8, calls it "gravure inexacte."]

The flints discovered at Puy-Courny by M. Barnes are of small dimensions, and have all been produced by percussion. Many of them are said to bear some resemblance to pointed flakes of artificial origin, and one has been figured, probably selected for its excellence.[FG] It is by no means convincing to me, and I am not at all surprised that so many archæologists question the artificial character of these objects, which exhibit a great variety of forms. Upon this point Rames does not profess to be qualified to pronounce judgment, limiting himself solely to the geological questions. He argues, however, that the fact that all the objects supposed to be artificial are made of the best qualities of flint, of which implements are ordinarily made, although fragments of inferior quality are abundant in the same formation, implies the intervention of man's judgment in making the selection. But M. Boule shows that this is merely the result of the erosion of an ancient river, which operated only upon the upper beds, in which alone the better qualities of flint are to be found; and Rames has accepted this explanation.[FH] The flints of Puy-Courny seem to fall within the same category as those of Thenay. They are the product of denudation, have travelled long distances, and have been subjected to the action of powerful agents. These causes are sufficient to account for the shocks of which they show the traces, and to explain the production of splinters arising therefrom.

[Footnote FG: Matériaux, tome xviii, p. 400.]

[Footnote FH: Revue d'Anthropologie (third series), tome iv, p. 217.]

The last locality in which flints claimed to have been manufactured by the Tertiary man are supposed to have been discovered is the so-called desert of Otta, in the valley of the Tagus, not far from Lisbon.

The formation there is a lacustrine deposit of great thickness, belonging to the upper Miocene, and abounding in flint. Here, during the course of twenty years, M. Ribeiro discovered, but mostly upon the surface, a large number of flakes of flint and quartzite. After much debate in regard to them, ninety-five of them were finally sent by him to Paris, in 1878, and placed in the archæological department of the great exposition. There they were to be submitted to the judgment of the assembled prehistoric archæologists of all nationalities, many of whom, including the writer, availed themselves of the opportunity of carefully studying them. The judgment of Mortillet is that twenty-two specimens exhibited unmistakable traces of intentional chipping, in which opinion I entirely concur. Only nine, however, were represented as coming from the Miocene, some of which showed on their surface an incrustation of grit, which was claimed as proof of their origin. But the opinion was freely expressed that, even if they really came from the Miocene deposits, they might have penetrated into them from the surface, through cracks, and thus have become so incrusted. It was accordingly resolved to hold the next international congress of prehistoric archæologists at Lisbon, in 1880, mainly for the purpose of settling this question, if possible, by an investigation conducted upon the spot. In the course of a visit made at that time to Otta, several artificial specimens were found on the surface by different searchers, but Professor Bellucci, of Perugia, was fortunate enough to discover a flint flake _in situ_, still so closely imbedded in the deposit that it required to be detached by a hammer. There is no question that this object was actually found in a Miocene deposit, but unfortunately it belongs to the doubtful category of external flakes, which, although they exhibit the "bulb of percussion," have no other sure indication that they are the work of man.[FI] As such bulbs can be produced by natural causes, some stronger proof than this of the existence of Tertiary man is demanded.

[Footnote FI: It has been figured by Bellucci, _Archivio per l'Anthropologia e la Etnologia di Firenze_, tome xi, p. 12, tav. iv, fig. 2. To me it possesses no value as evidence.]

These are all the localities in Europe claimed by Mortillet to have furnished such evidence, but he thinks a strong confirmation of it is afforded by certain discoveries made in the auriferous gravels of California. I will not occupy space here in repeating arguments I have brought forward elsewhere to show the utter insufficiency of this evidence to prove the existence of man on the Pacific coast of our continent during the Pliocene period,[FJ] They may all be summed up in the words of Le Conte: "The doubts in regard to this extreme antiquity of man are of three kinds, viz.: 1. Doubts as to the Pliocene age of the gravels--they may be early Quaternary. 2. Doubts as to the authenticity of the finds--no scientist having seen any of them in situ. 3. Doubts as to the undisturbed conditions of the gravels, for auriferous gravels are especially liable to disturbance. The character of the implements said to have been found gives peculiar emphasis to this last doubt, _for they are not Paleolithic_, but Neolithic."[FK] The question has been raised whether this archæological objection is applicable to the stone mortars, numerous examples of which have been found in the gravels, some of them quite recently.[FL] If the evidence brought forward by Professor Whitney and others were limited to these mortars, it might very well be claimed that they are neither Palæolithic nor Neolithic; that the smoothness of their surface is owing to their having been hollowed out of pebbles that have been polished and worn by natural forces. But Professor Whitney has cited numberless instances of "spear-heads," "arrow-heads," "discoidal stones," "stone beads," and "a hatchet" that have been found under precisely similar conditions as the mortars. So Mr. Becker has recently produced an affidavit of a certain Mr. Neale that in a tunnel run into the gravel in 1877 "between two hundred and three hundred feet beyond the edge of the solid lava, he saw several spear-heads nearly one foot in length."[FM] Now it cannot be questioned that such objects as these clearly belong to the Neolithic period, which does not imply that all the objects used at that time were polished, but that together with chipped implements "polished stone implements were also used."[FN] No archæologist will believe that, while Palæolithic man has not yet been discovered in the Tertiary deposits of western Europe, the works of Neolithic man have been found in similar deposits in western America. Peculiar difficulties seem to surround the evidence brought forward in support of such an assumption. We are told by Professor Whitney that a stone mortar was "found standing upright, and the pestle was in it, in its proper place, just as it had been left by the owner." He fails, however, to explain how this was brought about in a gravel deposit supposed to have been laid down by great floods of water. So, when Mr. Neale swears that he saw fifteen years ago in the same gravels spear-heads a great deal larger than those known to archæologists, may we not ask whether reliance can be placed on the memory of witnesses who testify to impossibilities to justify conclusions that rest upon such testimony? I think we shall have to wait for further and better evidence than this before we are called upon to admit that the existence of the Tertiary man upon our Pacific coast has been established.

[Footnote FJ: _The Prehistoric Archæology of North America_, Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. i, pp. 850-356.]

[Footnote FK: Le Conte, _op. cit._, p. 614.]

[Footnote FL: Professor George Frederick Wright, _Prehistoric Man on the Pacific Coast_, Atlantic Monthly, April, 1891, p. 512; _Table Mountain Archæology_, Nation, May 21, 1891, p. 419.]

[Footnote FM: _Antiquities from under Tuolome Table Mountain in California_, Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. ii, p. 192.]

[Footnote FN: Le Conte, _op. cit._, p. 607.]

INDEX.

Aar Glacier, 11, 43, 132.
Abbeville, France, 251, 263.
Abbott, C. C, cited, 242, 245.
Adams, Charles Francis, cited, 297.
Adhémar, cited, 307, 310.
Africa, ancient glaciers of, 191.
Agassiz, Louis, cited, 9, 11, 43, 128, 241.
Ailsa Crag, 167, 168.
Akron. Ohio, 220, 221.
Alaska, 1, 22, 23 _et seq._, 47, 212, 283;
climate of, 291, 302.
Aletsch Glacier, 9, 211, 241.
Alleghany Valley, 206, 214;
terraces in, 229.
Alpine glaciers, existing, 9-11, 43 _et seq._;
size and number of, 9;
depth of, 11;
velocity of, 43 _et seq._;
ancient, 58-60, 131-136;
advance and retreat of, 116.
Alps, 1, 9-11, 43 _et seq._, 58 _et seq._, 91, 131 _et seq._, 211;
age of, 328.
Altaville, Cal, 296.
Amazon Valley, temperature of, 316.
Amherst, Ohio, glacial marks near, 52.
Amiens, France, implements from, 252, 263 _et seq._;
terraces at, 360.
Andes, 17, 330;
age of, 328.
Andover, Mass., 77 _et seq._, 345.
Andrews, cited, 345, 347, 354, 356.
Animals, extinct, associated with man in eastern America, 262;
in France, 263;
in England, 264 _et seq._;
in Wales, 272;
in Belgium, 277 _et seq._;
summary concerning, 281-293.
Animals, relics of, in loess, 188.
Antarctic Continent, existing glaciers of, 1, 18 _et seq._
Arcy, Belgium, grotto at, 279.
Arenig Mawr, Wales, 150, 151, 172.
Argillite implement, face and side view of, 247, 259.
Arnhem, Holland, moraine at, 181.
Asia, existing glaciers in, 14 _et seq._;
ancient glaciers of, 190.
Assiniboine River, 228.
Astronomical theories of the Glacial period, 303 _et seq._
Atlantic Ocean, 314.
Aurillac, supposed flint-chips near, 367, 370.
Australia, ancient glaciers of, 126, 192.
Austria, existing glaciers of, 9.
Auvergne, 136.

Babbitt, Miss F. E., cited, 253, 254, 255.
Bakewell on age of Niagara gorge, 337.
Baldwin, C. C, 251.
Baldwin, P., 25.
Ball, cited, 310, 317.
Baltic Sea, 129.
Barnsley, England, 155.
Bates, cited, 204.
Bear, 270, 287, 290.
Bear, grizzly, 270, 288.
Beaver, 289.
Beaver Creek, Pa., 205, 230, 232.
Becker, cited, 296, 300, 349.
Bedford, England, 265.
Beech Flats, Ohio, terrace at, 217.
Belgium, human relics in glacial terraces in, 264;
caverns of, 274.
Bell, cited, 109, 117;
on unity of the Glacial period, 110.
Bellevue, Pa., glacial terrace on the Ohio at, 217.
Bellucci, cited, 372.
Ben Nevis, 240.
Bernese Oberland, 9, 59, 131, 132.
Big Stone Lake, 208, 226.
Birmingham. England, 150.
Bishop, cited. 306.
Bison, 262, 270, 271, 278, 289.
Black Forest, the, 136.
Black River, Ohio, 343.
Black Sea, 238.
Blanc, Mont, 1, 9-11, 132, 211.
Blandford, cited, 312.
Boone County, Ky., glacial deposits in, 212.
Boston, scratched stone from till of, 54;
drumlins in the vicinity of, 75.
Boston Society of Natural History, 296.
Boulder-clay. (See Till.)
Boulders, disintegrated, 57, 71.
Boulders, distribution of, in New-England, 57, 60, 61, 69 _et seq._;
in Switzerland, 58 _et seq._, 133.
Boulders, transportation of, in Pennsylvania, 57, 61, 85;
in New Hampshire, 60, 71;
in Kentucky, 63, 97;
in Ohio, 64, 72;
in Rhode Island, 67;
in Massachusetts, 69 _et seq._;
in Connecticut, 71, 72;
in New Jersey, 83;
in Illinois, 97.
Bourgeois, Abbé, cited, 367.
Bridgenorth, England, 150.
Bridlington, England, 156, 158.
Bristol Channel, 138, 178.
British Columbia, 1, 23, 121 _et seq._, 194, 198.
British Isles, ancient glaciers of, 136-181;
preglacial level of land in, 139-141;
preglacial climate in 141, 142;
great glacial centres--
Wales, 143;
Ireland, 143;
Galloway, 144;
Lake District, 144;
Pennine Chain, 144;
confluent glaciers--
Irish Sea Glacier, 145-153;
Solway Glacier, 153-158;
East Anglian Glacier, 158;
Isle of Man, 164-167;
the so-called Great Submergence, 167-180;
dispersion of erratics of Shap granite, 180, 181;
drainage of, 238;
caverns of, 267;
climate of, 314.
Brixham Cave, 267 _et seq._
Bromsgrove, England, 150.
Brooklyn, N. Y., 66, 67.
Brown, on glaciers of Greenland, 40, 41.
Brown's Valley, 226.
Bruce, skull of, 276.
Buried forests in America, 107 _et seq._
Buried outlets and channels, 199-210;
of Lake Erie, 201, 333;
of Lake Huron, 202;
of Lake Ontario, 202;
of Lake Superior, 203;
of Lake Michigan, 203;
in southwestern Ohio, 203;
near Cincinnati, 203;
near Louisville, Ky., 205;
in the Tuscarawas Valley, 205;
in the valley of the Beaver, 205;
of oil Creek, 205;
in the valley of the Alleghany, 206;
of Chautauqua Lake, 207;
near Minneapolis, 208.
Burton, England, 164.
Busk, cited, 267.
Buttermere, England, 153, 168.

Cache Valley, Utah, 233.
Cae Gwyn Cave, 148, 271 _et seq._, 280.
Caithness, Scotland, 180.
Calaveras skull, 295, 300.
California, 21, 124, 281, 287, 294, 358, 372.
Cambridgeshire, England, 158.
Canada, 94, 95.
Canstadt, man of, 279.
Canton, Ohio, 232.
Cape St. Roque, 31 3.
Caribbean Sea, 318.
Caribou, 262.
Carll, cited, 205, 207.
Carpathian Mountains, 136, 328.
Carpenter, F. R., cited, 321, 322.
Cascade Range, 21.
Caspian Sea, 238.
Cattaraugus Creek, N. Y., 220.
Caucasus Mountains, 15;
age of, 328.
Cave-bear, 269-271, 278, 280;
hyena, 269, 270, 278;
lion, 269-271, 278.
Caverns, British, 267-274;
on the Continent, 274-281.
Cefn Cave, 148, 271.
Cenis, Mont, 135.
Centres of glacial dispersion, 304 _et seq._, 323 _et seq._, 328;
in America, 113, 121;
in Europe, 129 _et seq._;
in the British Isles, 142 _et seq._
Cevennes, 136.
Chamberlin, T. C, terminal moraine of second Glacial epoch, 93,
98 _et seq._;
on driftless area, 102, 103;
cited, 110, 218, 229, 307;
on Cincinnati ice-dam, 218.
Chamois, 289, 290.
Chamouni, 132.
Charpentier, 9, 59.
Chasseron, 58, 132.
Chautauqua Lake, buried outlet of, 207.
Chenango River, 220.
Cheshire, England, 149,153,178,180.
Cheyenne River, 228.
Chicago, Ill., 346.
Chimpanzee, skull of, 276.
Chur, 133.
Cincinnati, buried channels near, 203 _et seq._;
glacial dam at, 212 _et seq._;
terraces at, 231.
Clarksburg, W. Va., 216.
Claymont, Del., 258 _et seq._;
view of implement found near, 259.
Claypole, cited, 200, 219, 221.
Climate of Glacial period, 291.
Clwyd, vale of, 147 _et seq._. 271 _et seq._
Clyde, the, 144.
Collett, cited, 107.
Colorado, 123, 124.
Columbia deposit, 245, 254 _et seq._
Columbiana County, Ohio, 232.
Comstock, cited, 307.
Conewango Creek, 232;
ancient depth of, 206.
Connecticut, 71, 72, 74, 91.
Conyers, cited, 265.
Cook on subsidence in New Jersey, 196.
Cope, cited, 288.
Cordilleran Glacier, 121 _et seq._
Corswall, England, 312.
Cows, 268.
Cresson, cited, 251, 258 _et seq._
Crevasses. (See Fissures.)
Croll, cited, 304, 307 _et seq._, 332, 362.
Cro-Magnon, rock shelter of, 281.
Cromer, England, 160.
Crosby, on composition of till, 81 _et seq._
Cross Fell escarpment, 153, 180.
Culoz, 132.
Cumberland, England, 146, 153, 168, 173.
Gumming, quoted, 166.
Gushing, H., 26
Cuyahoga River, 220, 221;
buried channel of, 200.

Dana, Professor J. D., on depth of ice, 91;
on driftless area, 102;
cited, 320, 363.
Danube, ancient glaciers of the, 129, 134, 188.
Darent, valley of, 265.
Darrtown, Ohio, 107.
Darwin, Charles, cited, 17, 126, 170, 241, 361.
Darwin, George G., cited, 361.
Darwin, Mrs. M. J., mortar owned by, 297.
Date of Glacial period, chapter on, 332-364.
Davidson Glacier, 23.
Davis on drumlins, 75.
Dawkins, cited, 238, 267, 269, 291.
Dawson, G. M., cited, 121;
on ice-movements, 97;
on oscillation of land-level, 125, 126.
Dawson, Sir William, on the fiord of the Saguenay, 197;
cited, 285.
Dee, the river, 149.
Deeley, quoted, 164.
Delaware River, 232, 242 _et seq._, 254, 258;
section across the, 245.
Delta terrace at Trenton, N. J., 242 _et seq._;
at Beaver, Pa., 230.
De Ranee, cited, 272.
Derbyshire, England, 270.
Desor on age of Niagara gorge, 337.
Diore, glaciers of the, 135.
Disintegration, amount of, near glacial margin, 117, 118.
Diss, England, 266.
Dnieper, the, 185, 188.
Don, the, 185, 188.
Dora Baltea, 134.
Dover, N. H., section of kame near, 77.
Dover, Straits of, 238.
Drave, glaciers in the, 134.
Drainage systems in the Glacial period, 335, 339, 340, 343, 344;
chapter on, 193-241.
Drayson, cited, 317.
Driftless area in the Mississippi Valley, 101, 102.
Drumlins, description of, 73 _et seq._;
view of, 73;
occurrence of, in Massachusetts, 73;
in New Hampshire, 74;
in Connecticut, 74;
in New York, 74, 94;
in the British Isles, 74, 137, 167.
Dunbar, Scotland, 312.
Dupont, cited, 279.
Du Quoin, Ill., 98, 119.
D'Urville, 20.
Düsseldorf, 275.

Eagle, Wis., view of kettle-moraine near, 99.
East Anglian Glacier, 158-164.
Eccentricity of the earth's orbit, 308.
Eden Valley, 180.
Eggischorn, 211, 241.
Eguisheim, skull found at, 279.
Elephant, 265, 280, 282, 283, 292.
Elevation, preglacial, 112, 194, 198;
the cause of the Glacial period, 113, 320-331;
about the Great Lakes, 224;
in the latitude of New York, 261.
Elyria, Ohio, 342.
Engis skull, view of, 274.
England. (See British Isles.)
Enville, England, 150.
Erosion, preglacial, 193 _et seq._
Erosion in river valleys, 198, 329, 332.
Erzgebirge, 136, 181.
Europe, existing glaciers in, 9, _et seq._, 43 _et seq._;
ancient glaciers of, 129-190;
former elevation of, 238;
ice-dams in, 360.
Evans, cited, 263, 267, 354, 365.

Falconer, cited, 263.
Falls of St Anthony, 200.
Faudel, cited, 279.
Fiesch, Switzerland, 131, 211.
Filey Brigs;, Eng., 155.
Finchley, Eng., 158, 159.
Finger Lakes, 94.
Finsteraarhorn, 9.
Fiords, 194 _et seq._;
of Greenland, 212.
Fissures in glacial ice, 3, 48, 49.
Flamborough, 140, 156, 157, 176.
Florida, 314.
Flower, cited 263.
Forbes, 9, 38, 43, 44, 48.
Forel, M., cited, 116.
Fort Snelling, Mississippi gorge at, 208, 340 _et seq._
Fort Wayne, Incl., 220, 224.
Foshay, cited, 119.
Fox, 270, 289, 290.
Fraipont, cited, 275 _et seq._
France, existing glaciers of, 19;
ancient glaciers of, 136;
glacial gravels of, 262 _et seq._
Frankley Hill, England, 150.
Franklin, Pa., 230, 232.
Franz-Josef Land, 14.
Frederickshaab Glacier, 91, 212.
Frere, cited, 266.
Frickthal, 133.
Frondeg, Wales, 149, 178.

Gabb, cited, 318.
Galloway, ancient glaciers of, 144, 145, 154, 157, 167, 168, 173.
Garda, Lake, moraine in front of, 135.
Garonne, the, 136, 188.
Gaudry, cited, 263.
Geikie, Archibald, cited, 272, 312.
Geikie, James, on kames, 76;
on loess, 187, 188;
cited, 291 _et seq._, 307, 353.
Genesee River, 220.
Geological time, 361 _et seq._
Georgian Bay, 339.
German Ocean, 129.
Germantown, Ohio, 107, 108.
Germany, North, moraine in, 181, 183;
glacial lakes in, 238;
Quaternary animals in, 279.
Gietroz Glacier, 211.
Gilbert, cited, 233 _et seq._, 350 _et seq._;
on age of Niagara gorge, 339.
Glacial dispersion. (See Centres of Glacial Dispersion.)
Glacial boundary in New England, 67;
in New Jersey, 83;
in Pennsylvania, 84 _et seq._;
in New York, 84;
in Ohio, 95, 100, 106;
in Kentucky, 96;
in Indiana, 96;
in Illinois, 96, 100;
in Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Montana, South Dakota, 96;
in Minnesota, 101;
in British Isles, 137, 148, 150, 151, 155, 167;
in Holland, 181;
in Germany, 181, 183;
in Russia, 181, 189.
Glacial erosion, 118, 119, 182.
Glacial ice, depth of, in Pennsylvania, 90 _et seq._;
in Connecticut, 91;
in New York. 91;
in Greenland, 91;
in the Alps, 91, 131, 133, 182;
in Germany, 182;
in Norway, 182;
amount of, 330.
Glacial lakes in Germany, 283.
Glacial motion, limit of, 2;
chapter on, 43-50;
plastic theory of, 48.
Glacial outlets of the Great Lakes, 220-222.
Glacial periods, cause of, 113;
chapter on, 302-331;
date of, chapter on, 332-364.
Glacial periods, supposed succession of, 106 _et seq._, 311, 324-326,
332;
criticisms of the theory, 116 _et seq._
Glacial striæ. (See Rock-Scoring.)
Glacial terraces, 229-238;
in Pennsylvania, 87 _et seq._, 215, 217, 229, 230;
in New York, 88; at Beech Flats, Ohio, 217;
at Granville, Ohio, 227;
on the Minnesota River, 228;
around Great Salt Lake, 233 _et seq._;
on Delaware River, 243 _et seq._;
in Europe, 238-241;
in Ohio, 249 _et seq._;
human relics in, 241-267;
on Delaware River, 245;
of the Mississippi River, 254;
in France, 263 _et seq._, 360;
in England, 264 _et seq._;
in Belgium, 264;
in Spain, 264;
in Portugal, 264;
in Italy, 264;
in Greece, 264.
Glacial theory, crucial tests of, 62, 65, 257, 302 _et seq._
Glaciation, signs of past, chapter on, 51 _et seq._
Glacier Bay, 24;
map of, 25.
Glacier, denned, 2;
formation of, 3;
characterised by veins and fissures, 3;
advance and retreat of, 116;
velocity of, in the Alps, 43 _et seq._;
in Greenland, 36, 46-48;
in Alaska, 47.
Glaciers, ancient, in North America, 66-128;
in Central and Northern Europe, 58-60, 131-136;
in the British Isles, 136-181;
in Northern Europe, 181-190;
in Australia, 126, 192;
in Asia, 190, 191;
in Africa. 191, 192.
Glaciers, existing, in the Alps, 9 _et seq._, 43 _et seq._;
in Scandinavia, 12;
in Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and Franz-Josef Land, 12;
in Iceland, 14;
in Asia, 14 _et seq._;
in Oceanica, 16;
in South America, 17;
in Antarctic Continent, 18 _et seq._;
in North America, 20 _et seq._;
in Greenland, 32 _et seq._, 46, 48, 364.
Glen Roy, parallel roads of, 239.
Glutton, 293.
Goat, 268.
Goffstown, N. H., 73.
Grafton, W. Va., 214.
Grand Haven, Mich., 346.
Granville, Ohio, terrace at, 227, 343.
Grape Creek, Col., view of moraines of, 123.
Great Bend, Pa., depth of river-channel at, 206.
Great Lakes, depth of, 115; formation of, 199 _et seq._;
glacial outlets of, 220-222;
elevation about, 224.
Great Salt Lake, Utah, 233 _et seq._, 350.
Greece, human relics in glacial terraces of, 264.
Greenland, existing glaciers of, 1, 32 _et seq._, 46, 48,364;
map of, 33;
climate of, 302.
Gross Glockner, 9, 134.
Ground ice, 357.
Gulf of Mexico, 313, 318.
Gulf Stream, 13, 311, 313, 317 _et seq._
Guyot, 9, 58, 133.

Haas, 16.
Hall, on the age of Niagara, 336.
Hare, 289.
Harrison, quoted, 167.
Harte, Bret, cited, 296.
Hartz Mountains, 136, 181.
Hayes, 36.
Haynes on Tertiary Man, 365-374.
Heald Moor, England, 147.
Hebrides, the, 136.
Heim, 9.
Helland, 14, 46-48.
Hennepin, cited, 340.
Heme Bay, England, 265.
Herschel, cited, 310.
Hertfordshire, England, 158.
Hicks, Dr. II., cited, 272.
Hicks, L. E., cited, 343.
Himalayas, 1,45, 292, 330;
age of, 328.
Hingham, Mass., section of kame near, 79.
Hippopotamus, 263, 265, 271, 280, 284, 285, 290, 292.
Hitchcock, C. II., discovery of boulders on Mount Washington, 60;
on drumlins, 73;
cited, 309, 313.
Hitchcock, E., on kames, 77.
Holland, terminal moraine in, 181.
Holderness, 157.
Hooker, cited, 191.
Horse, 188, 263, 268-270, 272, 278, 280, 288, 289.
Horseheads, N. Y., 220.
Horseshoe Fall, 337 _et seq._
Hottentot skull, 276.
Hoxney, England, 266.
Hudson River, preglacial channel of, 194 _et seq._
Hugi, 9, 43.
Hungary, Quaternary animals in, 279.
Huxley, cited, 276, 278.
Hyena, 271, 272, 282, 291, 292.

Ibex, 289.
Icebergs, 18, 20;
formation of, 28.
Ice, characteristics of, 2, 48 _et seq._, 302 _et seq._;
transporting power of moving, 5.
Ice-dams, 211-228;
in the Alps, 211;
in the Himalayas, 211;
in Greenland, 212;
in Alaska, 212;
at Cincinnati, 213 _et seq._;
across the Mohawk, 92, 220, 334, 335;
in the Red River of the North, 225;
in Europe, 360.
Iceland, existing glaciers of, 1, 14.
Ice-pillars, 6, 27.
Ice-sheet, retreat of, 333 _et seq._
Idaho, 122; lava-beds of, 297.
Illicilliwaet Glacier, 23.
Illinois, 96-98, 100, 119, 121, 345 _et seq._
Indiana, 96, 98, 107, 119, 121.
Indian Ridge, 80.
Iowa, 98, 101.
Ireland, ancient glaciers of, 143.
Irish elk, 270, 278, 288.
Irish Sea Glacier, 137, 145-153, 164, 271.
Irthing, valley of the, 153.
Isère, glaciers of the, 132.
Isle of Man, 164-167.
Isle of Wight, 266.
Italy, existing glaciers of, 9;
ancient glaciers of, 185;
human relics in glacial terraces of, 264;
supposed Tertiary man in, 366.
Ivrea, 134.

Jackson, cited, 357.
Jackson's Lake, 123.
Jakobshavn Glacier, velocity of, 46, 47;
depth of, 91;
ice-dams of, 212.
James, cited, 204.
James River, Dak., 228.
James River, Va., 257.
Jamieson, cited, 330.
Jensen, 91.
Judge's Cave, 72.
Jura Mountains, ancient glaciers of, 58-60, 132.

Kames, formation of, 7, 76, 77;
of Muir Glacier, 29, 30;
in Massachusetts, 77 _et seq._;
in New Hampshire, 80;
map of, in Maine, 81;
in Pennsylvania, 87.
Kanawha River, 216.
Kane, 36-38.
Kansas, 96.
Kelly's Island, view of grooves on, 103, 105.
Kendall, chapter by. 137-181;
cited, 273.
Kent, England, 265.
Kent's Hole, 267 _et seq._, 352 _et seq._
Kentucky, 63, 96, 97, 212;
view of boulder in, 63.
Kentucky River, 214.
Kettle-holes, formation of, 7, 68;
of Muir Glacier, 29, 30;
in New England, 66 _et seq._, 344, 345;
in Pennsylvania, 86;
sedimentation of, 333, 344 _et seq._
Kettle-moraine in Wisconsin, 100.
King, 21, 351;
implement discovered by, 297.
Knox County, Ohio, 232.
Kurtz, Nam pa image discovered by, 297.

Lake Agassiz, 126, 223, 225;
continuance of, 347 _et seq._
Lake Bonneville, 233 _et seq._, 299, 350 _et seq._
Lake Constance, 60, 133.
Lake Erie, origin of, 200 _et seq._;
ridges around, 222;
preglacial outlet of, 200, 333.
Lake Geneva during the Glacial period, 131, 132.
Lake Huron, preglacial outlet of, 202;
ridges around, 224.
Lake Itasca, 254.
Lake Lahontan, 233, 234.
Lake Michigan, age of, 345 _et seq._
Lake Nipissing, 339.
Lake Ontario, origin of, 201 _et seq._
Lake Traverse, 208, 226.
Lake District, England, the, 144.
Lake dwellings in Switzerland, 281.
Lake ridges, 222 _et seq._
Lakes, sedimentation of, 333, 344 _et seq._
Lamplugh, glacial observations of, 140, 196.
Lancashire, 153, 178, 180.
Lancaster, Ohio, 232.
Lang, cited, 116.
Lark, England, valley of the, 266.
Lateral moraines, 5.
Laurentide Glacier, 113 _et seq._, 121, 321.
Lava on the Pacific coast of North America, 294, 298, 300, 306, 321.
Lawrence, Mass., 80.
Lawrenceburg, Ind., 231, 232.
Le Conte, cited, 286, 322 _et seq._, 330, 372.
Leicestershire, England, 158.
Lehigh River, 243.
Lemming, 289.
Lenticular hills, 73.
Leopard, 282.
Lesley, cited, 215.
Lesse, Belgium, valley of the, 279.
Leverett, cited, 101, 218.
Lewis, on transported boulders, 57, 61;
work of, in Pennsylvania, 84, 119;
in Great Britain, 137;
cited, 254 _et seq._, 273.
Lickey Hills, 151.
Licking River, 214.
Liége, Belgium, 274.
Lincolnshire, England, 158.
Lindenkohl on old channel of the Hudson, 195 _et seq._
Lion, 282, 293.
Little Beaver Creek, 231, 232.
Little Falls, Minn., 225, 232, 252, 254.
Little Falls, N. Y., buried channel near, 202.
Livingston, Mont., 122.
Llangollen, vale of, 151.
Loess in the Mississippi Valley, 98, 119, 120;
in Europe, 186 _et seq._
Lohest, cited, 275 _et seq._
Lombardy, 134.
London, 158, 159, 178;
glacial terrace in, 264.
Long Island, 66, 67.
Louisville, Ky., buried channel near, 205.
Loveland, Ohio, 232, 250.
Lubbock, cited, 267.
Lucerne, 133.
Lyell, on Richmond train of boulders, 70;
cited, 239, 263, 267, 274, 276, 285, 355, 361;
on the age of Niagara, 336.
Lyons, 132.

Maack, cited, 318.
Macclesfield, England, 273.
MacEnery, cited, 267.
Machairodus, 270, 282.
Mackintosh, quoted, 149, 150, 173.
Mâcon, France, 369.
McTarnahan, mortar discovered, by 297.
Madison boulder, 71.
Madisonville, Ohio, 232, 250, 254.
Magdalena Bay, 13.
Mahoning River, 220.
Maine, 80; re-elevation of, 331.
Malaspina Glacier, map of, 31.
Mammoth, 188, 190, 263, 265, 269-272, 278, 280, 283-285, 287, 292, 293.
Man, relics of, in the Glacial period, chapter on, 242-301;
in glacial terraces of the United States, 242-262;
of Europe, 262-267;
in cave deposits of British Isles, 148, 267-274;
of the Continent, 274-281;
under lava-beds of the Pacific coast of North America, 294-301;
extinct animals associated with, 281-293.
Manitoba, 97.
Mankato, Minn., 229.
Marcilly, skull at, 279.
Marietta, Ohio, 231.
Marmot, 289, 293.
Marsh Creek Valley, Utah, 233.
Martigny, ancient glaciers near, 59, 60, 131, 211.
Massachusetts, 67 _et seq._, 73, 77 _et seq._, 81, 344, 345.
Mastodon, 262, 278, 285, 286.
Mattmark See, 211.
Maumee River, 220.
McGee, cited, 245, 254 _et seq._
Medial moraines, formation of, 6;
of Muir Glacier, 27;
in Ohio, 100.
Medlicott, cited, 312.
Medora, Ind., 232, 251, 254.
Menai Straits, 145.
Mentone, skeleton of, 281.
Mer de Glace, 11, 44.
Merjelen See, 211, 241.
Mersey, the, 140.
Meteorites, 305.
Metz, cited, 250.
Meuse, valley of, 274 _et seq._
Miami, the Great, 204, 220.
Miami, the Little, 231, 250.
Millersburg, Ohio, 232.
Mills, cited, 251.
Minneapolis, 232; buried outlet near, 208;
recession of falls at, 210, 340 _et seq._, 364.
Minnehaha, Falls of, 342.
Minnesota, 101, 107, 252 _et seq._;
lakes of, 344.
Minnesota River, a glacial outlet, 208, 225, 228, 342.
Miocene epoch, animals of the, 285.
Mississippi River, gorge of, at Fort Snelling, 208, 364;
terraces on, 229;
erosion by, 329;
glacial drainage of, 335, 340.
Missouri Coteau, 101, 126, 228.
Missouri, 96, 98, 119.
Moel Tryfaen, 145, 167 _et seq._, 178, 273.
Mohawk River, glacial drainage of, 92, 202, 335;
ice-dam across, 220, 334, 335.
Mohegan Bock, 71; view of, 72.
Monongahela River, 214 _et seq._
Montaigle, valley of the, 279.
Montana, 96.
Montreal, re-elevation of, 331.
Moose, 262.
Moraines, formation of, 6;
in Wisconsin, 98-100;
in Italy, 134, 135;
between Speeton and Flamborough, 156;
in Germany, 183.
Morecambe Bay, 146, 180.
Morgantown, W. Va., 215.
Morlot, cited, 354.
Mortillet, cited, 366, 369, 372.
Morvan, the, 136.
Moulins, formation of, 7.
Mount Shasta, 21.
Mount Washington, 61.
Mueller Glacier, 17.
Muir Glacier, 24 _et seq._. 47, 68, 212;
view of front of, 26.
Muir, John, 24.
Muskingum River, 220, 231.
Musk ox, 262, 280.
Musk sheep, 289, 290, 293.

Nampa image, 297 _et seq._
Nansen, 39, 41.
Naulette, jaw found at, 278, 279.
Neale, implements discovered by, 296, 373.
Neanderthal skull, 275 _et seq._
Nebraska, 96.
Nelson River, 349.
Neufchâtel, 133.
Nevada, 124; lakes of, 233.
Névé-field defined, 3.
Newark, Ohio, 232.
Newberry on the preglacial drainage of the Hudson, 195 _et seq._;
on the formation of the Great Lakes, 202 _et seq._;
cited, 320.
Newburg, N. Y., 286.
New Comerstown, implement from, 232, 250, 251 _et seq._, 254.
New England, 57, 60, 61, 91;
ancient glaciers in, 66-83.
New Hampshire, 69, 71, 74, 80.
New Harmony, Ind., 232.
New Jersey, 83.
New Lisbon, Ohio, 232.
New York, 74, 84, 88, 91, 92 _et seq._
New York Bay, 184, 197, 249.
New Zealand, 1, 126, 192, 330.
Niagara gorge, age of, 333 _et seq._;
section of strata along the, 336.
Nile River, 285.
Nordenskiöld, 32, 34.
Norfolk, England, 161.
North America, existing glaciers in, 20 _et seq._
North Sea, 238.
Norway, climate of, 314.
Nottingham, England, 164.
Nova Zembla, 14.

Oberlin, Ohio, 64, 344.
Oceanica, existing glaciers of, 16, 17.
Ohio River, glacial terrace, 217, 229.
Ohio, 64,72, 95, 98, 100, 103, 106,107-117, 119, 217, 249 _et seq._,
343, 344.
Oil Creek, 205, 232.
Olmo, skull at, 279.
Oregon, 21, 124.
Orme's Head, Little, 147.
Orton, cited, 72, 107.
Oscillations of land-level in America, 124 _et seq._
Oswestry. England, 173.
Ottawa River, 339.
Otter, 290.
Ouse, valley of the, 265.
Ox, 269, 270.

Pacific coast of America, 349.
Pacific Ocean, 318, 320.
Panama, Isthmus of, 113, 313, 314, 318.
Parsimony, law of, 117.
Pasterzen Glacier, 134.
Patagonia, 1.
Patton, 25.
Payer, 14, 39.
Peat-beds, 68, 125;
in Ohio, 107;
in Minnesota, 108;
in valley of the Somme, 355 _et seq._
Pembina River, 228.
Pengelly, cited, 267, 270.
Pennine Chain, glaciation of, 137, 144, 146, 147, 154, 177.
Pennsylvania, 57, 61, 84 _et seq._, 119, 217.
Perry County, Ohio, 232.
Perthes, Boucher de, 262 _et seq._
Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, 296.
Philadelphia, red gravel of, 254 _et seq._
Phillips, cited, 267.
Picardy, glacial gravels of, 262.
Pittsburg, Pa., submergence of, 214, 217, 230.
Plum Creek, Ohio, 344.
Po, valley of the, 135;
erosion by, 328.
Pocatello, Idaho, 236, 299.
Pocono Mountain, 61.
Poland, 181.
Polynesian skull, 276.
Pomp's Pond, section of kettle-hole near, 345.
Portageville, N. Y., 220.
Port Neuf River, Idaho, 236.
Portsmouth, Ohio, 231.
Portugal, human relics in glacial terraces of, 264;
supposed Tertiary man in, 367, 371 _et seq._
Post-glacial erosion, 332 _et seq._;
in Ohio, 343, 344;
in Illinois, 345 _et seq._
Potomac River, 256 _et seq._
Pot-holes in Lucerne, 133.
Pouchet, cited, 263.
Precession of equinoxes, 308.
Preglacial climate in England, 141, 142.
Preglacial levels in England, 139-142.
Prestwich, cited, 186, 189, 263 _et seq._, 284;
on date of Glacial period, 354, 357, 363, 364.
Provo shore-line, 237.
Putnam, cited, 250.
Puy-Courny, France, supposed Tertiary man at, 367, 370, 371.
Pyramid Lake, 350.
Pyrenees, glaciers of the, 11, 136;
Quaternary animals of, 280, 282;
age of, 328.

Quaternary animals of California, 281, 287;
in Germany, 279;
in Hungary, 279.
Quatrefages, cited, 276.
Queenston, Canada, 333 _et seq._

Rabbit, 289.
Raccoon Creek, 343;
view of glacial terrace near, 227.
Rames, cited, 370, 371.
Ramsay, cited, 311.
Rappahannock River, 257.
Rawhide Gulch, Cal., 296.
Recession, rate of, of Falls of Niagara, 333 _et seq._;
of Falls of St. Anthony, 340 _et seq._, 364;
of Black River, 342, 343.
Red deer, 263.
Red River of the North, 209, 228, 340;
ice-dam in, 225.
Regillout, 263.
Reid, Clement, quoted, 162.
Reid, H. F., 26, 47.
Reindeer, 188, 262, 263, 269, 270, 278, 280, 287, 290, 293.
Rhine, ancient glaciers of the, 129, 133.
Rhinoceros, 188, 263, 265, 271, 277, 278, 280, 284, 286, 287, 292;
woolly, 269, 270, 272, 280, 287.
Rhode Island, 67.
Rhône, ancient glaciers of, 58-60, 131,132, 185, 188;
map of, 58.
Richmond, Mass., train of boulders in, 70, 71.
Rink, Dr., 35.
Roanoke River, 257.
Rocky Mountains, 320, 322;
age of the, 328.
Rock-scorings, cause of, 51 _et seq._;
in New England, 69;
on islands of Lake Erie, 103, 104;
in Pennsylvania, 119;
in Ohio, 103, 119;
in Indiana, 119;
in Illinois, 119;
in Missouri, 119.
Roman remains, 356.
Rome, N. Y., 335.
Rosa, Mount, 9, 134, 211.
Ross, Sir J. C, 18, 19, 311.
Royston, England, 155.
Runaway Pond, 207.
Russell, I. C, exploration of Mount St. Elias by, 30, 212;
cited, 233, 350 _et seq._
Russia, glacial boundary in, 181, 189;
glacial drainage of, 238.

Saguenay, fiord of the, 197.
Salamanca, N. Y., buried channels near, 206.
Salisbury, cited, 183, 184.
Salt Lake City, 123.
Sandusky, Ohio, section of the lake ridges near, 223.
Sandusky River, 220.
Sanford, cited, 267.
Saskatchewan River, 228.
Saxony, 181.
Scandinavia, existing glaciers of, 2, 12;
ancient glaciers of, 129, 136, 157, 181-190;
re-elevation of, 331.
Scioto River, 231.
Scotland. (See British Isles.)
Seattle, section of till in, 55.
Second Glacial period, 106 _et seq._
Section, ideal, across river bed in drift region, 229.
Sedimentation of lakes, 333.
Seine, terraces of the, 186, 188, 264.
Seracs, 4, 5.
Settle, England, 270.
Severn, the, 149-151, 285.
Shaler, 67, 242.
Shap granite, 154, 157, 180.
Ship Rock, 71.
Shone, cited, 180.
Shoshone Falls, 299.
Shrewsbury, England, 150.
Shropshire, England, 149, 173.
Siberia, 190;
Quaternary animals in, 280, 282, 283, 290;
climate of, 302, 316.
Sierra Nevada Mountains, 21, 294, 301, 320, 322, 349, 352.
Skertchly, quoted, 159.
Skipton, 144, 146.
Skull, comparative study of, 276.
Slickenside, 53.
Smock on depth of glacial ice, 90.
Snake River Valley, 236 _et seq._, 298.
Snowdon, 145, 171.
Snowy vole, 289.
Soleure, 133.
Solferino, 135.
Solway Glacier, 153, 155, 180.
Somme, terraces of the, 186, 262 _et seq._, 285, 286, 355, 359 _et seq._
Sonora, Cal., 294 _et seq._
South America, existing glaciers of, 17;
ancient glaciers in, 126.
Southampton, England, 266.
South Dakota, 96, 98.
Spain, ancient glaciers of, 136;
human relics in glacial terraces of, 264;
Quaternary animals of, 280.
Speeton, 140, 155, 156.
Spencer, cited, 224.
Spencer, N. Y., 220.
Spitsbergen, 12.
Spy, man of, 275, 277.
St. Acheul, 263.
Stag, 289.
Stainmoor, England, 154, 157, 180.
Stalagmite, rate of accumulation of, 352 _et seq._
Stanislaus River, Cal., 294.
St. Anthony, Falls of, 340 _et seq._, 364.
Steamburg, N. Y., buried channel at, 206.
St. Elias, 30 _et seq._, 212.
St. Lawrence River, glacial drainage of, 335, 339.
St. Louis, Mo., 119, 364.
St. Paul, Minn., 228.
Stone on kames in Maine, 80.
Straits of Dover, 360.
Straits of Gibraltar, 292.
Striæ, direction of, in New Hampshire, 69;
in Lake Erie, 104;
presence of, in Pennsylvania, 85, 119;
in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, 119;
in Stuttgart, 279.
Subglacial streams, 23, 29, 120.
Submerged channels on the coasts of America, 194-198.
Submergence theory, 60-63, 70.
Subsidence of the Isthmus of Panama, 113, 318;
in Mississippi Valley, 93, 113, 120, 121;
on east coast of North America, 255 _et seq._;
about the Great Lakes, 224, 339;
in Great Britain, 167-181.
Susquehanna River, glacial drainage of, 93, 232, 257.
Svartisen Glacier, 13.
Svenonius, Dr., 12.
Sweden, 81.
Switzerland, existing glaciers of, 9-11;
ancient glaciers of, 131-136;
lake-dwellings in, 281.

Table Mountain, Cal., 294 _et seq._, 300.
Table of changes during the Glacial epochs, 324, 325.
Tagus, valley of the, 367, 371 _et seq._
Tait, cited, 362.
Tardy, cited, 370.
Tasman Glacier, 16.
Teesdale, England, 155, 157.
Terminal moraines, formation of, 6;
in Pennsylvania, 61, 62, 85 _et seq._;
on the southern coast of New England, 66 _et seq._;
in Ohio, 106;
in Puget Sound, 122;
in Tyghee Pass, 122;
in Italy, 135.
Terminal moraines of the second Glacial epoch, 93, 100, 101, 106.
Terraces. (See Glacial Terraces.)
Tertiary animals, 286.
Tertiary man, 365-374.
Tertiary period, climate of, 113, 117, 182, 305, 307.
Teton Mountains, 123.
Texas, Pleistocene animals of, 288.
Thames, England, 138, 264, 285.
Thenay, France, supposed Tertiary man in, 367, 371;
view of flint-flakes collected at, 368.
Thompson, 50.
Thomson, cited, 362.
Till, description of, 53;
composition of, in Massachusetts, 81 _et seq._;
section of, in Ohio, 108;
depth of, in Germany, Scandinavia, and Russia, 182.
Tinière River, 354.
Titusville, Pa., 232.
Todd, on forest beds and old soils,110 _et seq._;
cited, 228.
Torquay, England, 267.
Trade-winds of the Atlantic, 314, 318.
Tremeirchon, Wales, 271.
Trenton, N. J., 87, 232, 242 _et seq._, 254, 257;
view of implement found at, 247.
Trenton gravel, section of the, 246.
Trent, valley of the, 163, 164.
Trimmer, quoted, 148.
Trimingham, England, 162.
Trogen, Switzerland, 60.
Trons, Switzerland, 60.
Tuolumne County, Cal., 294, 299.
Turin, 135.
Tuscarawas Valley, 220, 221, 232, 251;
buried channel in, 205.
Tylor, cited, 359 _et seq._
Tyndall, 44-46, 49.
Tynemouth, England, 155, 157.
Tyrol, 134, 135, 211.
Tyrrell, cited, 109.

Ulm, 134.
Upham, on drumlins, 73;
on two ice-movements, 97;
cited, 222, 253 _et seq._, 301, 318, 320 _et seq._, 330, 348;
on the Columbia gravel, 261;
on date of the Glacial period, 344.
Ural Mountains, 15, 280.
Utah, 123;
lakes of, 233.
Utica, N. Y., 220.
Utrecht, moraine near, 181.

Valais, the, 133.
Vegetable remains in glacial deposits, 117, 125;
in Ohio, 107, 117;
in Indiana, 107;
in Minnesota, 107, 109;
in Iowa, 108;
in British America, 109.
Veins in glacial ice, 3.
Vermont, Runaway Pond in, 207.
Vernagt Glacier, 211.
Vessel Rock, view of, 56.
Vezère, valley of, 281.
Victoria Cave, England, 270, 280.
Virginia City, 349.
Vivian, cited, 267.
Volga, the, 185.
Vosges Mountains, 136.

Wabash River, 220, 231, 232.
Wahsatch Mountains, 237.
Wales, ancient glaciers of, 143, 150 _et seq._;
caverns of, 271.
Wallace, cited, 331, 343, 362.
Walrus, 262, 285.
Warren, Pa., buried channel near, 206.
Warren River, 226.
Washington, 1, 21, 122.
Washington, D. C., gravel deposit of, 254.
Water, transporting power of running, 5, 51-53.
Waveney, England, valley of the, 266.
Wealden formation, 361.
Weasel, 290.
Wells, England, 270.
Western Reserve Historical Society, 104.
Weston, W. Va., 216.
West Virginia, 214 _et seq._;
glacial terrace in, 216.
Wey, valley of the, 265.
Whitby, England, 155.
White, cited, 215 _et seq._
White River, Ind., 232, 251.
White Sea, 181.
Whitney, 14, 21, 295, 349, 373.
Whittlesey, 100.
Wild-boar, 290.
Wild-cat, 290.
Winchell, Alexander, cited, 321, 330.
Winchell, N. H., cited, 107, 210, 252;
on the Falls of St. Anthony, 341 _et seq._
Wisconsin, 98, 99, 100, 101.
Woeikoff, cited, 316.
Wolf, 270, 290.
Wolverine, 289.
Wood, cited, 179.
Woodward, quoted, 160;
on age of Niagara, 337 _et seq._
Wookey Hole, England, 270.
Wrangell, cited, 357.
Wright, 373.

Yankton, 120.
Yellowstone Park, 122.
Yorkshire, 140, 154, 155, 157, 176, 270, 283, 286.
Yosemite Park, 21, 350.
Young, Rev. Mr., 24.
Young, Professor, cited, 362.
Younglove, 104.

Zermatt Glacier, view of, 2.
Zuyder Zee, 181.

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