Chapter VI: How to Sail and Steer a Model Yacht

The action of the wind upon the sails of a vessel presses her down sideways and forwards, this causes the lee bow (viz. that on the side opposed to the wind) to be more immersed than the weather bow (or wind side bow), and the curve of the bow acting like a rudder or wedge, forces the vessel strongly up in the wind, in exact proportion to the strength of the wind. This is a simple mechanical law any one can understand after watching a model yacht for five minutes, and to counteract while utilizing it, I build a model yacht much deeper aft than forward, make the bowsprit very long, the jib and foresail large, and the mainsail narrow at the head and slack in the outer leach or edge. These arrangements, properly adjusted, nearly neutralize this tendency of the lee bow to force the ship to windward, and leave only just enough, so that by setting the sails in the way shown later, a model yacht steers itself perfectly. Great care must be taken not to overdo it, otherwise the vessel will run off the wind, and not steer herself at all.

The part which the increased depth of keel aft plays in steering a model yacht is this; as the sails are very evenly balanced, and exert little more force at the stern than at the bow when _the vessel is upright in the water_; yet even then there is always the tendency more or less to come up in the wind, and as the bow is not so deep as the stern, the lateral pressure of all the sails forces the vessel sideways (called leeway),--she makes more _leeway forward than aft_, and thus this particular arrangement helps to make her steer herself. Necessarily, when the wind blows strongly it is of very great use, and enables increased length of bowsprit to be dispensed with: too long a bowsprit is a great drawback, it dips in the water, and is difficult to fasten firmly.

Again, a model vessel being well up by the stem, and deep aft, possesses another power of self-steering, viz. when the wind presses her down forward (when on the wind), it lightens her aft; this, of course, permits her to gripe more to windward, as she holds more water forward and less aft, but if she comes up too much, so as to relieve the mainsail of a great part of its pressure, the opposite action results, the bow is lightened and the stern depressed exactly in proportion, so that under all circumstances the vessel possesses a self-acting power to steer herself.

Now, as just shown, a model yacht, partly by the action of the sails (particularly the mainsail), and partly by the action of the lee bow, will always keep close to the wind,--in fact, too close; therefore, to make her steer herself, the jib and foresail are kept in a little closer (_i.e._ more in a parallel line with the keel) than the mainsail. So if the vessel comes too close to the wind, first the outer leach of the mainsail loses its power and shakes, and if this does not suffice, _as it should_, to make her fall off again, the whole mainsail will shake, and as the jib and foresail must keep full, the ship pays off till the mainsail fills again. So an equilibrium is attained, and in a steady wind, on the sea for instance, the yacht would sail on in the same direction as if on rails, till the sails dropped in pieces.

This diagram gives the disposition of the booms by means of their respective sheets. To make a yacht sail full and by, _i.e._ close to the wind, and neither run off or shake, the jib is nearly parallel to the bowsprit, the foresail less so, and the mainsail least of all, and clearly shows the principle, for it is evident that if the vessel turned more towards the wind, the mainsail would shake, and the jib and foresail keeping still full, would turn the ship back to her course again, viz. “full and by.” On the other hand, she cannot run off the wind, because the mainsail, well full as it must be, if she ran off, would bring her up again instantly.

I presume every intelligent person understands that a vessel cannot sail with her head to the wind (all the sails must shake, and she would go astern), and few vessels can sail nearer, if so near, as at an angle of 45° to the wind. In the next diagram will be shown the way to sail the vessel in any _possible_ direction, and how the booms must be disposed, and the rudder or rudders and ballast bags used to accomplish it.

The wind is supposed to be blowing in the direction the arrow flies, and by holding this diagram with the arrow towards the point the wind is blowing from, your vessel can be made to sail in every direction there indicated.

No vessel can head nearer towards the wind shown by the arrow, than _a_ and _aa_, one being on the larboard, the other on the starboard tack (as it is called), _i.e._ about 45°, four points of a compass, or half a right angle.

The vessel at _a_ is therefore sailing close to the wind on the larboard tack, with the sails disposed for that purpose, as already shown (p. 90); to put her on the other tack, simply turn her in the direction _aa_, head to wind; the sails, being self-acting, will go over of themselves by the force of the wind, and she will continue on that tack till stopped or turned.

To sail her as at _b_, ease off the mainsheet till the mainboom is at an angle of 45° (this is called wind abeam) to the keel of the ship, and she will do so; it is seldom necessary to touch the jib or foresheets, leave those sails as at _a_. To sail her as at _bb_, turn her round, head to wind, and the sails take the same place on the other side, and that is done.

To sail as at _c_, let go the mainsheet altogether; if the wind is not too strong, she will do so, but if it is too strong, a light rudder, self-acting, of about ¼ lb. weight must be made and used, and that will do it. Turn her round as before, head to wind, if you wish to sail her as at _cc_. The rule is simple enough: if the sails are set, and propel her in a given direction on the one tack, she will, if turned, sail in the corresponding direction on the other tack.

To run before the wind at _d_, with the mainsheet let go, hook on the heavy rudder, and she will run more or less true before the wind, according to the perfection with which the ship is built and the rudder balanced. The cause is this: if the vessel turns, say to starboard, the wind necessarily presses her over to larboard, the self-acting rudder (being exactly upright when the ship is upright) falls over to larboard also, and instantly puts her straight again; the exact opposite takes place should she turn to larboard, and so _she must sail straight before the wind_.

When the wind is very light, it will sometimes occur, that the vessel on account of the large jib and foresail, will run off the wind; if so, put one or two of the bags of shot inside in her bows, and most likely that will remedy it; if not, change the angles of the jib and foresails, _i.e._ let the jib sheet out more, and haul the foresheet in as much as the jib was, so that you would then be steering more by the foresail than by the jib. This is sure to succeed.

Before all these manœuvres can be successfully performed, some little practice is necessary, of course; ships, like everything else, have little ways of their own, and must be studied.

The topsail must always be kept set, and needs no touching after being once set, for though of no great use as a propelling sail, save off the wind, it is so as a steadying sail, being so lofty. My experience has taught me never to dispense with it.

To prove the certainty with which a model yacht must sail in the direction intended, you can, as an experiment, put the vessel’s head in the water in any direction you please, and she will immediately take the _course for which the sails are set_, no matter how you put her in the water. For instance, place her in the water, _head to wind_, with the mainsheet let go, and the heavy rudder on, _i.e._ to sail as at _d_ (p. 92), and she will of her own account turn round and run before the wind, an operation which, to those not in the secret, seems like magic.

Rigged in the way I have described, with every part of the standing and running rigging being made fast by hooks and slides, a cutter can be completely unrigged in one minute, and rigged again in three minutes: I have done it in these times easily. This is a very great advantage; there are no knots to make, no time is lost, and yet the rigging is as strong and as perfect as possible, and never fails till worn out.

I hope I have now made all clear, and that my readers may be enabled to build ships, and rig them to sail with as much satisfaction to themselves as mine are to me.

Model yachts can be rigged to sail and steer well, as schooners, luggers, &c., and I have vessels rigged in those ways. Should this treatise meet with success, I purpose writing a second, dealing with this subject.

MATERIALS FOR MODEL SHIPS.

Block of wood: white pine or soft deal; at almost any wood-yard, and particularly at those in the neighbourhood of the docks; cost for a 2 ft. boat, 2_s._ 6_d._, for a 3 ft., about 10_s._

Masts, booms, &c., of bamboo canes, at florists, who sell cheap bamboos for about 8_d._ per dozen for gardening purposes; the best can be selected, and they will serve for masts, all the spars of a 2 ft. boat, and for booms, gaffs, and topmasts of 3 ft. boats. Bamboos for the mast, bowsprit, and mainboom of 3 ft. boats can be got at fishing-tackle shops and toy shops; both sell cheap bamboo fishing-rods at about 3_d._ each. They can be easily selected of the required thickness and length. Excellent bamboo canes for booms, gaffs, and topmasts can also be obtained at umbrella shops and stick shops, but they cost more--1_d._, 2_d._, or 3_d._, and even 6_d._ each.

Twine, white line, &c., for standing and running rigging, can be had at fishing-tackle or cord and twine shops.

Calico and tape at any linendrapers.

Lead at any plumber’s shop, 2_d._ or 3_d._ per lb.

Paint and copal at any oilman’s. Paint 6_d._ or 8_d._ per lb. Copal varnish about 1_s._ per pint; 3_d._ worth is enough for a 3 ft. boat.

Brass and copper wire at most ironmongers, as also screw-eyes of any size. If the two former cannot be readily obtained, Messrs. Jackson and Sons, 17, Sun Street, Finsbury, keep every size in brass and copper wire, and every thickness in brass and copper sheets; all these are sold by weight.

All sizes of rings can be had at fishing-tackle shops. 1_d._ or 2_d._ per dozen.

Ferrules or bands for tipping the ends of spars to prevent them splitting, can be got at fishing-tackle shops, and the amateur builder can file off any length required; they are very cheap. For small bands, pipe mounts are excellent, very light and thin, and easily cut to any length. Most tobacconists keep them in all sizes, 1_d._ or 2_d._ each.

If the boat builder cannot get or make bands, lash or bind the ends of the spars neatly and strongly with good white thread, and then paint it well with copal. It will answer every purpose, but does not look so neat and trim.

Lastly, slides can be made of any hard wood as well as of bone, and the requisite holes bored with a bradawl, and then seared with a red-hot skewer.

GLOSSARY.

ABAFT, AFT, towards the stern.

AMIDSHIPS, middle of a ship or anything.

BACKSTAY, ropes which support the mast sideways and backwards.

BEAM, breadth of a vessel, also the support of the deck.

BOARD, the distance sailed on one tack.

BOBSTAY, the rope that keeps the bowsprit down; reaches from
end of bowsprit to cutwater.

BOOM, any spar used to extend the foot of a sail.

BOW, front part of a vessel.

BOWSPRIT, spar projecting in front of a vessel to set the jibs
on.

BULWARKS, the wooden railings round the deck of a ship.

CHOCK, piece of wood to hold anything firmly.

CLOSE, a vessel being as near the direction of the wind as she
can go without shaking.

COUNTER, the projection of the stem.

CUTWATER, the sharp part of the bow.

DECK, the covering of the ship to keep the water out, &c.

DRAW, a ship draws so much water, _i.e._ it is so many feet in
the water.

ENTRANCE, the forward part of the bottom of a vessel, tapered
off to the cutwater, so as to cleave the water.

FALL OFF, when a vessel turns from the direction of the wind.

FOOT, bottom of a mast or sail.

FORE AND AFT, any sail which does not cross the mast.

FORESAIL, sail in forepart of a ship.

FORWARD, fore part of a ship.

FULL, when the sails are distended by the wind.

FULL AND BY, close to the wind yet not shaking. _See_ CLOSE.

GAFF, the spar which supports the head of a fore and aft sail.

GRUMMET, a ring made of rope.

GUDGEON, a sort of eye-bolt for the rudder to work on.

GUNWALE, top of the side of a ship on which the deck is
fastened.

GUY, rope to keep and secure the bowsprit, &c., laterally.

HALYARDS, ropes used to hoist the sails.

HATCHWAY, openings in the deck of a ship.

HEAD, top of a mast or sail.

HOIST, height a sail is pulled up.

HOLD, the inside of a ship.

HORSE, long bars of iron on which the sheets of sails work.

HULL, body of a ship.

JAWS, any arrangement to secure a gaff or boom to a mast, and
allow it to swing from side to side, &c.

JIB, a three-cornered sail in front of a ship.

KEEL, the centre of the bottom of a ship.

LACED, tied in a certain way.

LARBOARD, left.

LEACH, edge of a sail, generally the side.

LEE, side of a vessel farthest from that from which the wind
blows.

LEE-WAY, the side-way motion of a ship caused by the side
pressure of the wind.

LUFF, to go closer to the wind.

LUFF (of a sail), edge of a sail nearest the wind.

MAIN-HALYARDS, ropes to hoist the mainsail.

MAINMAST, the lower mast in a cutter.

MAINSHEET, the rope or gear to secure and regulate the after
lower corner of the mainsail.

NEAR, same as close. _See_ CLOSE.

OFF. _See_ FALL OFF.

OVERALL, from stem to stern.

PAY OFF. _See_ FALL OFF.

PEAK, the angular head of the mainsail.

PEAK-HALYARDS, ropes to hoist the outer end of the gaff.

QUARTERS, both sides of a ship close to the stern.

REACHING, sailing with the wind abeam or nearly so.

REEFING, reducing the sails by tying them up smaller.

RUN, the after part of the bottom of a vessel, tapered off to
the sternpost, so as to leave the water freely.

RUNNING, sailing with the wind astern or nearly so.

RUNNING GEAR, any ropes used for hoisting the sails or yards.

SELVEDGE, the even edge of linen, canvas, &c.

SHAKE, when the sails shake in the wind and so lose their power.

SHEER, slope of a vessel downwards to midships from stem and
stern.

SHEET, ropes used to secure and regulate lower after corner of
sails.

STANDING GEAR, any fixed ropes, as backstays, &c.

STARBOARD, right side.

STAY, ropes used to support the masts forward only.

STEM. _See_ CUTWATER.

STEP, socket for heel of mast, &c.

STERN, the after part of a vessel.

STERNPOST, end of keel and run, upon which the rudder is fixed.

TACK, forward lower corner of a sail.

TACK, to make a zigzag course so as to get to windward.

TAUT, tight.

TOPMAST, the second mast from the deck.

WATERLINE, line of the water on the side, &c., of a ship,
showing how deep she is in the water.

WEATHER, side of a vessel, &c., nearest the wind.

WINDWARD, in direction of the wind, the side from which the
wind blows.

CONTESTS ON THE OPEN SEA BETWEEN CUTTERS “GOLDEN CREST” AND “STORM ALONG.”

_1st Trial._ Strong breeze, rough sea, storm sails, foot of sails laced to booms; 1½ miles on each tack. “Storm Along” beat on each tack, about 50 yds. to windward.

_2nd Trial._ Large suits, light breeze and sea; 1½ miles on each tack. “Storm Along,” all sails laced to booms; “Golden Crest,” mainsail free and jib laced. “Storm Along” led a few yards once; “Golden Crest” beat, 20 yds. in 2 boards.

_3rd Trial._ Sails as in 2nd Trial, moderate breeze and sea; 2 boards, 1½ miles each. “Golden Crest” beat, 20 yds. on each.

_4th Trial._ Sails as above, moderate breeze and sea, _interchanged sails_. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile on each tack of 1 mile length each.

_5th Trial._ Moderate breeze and sea, “Storm Along” own sails all free from booms, and “Golden Crest” all laced; 2 boards of 1 mile each. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile to windward. x last board of 1 mile; “Golden Crest,” all sails free from booms, _i.e._ both vessels own sails and alike. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile dead to windward.

_6th Trial._ Gentle breeze and sea, full suits and each their own. “Storm Along” beat, 40 yds. to windward in ½ mile board. “Golden Crest” headreached a little, this wind and sea showing her best points.

TIME TABLE OF TWO MODEL YACHT REGATTAS.

Course once up and down pond, 259 yds. long, 30 yds. wide; length of pond being E. and W.

4 ft. cutters. Wind strong, E. by S. 4 vessels in each heat.

+--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+
| Heat | Start. | Run. | Beat back.| Time.|
+--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+
| | H. M. | H. M. | H. M. | M. |
|1st | 4 14 | 4 16¾ | 4 23½ | 9½ |
|2nd | 4 33 | 4 36 | 4 42¾ | 9¾ |
|3rd | 4 50 | 4 53 | 4 59 | 9 |
|Loser’s | 5 4 | 5 7 | 5 14¼ | 10¼ |
|Final | 5 20 | 5 23¼ | 5 31 | 11 |
+--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+

In this race, final heat, the three first winners fouled, and the winner of loser’s heat won.

3 ft. cutters. Wind strong, W. by S. Course as above.

+---------+----------+----------+----------+------+
| Heat | Start. | Run. |Beat back.| Time.|
+---------+----------+----------+----------+------+
| |H. M. S.|H. M. S.|H. M. S.|M. S.|
|1st |5 14 50|5 18 30|5 26 23|11 33|
|2nd |5 35 30|5 39 8|5 46 40|11 10|
|3rd |6 3 5|6 6 40|6 16 5|13 0|
|Loser’s |6 23 5|6 26 30|6 36 10|13 5|
|Final |6 43 52|6 47 25|6 54 50|10 58|
+---------+----------+----------+----------+------+

This last race won by 6 in. only.

By examining above table, it appears to novices almost incredible that such precision can be attained in model yacht sailing. All the heats were won by a few feet only, and some by inches.

BEST WATERS FOR SAILING MODEL YACHTS.

The best ponds for sailing model yachts in London are: (1) Victoria Park Pond, but only when the wind is E. or W. (2) Round Pond, Kensington, in any winds, all sides of this pond being clear of trees. (3) Serpentine, in any wind.

Hampstead and Highgate ponds are also available, but have muddy edges, and seldom a true wind on account of the high banks.

There are also good ponds on Clapham Common and Peckham Rye.

GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON.

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Transcriber’s Notes.

Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=. Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS.

Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised. A half-title and reiterations of chapter titles have been discarded.